Operational Amplifier

An op amp (operational amplifier) is a circuit with two inputs and one output.

Y = A ( V+ − V− )
diode
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction
(asymmetric conductance). It has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high (ideally
infinite) resistance in the other.
A Zener diode is a type of diode that allows current to flow in the forward direction like a regular
diode, but also allows it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage exceeds a certain value
known as the breakdown voltage or Zener voltage. This makes Zener diodes useful in voltage
regulation and protection applications. They are commonly used in electronic circuits to stabilize
and regulate voltage level.
Motor vs generator
Converting energy from one form to another is the key to understanding the differences between
electric motors and generators. An electric motor converts electricity into mechanical energy,
providing a power source for machinery. A generator does the opposite of this, converting
mechanical energy into electricity.
Types of Control Systems
Motor control systems can be divided into three major types:
manual; operator must go to the location of the controller to initiate any change in the state of the
control system.
semiautomatic; characterized by the use of push buttons, limit switches, pressure switches, and
other sensing devices to control the operation of a magnetic contactor or starter. Operator initiate
certain actions.
automatic; operator does not have to initiate certain actions.
Relays and Contactors
Relays and contactors are electromechanical switches. They operate on the solenoid principle.
Motor starter
A motor starter is a contactor combined with an overload relay.
MOTOR STARTING METHODS
1.DOL; A direct-on line (DOL) start is the simplest, most common, and least expensive method
of starting squirrel-cage induction and synchronous motors.
2.forward / reverse motor controller;
3.WYE-DELTA STARTING; Wye-delta starting is often used with large horsepower motors to
reduce in-rush current during the starting period and to reduce starting torque.
Transformer types
Two types based on core constructions:
Core type: windings are wound around two legs of a magnetic core of rectangular shape.
Shell type: the windings are wound around the center leg of a three-legged magnetic core.
rotating machine
Induction machine – the rotor voltage that produces the rotor current and the rotor magnetic field
is induced in the rotor windings rather than being physically connected by wires. The
distinguishing feature of an induction motor: no dc field current is required to run the machine.
DC machines - are generators that convert mechanical energy to dc electric energy and motors that
convert dc electric energy to mechanical energy.
synchronous generator; (usually in large generators), a dc current is applied to the rotor winding,
which produces a rotor magnetic field.
Types of Converter
1. Rectification (ac-to-dc) …. AC to DC Converter
Rectifiers — circuits for changing ac voltage to dc voltage or transfer of power from an
alternating current (ac) supply to direct current (dc) form. These circuits can be of two main
types:
AC - DC (uncontrolled)
AC - DC (controlled)
2. Conversion (dc-to-dc) DC to DC Converter (DC Chopper)
Circuits which change a fixed d.c. voltage into a variable dc supply, i.e., transfer of power
from a direct current supply directly into a direct current load of different voltage level. These
types of converters are usually called DC choppers.
3. Cycloconversion (ac-to-ac different frequencies) or (ac-to-ac same frequency) AC to AC
Converter (AC voltage regulator)
Circuits which change a fixed a.c. voltage into a variable a.c. supply, i.e., transfer of power
from an alternating current supply directly into an alternating current load of different voltage
level at fixed frequency or variable frequency. These converters are usually of two types:
AC choppers: change the a.c. supply voltage magnitude only keeping the frequency
unchanged
Cycloconverters or matrix converters: change the a.c. supply directly to a variable a.c. supply
both in magnitude and frequency (also called frequency changers).
4. Inversion (dc-to-ac) DC to AC Converter (Inverter)
Circuits for changing a d.c. voltage to an alternating one or transfer of power from a direct current
supply to alternating current form. This type of converter is usually called DC – AC converter or
inverter.
Questions
Write at least four outputs (lamp, load, motor, generator)
Write at least four outputs(memory, key board, mouth)
Write main parts of induction motor (terminal box, shaft, bearing, stator and rotor winding)
What is the difference differences between DOL and star delta connection
1.Cost (DOL low cost)
2. maintenance (DOL is simple for maintenance)
3. DOL has one contactor and star delta has three contactors
Passive components (resistance, capacitance, inductance)
Active components (voltage and current)
Passive component used to store energy electrostatically in electric field is (capacitor)
Passive component used to store energy electrostatically in magnetic field is (inductor)
What is the difference between single phase and three phase motor
Single phase motor (not self-starting)
three phase motor(self-starting)
Proximity Sensors
Proximity Sensors detect an object without touching it, and they therefore do not cause abrasion
or damage to the object. Devices such as limit switches detect an object by contacting it, but
Proximity Sensors are able to detect the presence of the object electrically, without having to touch
it. Types of Proximity Sensor - Inductive, Capacitive, Optical, Magnetic, IR
A transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power. It is
composed of semiconductor material, usually with at least three terminals for connection to an
electronic circuit. Transistors typically fall into two main types depending on their construction.
These two types are bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and Field Effect Transistors (FET).
Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)= NPN(positive lead) and PNP(negative lead)
Voltage Source - has two terminals (+ and -). Some examples are car batteries (12 volts DC), D
cell batteries (1.5 volts DC) and a wall socket (120volts AC).
• Current - is the flow of electrons. It is measured in amperes. (convention – current sign is – to
electron velocity)
• Resistance (ohms, Ω) is the ability to oppose an electrical current.
Calculating Resistance
Series: R=R1+R2+R3+R4 (the voltage adds up)
Parallel: 1/R=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3 (the current adds up)
Capacitors
• Capacitors store energy in an electric field . Basic unit of capacitance is the farad (f)
• Series: 1/C=1/C1+1/C2+1/C3 . Parallel: C=C1+C2+C3 (opposite to resistance)
• Capacitance is determined by 3 factors:
» Plate surface area » plate spacing » insulating material (dielectric)
Inductors
• Inductors store energy in a magnetic field Basic unit of inductance is the henry (h)
• Parallel: 1/L=1/L1+1/L2+1/L3 Series: L=L1+L2+L3 (like resistors)
• Inductance is determined by 4 factors:
» Number of turns » permeability of the core » cross sectional area of the core » spacing of the
turns.
➢ Ammeter must be part of the circuit to measure the current
➢ Voltmeter measures across the circuit (in parallel to the voltage to be measured)
➢ Ohmmeter: measures across the resistor (but be sure the circuit is not turned on “hot”).
Puts in a known voltage and measures the current, so it requires a battery. If the circuit is
energized, will give the wrong reading!
✓ Schematic diagrams include all the individual components and how they are connected.
✓ Block diagrams show larger components (black boxes) and how they are connected.
Short and Open Circuits
When two points of circuit are connected together by a thick metallic wire, they are said
to be short-circuited. Since ‘short’ has practically zero resistance, it gives rise to two
important facts:
(i) no voltage can exist across it because V = IR = I 0=0
 (ii) current through it (called short-circuit current) is very large (theoretically, infinity)
Two points are said to be open-circuited when there is no direct connection between them
. Obviously, an ‘open’ represents a break in the continuity of the circuit. Due to this break
(i) resistance between the two points is infinite.
(ii) there is no flow of current between the two points.
Passive Network is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it.
Active Network is one which contains one or more than one source of e.m.f.
Megger
It is a portable instrument used for testing the insulation resistance of a circuit and for measuring
resistances of the order of megaohms which are connected across the outside terminals
Energy Meters
Energy meters are integrating instruments, used to measure quantity of electric energy supplied
to a circuit in a given time.
Potentiometer
A potentiometer is used for measuring and comparing the e.m.fs. of different cells and for
calibrating and standardizing voltmeters, ammeters etc.
Ideal Constant-Voltage Source (test)
It is that voltage source (or generator) whose output voltage remains absolutely constant whatever
the change in load current. Such a voltage source must possess zero internal resistance so that
internal voltage drop in the source is zero.
Ideal Constant-Current Source(test)
It is that voltage source whose internal resistance is infinity. In practice, it is approached by a
source which possess very high resistance as compared to that of the external load resistance.