3rd & 4th - Weeks

Metrology and Computer aided Inspection
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
3rd and 4th week

Measurement, Gauging
and Selective Assembly
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
What is ‘Meter’?
International Bureau of Weights and Measures

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Standards for length measurement
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• In England, Magna Carta (1215) decreed that "there shall be one unit of
measure throughout the realm"
• French Revolution (1795-1800), and with the backing of Louis XVI, the
system of weights and measures was totally reformed
• The new system of measures had a rational mathematical basis and

was part of the radical effort to sweep away old traditions and
conventions and replace them with something new and better
• The French philosopher, the Marquis de Condorcet, who was one of

those entrusted by Louis XVI to overhaul the system of
measurement, characterized the metric system as "for all people for
all time"
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• Length: evolution from measurement standard to a fundamental
constant
• Its definition has been periodically refined to reflect growing

knowledge of metrology
• When the metric system was set up, the meter was defined so that
the distance from the equator to the pole so that it would be exactly
ten million meters or 10,000 kilometers, making the
circumference 40,000 kilometers
• International System of originally intended to be one ten-millionth of

the distance from the Earth's equator to the North Pole (at sea level)
• Since 1983, it has been defined as "the length of the path travelled
by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Standards for length measurement -History
• In 1791, the meter was defined as the 40,000,000th parts of the
terrestrial meridian whose prototype was a platinum
bar of 20 mm wide and 4 mm thick, maintained at 0°C to preserve a
length of 1 m.
Classic profile of the standard meter 1875
• In 1875, the International Convention of the Meter, adopted the

standard as the prototype made of platinum–iridium with a more rigid
X-shaped section. The length of the standard meter was then reported
on the bar with two lines engraved in the metal.
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• In 1903, the meter had become a conventional unit although the most
accurate measurements indicated that it lacked 0.2 mm to represent
the 40,000,000th parts of the terrestrial meridian.
• In 1960, the meter was defined as 1,650,763.73 times a wavelength, in

vacuum, of orange radiation emitted by krypton 86.
• Since 1983, with improved techniques, and following effective

emergence of the laser, a new definition of the meter has been
adopted. “The meter is then the length of the path traveled in a
vacuum by light during 1/299,792,458 of a second.”
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• Nowadays, the physical realization of the unit of length is performed
using a He–Ne laser (helium–neon) of known and very stable
frequency during an atomic transition, i.e. an absorption line of iodine
gas.
• They are regularly compared with each other or with other lasers
equally stabilized and belonging to various calibration laboratories.
• The relative uncertainty of the realization of the meter using He–Ne

laser stabilized to iodine is in the order of [2.5 × 10-11], which
corresponds to a length of 1 mm from the Earth’s circumference.
• Interferometry enables the counting and interpolation of wavelengths

of laser light on a known path along a static measure, extending, as
such, the domain of measurement of fractions of nanometers to
several tens of meters.
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• The meter had its origin in August of 1793 when the Republican
Government of France decreed that the unit be called the meter
• The meter (m) is the Si unit of length and is defined as the length of
the path traveled by light in vacuum during the time interval of 1/299
792 458 of a second. This replaces the two previous definitions of the
meter
• The original adopted in 1889 based on a platinum-iridium prototype

bar, and a definition adopted in 1960 based on a krypton86
radiation from an electrical discharge lamp. In each case, the
change in definition achieved not only an increase in accuracy, but
also progress toward the goal of using fundamental physical
quantities as standards, in particular, the quantum mechanical
characteristics of atomic systems
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Historical Standard Platinum Iridium Meter Bar

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Evolution of the length standard
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• The development of the Michelson interferometer, which measures

physical displacement in terms of optical wavelengths, and the
realization that certain atoms and molecules have precisely defined
and reproducible emission frequencies (and, thus, wavelengths)
brought about the transition from a mechanical to an optical length
standard
• The ability to measure atomic wavelengths with higher accuracy and

reproducibility has been further enhanced by the invention of the laser
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• The BIPM stipulates that the meter can be realized by the following
three methods. In these descriptions, c is the speed of light. The
meter can be realized
1. By a direct measurement of the distance L that light travels in vacuum in the

time interval t, using the relation L = (c)(t)
2. By a direct measurement of the frequency f of radiation and calculating the

wavelength L in vacuum λ using the relation λ = c/f
3. By means of one or the radiations from a list provided by the BIPM whose
frequency and vacuum wavelength can be used with a stated uncertainty-
Comparison method
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• Method 1 follows directly from the definition, but cannot achieve the
accuracy possible with the other two, and so is not used for practical
purposes
• Method 2 measures laser frequencies in terms of the cesium clock. A

complicated series of measurements is required
• Method 2 has an advantage over interferometer because

corrections do not have to made for diffraction effects, reflective
phase shifts, or the index of refraction
• Method 3 establishes practical length standards by using the

frequencies of certain stabilized lasers whose performance has been
carefully measured using Method 2 and calculating the wavelengths
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Direct measurement
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Direct measurement
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Indirect measurement
• Lots of indirect measurements are available: such as comparators
• Comparator works on relative measurements
• it gives only dimensional differences in relation to a basic

dimension.
• Comparator compares the unknown dimensions of a part with some

standard or master setting which represents the basic size, and
dimensional variations from the master setting are amplified and
measured.
• The comparators are generally used for linear measurements

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• There are two kind of the comparator readings: classical reading
based on needle-gauge and the digital-one. The angle of
inclination is important for accuracy as shown in Figure below.
• Precautions: In order to obtain better results, thus good

performance, and a significant lifetime for the comparator, the
following precautions should be taken.
• Angle of contact point: Adjust the point of contact so that it

becomes parallel to the surface of the workpiece being
inspected (see Figure 3.17(a)).
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
• If the contact point were on a specific angle with the surface

being measured, as shown in Figure above, adjustments should be
made on the basis of the following equation:
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Comparator
Advantages of comparators:
1. Not much skill is required on the part of operator in its use
2. The calibration of instrument over full range is of no importance as

comparison is done with a standard end length
3. Zero error of instrument also does not lead to any problem
4. Since range of indication is very small, being the deviation from set
value, a high magnification resulting into great accuracy is possible
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Comparator
Characteristics of comparators:
1. The instrument must be of robust design and construction so as to

withstand the effect of ordinary usage without impairing its measuring
accuracy
2. The indicating device must be such that readings are obtained in
least possible time and for this, magnification system used should be
such that the readings are dead beat. The system should be free
from backlash, and wear effects and the inertia should be minimum
possible
3. Provision must be made for maximum compensation for temperature

effects
4. The scale must be linear and must have straight line characteristic
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Comparator
Characteristics of comparators:
5. Indicator should be constant in it return to zero
6. Instrument, though very sensitive, must withstand a reasonable ill

usage without permanent harm
7. Instrument must have the maximum versatility, i.e., its design must
be such that it can be used for a wide range of operations
8. Measuring pressure should be low and constant

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Comparator
Types of comparators:
 Mechanical comparators
 Mechanical-optical comparators
 Electrical and Electronic comparators

 Pneumatic comparators
 Fluid displacement comparators
 Projection comparators
 Multi-check comparators
 Automatic gauging machines
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Uses of Comparator
The various ways in which the comparators can be used are as follows:
 In mass production, where components are to be checked at a

very fast rate
 As laboratory standards from which working or inspection

gauges are set and correlated
 For inspecting newly purchased gauges
 Attached with some machines, comparators can be used as

working gauges to prevent work spoilage and to maintain
required tolerances at all stages of manufacturing
 In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded in three

or more groups depending upon their tolerances
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Mechanical Comparator
• In these comparators, magnification is obtained by mechanical
linkages and other mechanical devices
lever with toothed gear

rack and pinion cam and gear train
compound levers lever combined with band wound around drum

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Lever combined with band wound around drum
twisted taut strip

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Advantages
 Usually cheaper in comparison to other devices of amplifying
 Do not require any external supply such as electricity or air and

as such the variations in outside supplies do not affect the
accuracy
 Have linear scale which is easily understood
 Robust and compact and easy to handle
 Suitable and being portable can be issued from a store for

ordinary workshop conditions
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Disadvantages
 Due to more moving parts, the friction is more and ultimately the
accuracy is less
 Any slackness in moving parts reduces the accuracy considerably
 The mechanism has more inertia and this may cause the
instruments to be sensitive vibration
 The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves over a

fixed scale
 Error due to parallax is possible as the moving pointer moves over

a fixed scale
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Mechanical Optical Comparator
 In mechanical optical comparators small displacements of the
measuring plunger are amplified first by a mechanical system
consisting of pivoted levers
 The amplified mechanical movement is further amplified by a

simple optical system involving the projection of an image
 The usual arrangement employed is such that the mechanical

system causes a plane reflector to tilt about an axis and the image
of an index is projected on a scale on the inner surface of a ground-
glass screen
 Optical magnifications provide high degree of measuring precision

due to reduction of moving members and better wear resistance
qualities
 Optical magnification is also free from friction, bending, wear etc

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Mechanical amplification = 20 /1
Optical amplification 50 /1 x 2 It is
multiplied by 2, because if mirror is
tilted by an angle δθ, then image
will be tilted by 2 x δθ.
Thus overall magnification of this system

= 2 x (20/1) ( 50/1 =2000 units)
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Advantages
 It has small number of moving parts and hence a higher accuracy
 In the optical comparators, the scale can be made to move past a

datum line and thus have high range and no parallax errors
 It has very high magnification
 Optical lever is weightless

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Disadvantages
 As the instrument has high magnification, heat from the lamp, transformer
etc. may cause the setting to drift
 An electrical supply is necessary
 The apparatus is usually large and expensive
 When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to use the

instrument in a dark room in order to take the readings easily
 The instruments in which the scale is viewed through the eyepiece of a

microscope are not convenient for continuous use
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Electrical and electronic Comparator
 The operation depends on Wheatstone bridge circuit
 In d.c. circuit, a change of balance of the electrical resistance in each

arm of the bridge is caused by the displacement of an armature
relative to the arm under the action of the measuring plunger
 Once out of balance is caused in the bridge, it is measured by a

galvanometer graduated to road in units of linear movement of
plunger
 If alternating current is applied to the bridge, the inductance and

capacitance of the arms must also be accounted for along with
resistance
 The amount of unbalance caused by movement of measuring
plunger is amplified and shown on a linear scale
 Magnifications of the order of x 30,000 are possible with this system.

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Advantages
 The electrical comparators have got small number of moving parts
 It is possible to have a very high magnification and the same

instrument may have two or more magnifications. Thus the same
instrument can be used for various ranges
 The mechanism carrying the pointer is very light and not sensitive
to vibrations
 As the instrument is usually operated on A.C. supply, the cyclic

vibration substantially reduces errors due to sliding friction
 The measuring unit can be made very small and it is not necessary
that the indicating instrument be close to the measuring unit, rather
it can be remote also
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Disadvantages
 It requires an external agency to operate i.e., the A.C. electrical
supply. Thus the variations in voltage or frequency of electric
supply may affect the accuracy
 Heating of coils in the measuring unit may cause zero drift and
alter the calibration
 If only a fixed scale is used with a moving pointer then with high
magnifications a very small range is obtained
 This is usually more expensive than mechanical instrument

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Pneumatic Comparator
 Air gauging has rapidly increased during

some past time due to enamors important
characteristics of air
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Advantages
 The gauging member does not come into contact with the part to be
measured and hence practically no wear takes place on the gauging
member
 It has usually very small number of moving parts and in some cases
none. Thus the accuracy is more due to less friction and less inertia
 Measuring pressure is very small and the jet of air helps in cleaning
the dust, if any, from the part to be measured
 It is possible to have very high magnification

 The indicating instrument can be remote from the measuring unit
 It is very suitable device for measuring diameter of holes where the

diameter is small compared with the length
 It is probably the best method for determining the ovality and

taperness of the circular bores
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Disadvantages
 It requires elaborate auxiliary equipment such as accurate

pressure regulator
 The scale is generally not uniform
 When indicating device is the glass tube, then high magnification

is necessary in order to avoid the meniscus errors
 The apparatus is not easily portable and is rather elaborate for

many industrial applications
 Different gauging heads are required for different dimensions

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
What is Second?
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Time
 The second was originally defined as 1/86,400 of a mean solar
day; then, for various reasons, it was redefined in the same way
to 1/86,400 of the mean solar day 1900 January 1.
 Most convenient definition (CNR 05) of the second is now

accepted as 9,192,631,770 vibrations of a certain radiation of Cs-
133; see Figure below, Model 5 of the clock (CsV) NRC Ottawa
(Canada).
Atomic clock
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
What is Mass?
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Mass
 Historically, the kilogram was defined as the mass of a liter of
water at 4°C.
 Following the practical difficulties with this definition in 1889, it was

redefined as being equal to the mass of the cylinder of platinum–
iridium deposited at the IBWM.
 This is the international standard kilogram. From these definitions

of measuring instruments, we conclude that the measures are still
affected by uncertainty, with time and environment.
 This is due to on the one hand to the measuring device bias

(systematic error) and on the other to the experimenter, that is to
say, we ourselves (random error).
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Shop floor standards and calibrations

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Shop floor standards and calibrations
• Shop Floor Control is a system for using data from the shop floor to
maintain and communicate status information on shop
(manufacturing) orders and work centers.
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Shop Floor Standards
The purpose of calibration is to ensure that the measuring accuracy is
known over the whole measurement range under specified
environmental conditions for calibration.
Instrument to be
Instrument output
calibrated
Input
(whole measuring
range)
Instrument of The input value with
Higher Standards known accuracy
Instrument to be
Ensure the calibration is
calibrated
Environmental Standard done under the
conditions
instrument specified environmental
(modifying input)
condition
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
4P model
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Hexagon of shop floor management

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
The Evolution of Light Standards

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Background
 It is fundamental to the science of measurement, and hence the

degree of control which it exerts on the development of
technologies, that it should be based on an agreed
 If possible internationally agreed system of standards
 For many years the major industrial countries of the world used
two systems, imperial and metric
 Virtually the only concession made by countries was that

scientific work was carried out in metric units
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Background
 Interferometry is that branch of science which is concerned with the

manner in which rays of light, produced from a common source, are
recombined by a lens system
 The difference in path lengths along which the rays travel before
being recombined determines their phase relationship
 For an understanding of the phenomena associated with

interferometry, it is necessary to consider the nature of light
 Two theories have been advanced to explain the nature of light:

the Emission Theory, and the Wave Theory
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Background
 Emission Theory was advanced by Newton, and considered light

as consisting of particles emitted by luminous bodies, the impact of
the particles on the eye causing the sensation of light
 The wave theory, however, was advanced by Huygens, and

considered light as a wave motion propagated
 It is this theory, and its subsequent development, which

satisfactorily explains the phenomena associated with light,
including that of interference
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Light Waves as Standards of Length
 Interferometry is a domain of physics that has its ramifications in

dimensional metrology, and therefore.
 The principle of magnification involves the interferometric properties

of non-uniformity of light. In a straight line, light moves at a celerity
C (3x108 m/s) depending on a vibratory move with short waves λ.
 White light consists of radiations with different colors, each of which

having specific wavelength: the classic phenomenon of a prism.
Often the naked eye is unable to assess (quantify) this phenomenon
directly.
 We see that at the output of the prism, the rays are deflected to go then
spread on a screen, thus forming a spectrum (rainbow). One can see
distinctly separate networks in many different colors, namely: purple,
indigo, blue, yellow, orange, and red.
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
 The superposition of an infinite number of monochromatic light

radiations gives a white light.
Classical schematic diagram of radiation spectrum

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Wavelength
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Video_1
Vedio_2
Vedio_3
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Light Interference
Interference usually refers to the interaction of
waves that are correlated or coherent with
each other, either because they come from the
same source or because they have the same or
nearly the same frequency.
White light interference in a soap bubble

Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Light Interference
A rainbow is an optical and meteorological phenomenon that is
caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water
droplets resulting in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky. It
takes the form of a multi-coloured arc. Rainbows caused by
sunlight always appear in the section of sky directly opposite the
sun
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Light Interference
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Fringes created by the two sources are the

measure of distance. Graphic or digital output
is taken and sensitive up to a speed of 0.1m/s
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Method of Coincidence
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1918
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck: (April 23, 1858 – October 4, 1947)
was a German theoretical physicist who originated quantum theory,
which won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
Method of Coincidence
 In metrology, a measurement technique involving comparison with

a standard
 In the coincidence method, the difference between the quantity

being measured and the quantity reproduced by the standard is
measured according to the coincidence of marks on the scale or of
periodic signals
 Another example is the determination of the periodic pulsars; this

measurement is based on the coincidence of the pulse maxima of
the pulsar radiation with the marks of equal time intervals on a
chronograph chart
Meng 6062 Week 3&4
5th -7th week
Measurement, Gauging and Selective

Assembly
Measurement errors_Gauges_Gear_Thread

3rd & 4th - Weeks

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

3rd & 4th - Weeks

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Metrology and Computer aided Inspection

Meng 6062 Week 3&4

3rd and 4th week

International Bureau of Weights and Measures

• The new system of measures had a rational mathematical basis and

• The French philosopher, the Marquis de Condorcet, who was one of

• Its definition has been periodically refined to reflect growing

• International System of originally intended to be one ten-millionth of

Classic profile of the standard meter 1875

• In 1875, the International Convention of the Meter, adopted the

• In 1960, the meter was defined as 1,650,763.73 times a wavelength, in

• Since 1983, with improved techniques, and following effective

• The relative uncertainty of the realization of the meter using He–Ne

• Interferometry enables the counting and interpolation of wavelengths

• The original adopted in 1889 based on a platinum-iridium prototype

Historical Standard Platinum Iridium Meter Bar

• The development of the Michelson interferometer, which measures

• The ability to measure atomic wavelengths with higher accuracy and

1. By a direct measurement of the distance L that light travels in vacuum in the

2. By a direct measurement of the frequency f of radiation and calculating the

• Method 2 measures laser frequencies in terms of the cesium clock. A

• Method 2 has an advantage over interferometer because

• Method 3 establishes practical length standards by using the

• Comparator works on relative measurements

• it gives only dimensional differences in relation to a basic

• Comparator compares the unknown dimensions of a part with some

• The comparators are generally used for linear measurements

• Precautions: In order to obtain better results, thus good

• Angle of contact point: Adjust the point of contact so that it

• If the contact point were on a specific angle with the surface

1. Not much skill is required on the part of operator in its use

2. The calibration of instrument over full range is of no importance as

3. Zero error of instrument also does not lead to any problem

1. The instrument must be of robust design and construction so as to

3. Provision must be made for maximum compensation for temperature

5. Indicator should be constant in it return to zero

6. Instrument, though very sensitive, must withstand a reasonable ill

8. Measuring pressure should be low and constant

 Electrical and Electronic comparators

 Fluid displacement comparators

 In mass production, where components are to be checked at a

 As laboratory standards from which working or inspection

 For inspecting newly purchased gauges

 Attached with some machines, comparators can be used as

 In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded in three

lever with toothed gear

compound levers lever combined with band wound around drum

Lever combined with band wound around drum

twisted taut strip

 Usually cheaper in comparison to other devices of amplifying

 Do not require any external supply such as electricity or air and

 Have linear scale which is easily understood

 Robust and compact and easy to handle

 Suitable and being portable can be issued from a store for

 Any slackness in moving parts reduces the accuracy considerably

 The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves over a

 Error due to parallax is possible as the moving pointer moves over

 The amplified mechanical movement is further amplified by a

 The usual arrangement employed is such that the mechanical

 Optical magnifications provide high degree of measuring precision

 Optical magnification is also free from friction, bending, wear etc

Thus overall magnification of this system

 It has small number of moving parts and hence a higher accuracy