FEDERAL UNIVERSITY

GUSAU
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND LITERATURE
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
COURSE TITTLE: INTRODUCTION TO SYNTACTIC MODELS

COURSE CODE:ENG 201

ASSIGNMENT QUESTION: DISCUSS THE VARIOUS GRAMMATICAL UNITS IN

LANGUAGE. (THE MORPHEMES, WORDS, PHRASE/GROUP, CLAUSES AND
SENTENCES).

S/N. NAMES. ADM. NUMBER

1. MOHAMMED JAFAR KILISH. 1910103038
2. JIBRIL SHAMSIYYA. 1910103026
3. HARUNA AMINU MAZADU. 1910103012
4. NAOMI .E. DIGA. 1810103025
5. AMI OKHANI MARIA ODOFA. 1910103005
6. SOLIU NUHU SHOLA. 1910103036
7. OLAWOYIN ABDULRASHEED. 1910402015
8. ABEEB ADEMOLA. 1910402016
INTRODUCTION

The study of linguistics is the scientific investigation of language with a focus on the properties and
characteristics of a language. Language structure is divided into phonetics, phonology, morphology,
syntax, and pragmatics.Morphology investigates the formation of words in a language.
DEFINITION:

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of grammar with meaning and cannot be broken down into
smaller units. Because morphemes make up all words in the English language, learning morphemes
unlocks the structure and meaning within words. This, in turn, aids in the learning process.

Syllables and morphemes are not synonymous. A syllable relates to the pronunciation of words and falls
into the fields of phonetics and phonology, the study of speech sounds in a language. A morpheme deals
with the meaning and structure of words in their smallest unit. Morphemes can have more than one
syllable.

Types of Morpheme Words

Morphemes are either free or bound and are used as prefixes, suffixes, roots, and bases in words. A free
morpheme is a stand-alone word, like "dog." "Dog" cannot be broken into smaller morphemes without
losing the word's meaning. Bound morphemes cannot stand by themselves as words, such as the -s in
the word "pens."

Derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes. Root and base words are morphemes
that form the base or root of a word. A prefix morpheme attaches to the front of a root or base
morpheme, while a suffix will connect to the end. Inflectional morphemes are suffixes, and derivational
morphemes can be prefixes or suffixes. When free morphemes are combined, they form compound
words. Complex words are created by forming base or root morphemes with derivational morphemes.

Free Morphemes

Stand-alone words are free morphemes. The two categories of free morphemes are lexical morphemes
and grammatical/functional morphemes. Lexical morphemes are independently meaningful. Many of
these morphemes exist, such as the word cat. This word is a lexical morpheme because it can stand
alone and contains its meaning. The words "and," "but," "or," "after," "that," "the," and "she" are
examples of grammatical/functional morphemes. These morphemes contain functional words like
pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and determiners. The word "catfish" is an example of combing
two free morphemes, "cat" and "fish," together to create a new compound word.

Some examples of lexical morphemes include:

 Night - The word "night" can stand by itself and hold its meaning.
 Dog - The meaning of the word "dog" is clear.
 Girl - The word "girl" stands by itself and cannot be cut into smaller morphemes.
 Ball - The word "ball" clearly contains its meaning.
 Play - No smaller morphemes can be made by cutting up the word "play."
 Joke - "Joke" cannot be cut into smaller words and retain its meaning.
Bound Morphemes

Bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot stand alone and only occur as parts of words. Unlike
free morphemes, bound morphemes must be connected to another morpheme to create a word. Both
derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes. The -s suffix in "pictures" is an example
of a bound morpheme. Another example of a bound morpheme is -ish, as in "childish." Some common
bound morpheme suffixes are -ly, -ic, -ness, -ian and -less. Bound morpheme prefixes examples dis-,
uni-, di, pre-, and poly-.

Derivational Morphemes

Derivational morphemes are the prefixes or suffixes added to a word to give the word a new meaning. In
the word "unhappy," the un- prefix changes the meaning of the word "happy." Another example is
"lovely." The suffix -ly changes the meaning of the word "love." Here are some examples of derivational
morphemes:

 Teacher - Adding the suffix -er to teach changes the meaning to "someone who teaches."
 Hopeful - Adding the suffix -ful to hope changes the meaning to "full of hope."
 Friendless - Adding the suffix -less to friend changes the meaning to "no friends."
 Unclean - Adding the prefix un- to clean changes the meaning to "not clean."
 Emotionless - Adding the suffix -less to emotion changes the meaning to "without emotions. "
 Unplayable - This word has two derivational morphemes: the prefix un- and the suffix -table.
"Unplayable" and "play" have different meanings.

Base Morphemes

Base morphemes, also known as base words, are free morphemes that can stand alone and give the
word its meaning. The word "cycle" in "bicycle" is the base morpheme. Root words and base words are
not the same. Root words are bound morphemes and unable to stand alone, such as ject in "subject."
The following examples are complex words using a base morpheme with prefixes and suffixes to create
new comments:

Cyclist - The base morpheme "cycle" and the derivational morpheme -ist give this word the meaning of
"a person who rides a bicycle."

Baker - "Bake" is the base morpheme. Adding the derivational morpheme -er changes the meaning to "a
person who bakes."

Undesirable - "Desire" gives the principle meaning and is the base morpheme. Adding the suffix -able
and the prefix un- changes the meaning.

Kindness - "Kind" is the base morpheme and contains the principle meaning. Adding the suffix -ness
changes the meaning to "act of being kind."
Complex words are not the only use of base morphemes. Combing multiple base and free morphemes
to create new words, called compound words, is another use of base and free morphemes. The
following words are compound words:

Derivational morphemes are the prefixes or suffixes added to a word to give the word a new meaning. In
the word "unhappy," the un- prefix changes the meaning of the word "happy." Another example is
"lovely." The suffix -ly changes the meaning of the word "love." Here are some examples of derivational
morphemes:

 Teacher - Adding the suffix -er to teach changes the meaning to "someone who teaches."
 Hopeful - Adding the suffix -ful to hope changes the meaning to "full of hope."
 Friendless - Adding the suffix -less to friend changes the meaning to "no friends."
 Unclean - Adding the prefix un- to clean changes the meaning to "not clean."
 Emotionless - Adding the suffix -less to emotion changes the meaning to "without emotions. "
 Unplayable - This word has two derivational morphemes: the prefix un- and the suffix -table.
"Unplayable" and "play" have different meanings.

WORD

traditional grammar, word is the basic unit of language. Words can be classified according to their action
and meaning, but it is challenging to define.

A word refers to a speech sound, or a mixture of two or more speech sounds in both written and verbal
form of language. A word works as a symbol to represent/refer to something/someone in language to
communicate a specific meaning.

Example : ‘love’, ‘cricket’, ‘sky’ etc.

"A word is the smallest unit of grammar that can stand alone as a complete utterance, separated by
spaces in written language and potentially by pauses in speech."

(David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University

There are several criteria for a speech sound, or a combination of some speech sounds to be called a
word.

There must be a potential pause in speech and a space in written form between two words.

For instance, suppose ‘ball’ and ‘bat’ are two different words. So, if we use them in a sentence, we must
have a potential pause after pronouncing each of them. It cannot be like “Idonotplaywithbatball.” If we
take pause, these sounds can be regarded as seven distinct words which are ‘I,' ‘do,' ‘not,' ‘play,' ‘with,'
‘bat,' and ‘ball.'
Every word must contain at least one root. If you break this root, it cannot be a word anymore.

For example, the word ‘unfaithful’ has a root ‘faith.' If we break ‘faith’ into ‘fa’ and ‘ith,' these sounds
will not be regarded as words.

Every word must have a meaning.

For example, the sound ‘lakkanah’ has no meaning in the English language. So, it cannot be an English
word.

PHRASE

INTRODUCTION

Phrases and clauses are the most important elements of English grammar. Phrase and clause cover
everything a sentence has. Clauses are the center of sentences and phrases strengthen the sentences to
become meaningful. If the clauses are the pillars of a building, the phrases are the bricks. A phrase
usually is always present within a clause, but a phrase cannot have a clause in it.

DEFINITION

A phrase, therefore, is a group of words which has no finite verb in it and acts to complete the sentence
for making it meaningful.

In linguistic analysis, a phrase is a group of words (or possibly a single word) that functions as a
constituent in the syntax of a sentence, a single unit within the grammatical hierarchy.”

TYPES OF PHRASE

The phrases are generally of several types.

 Noun Phrase
 Adjective Phrase
 Adverbial Phrase
 Prepositional Phrase
 Conjunctional Phrase
 Interjectional Phrase
 Absolute Phrase
 Appositive Phrase
 Participle Phrase
 Gerund Phrase
 Infinitive Phrase
Noun Phrase

It is usually assembled centering a single noun and works as a subject, an object or a complement in the
sentence.

Example:

I like to swing the bat hard when I am at the crease. (An object)

Reading novels is a good habit. (A subject)

The probability of happening that match is not much. (A subject)

We are sorry for her departure.

Adjective Phrase

It is comprised of an adjective and works as a single adjective in the sentence.

Example:

Alex is a well-behaved man.

He is a man of friendly nature.

Julie is a woman of gorgeous style.

She leads a very interesting life.

A lot of people do not sleep at night.

Adverbial Phrase

It modifies the verb or the adjective and works as an adverb in the sentence.

Example:

The horse runs at a good speed.

I was in a hurry then.

I ran as fast as possible.

He works very slowly.

Prepositional Phrase

It always begins with a preposition and connects nouns.

Example:
He sacrificed his life for the sake of his country.

In the end, we all have to die.

He is on the way.

By working aimlessly, you will not get success.

In spite of working hard, he was insulted by his boss.

Note: Prepositional phrases include all other types of phrases.

Conjunctional Phrase

A conjunctional phrase works as a conjunction in the sentence.

Example:

As soon as you got in, he went out.

We have to work hard so that we can win the next match.

I will attend the ceremony provided that you come.

John started working early in order that he could finish early.

Interjectional Phrase

Interjections that have more than one word are called interjectional phrases.

Example:

What a pity! He is dead.

What a pleasure! I won the first prize.

Oh please! Don’t say that again.

Absolute Phrase

The phrases containing Noun or Pronoun accompanied by a participle and necessary modifiers if any are
stated as Absolute Phrases. They modify indefinite classes and are also called Nominative Phrases.

Examples:

Weather permitting, I will join the party.

God willing, he’ll pass the test this time.

The hot Summer sun having set, we left for the movie
Appositive Phrase

An appositive is a Noun or Pronoun often accompanied by modifiers that sit beside another Noun or
Pronoun to describe it. An Appositive Phrase is a set of words containing an Appositive and it follows or
precedes the Noun or Pronoun it identifies or explains.

Examples:

My school friend, Brooks always bunked classes.

His colleague, Mr. Robinson likes his tea.

Jeremy, the police officer on duty, wrote the speeding ticket.

Participle Phrase

It is made of a participle, its modifier(s) and/or the objects that complete the sense of the sentence.

Examples:

Walking fast, I keep looking left and right.

Climbing the stairs, she waved at us.

I looked back, starting the engine.

Gerund Phrase

These contain a Gerund, its modifier(s) and the other necessary elements. They function as Nouns just
like Gerunds themselves and that means they can be Subjects and Objects of the sentences.

Examples:

Eating plenty of grapes in one sitting is a bad idea.

Doing the dishes gives me cold allergies.

I hate hurrying right before the deadline.

Infinitive Phrase

These are comprised of infinitive verbs (To + base verb)along with their modifiers and/or complements.

Examples:

We love to cook together.

He likes to solve math problems too much.

Rina walks fast to be there on time.

DEFINITION

A clause is comprised of a group of words that include a subject and a finite verb. It contains only one
subject and one verb. The subject of a clause can be mentioned or hidden, but the verb must be
apparent and distinguishable. A clause is “a group of words containing a subject and predicate and
functioning as a member of a complex or compound sentence.

Types of Clauses

 Independent Clause
 Dependent Clause
 Adjective Clause
 Noun Clause
 Adverbial Clause
 Principal Clause
 Coordinate Clause
 Non-finite Clause

Independent Clause

It functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like a regular sentence.

In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for*,
yet*.

Example:

He is a wise man.

I like him.

Can you do it?

Do it please. (Subject you is hidden)

I read the whole story.

I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent clauses)

He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second clause is ‘he,' so “he visited the Lords”
is an independent clause.)

Alex smiles whenever he sees her. (One independent clause)

Dependent Clause
It cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It is also called a
subordinate clause. These help the independent clauses complete the sentence. Alone, it cannot form a
complete sentence.

The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another clause to complete the
sentence. In each of the dependent clauses, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include
relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.

Example:

When I was dating Daina, I had an accident.

I know the man who stole the watch.

He bought a car which was too expensive.

I know that he cannot do it.

He does not know where he was born.

If you don’t eat, I won’t go.

He is a very talented player though he is out of form.

Dependent Clauses are divided into three types and they are –

1. Adjective Clause

It is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. Basically, Adjective Clauses have similar qualities as
Adjectives that are of modifying Nouns and hence the name, Adjective Clause. These are also called
Relative Clauses and they usually sit right after the Nouns they modify.

Examples:

I’m looking for the red book that went missing last week.

Finn is asking for the shoes which used to belong to his dad.

You there, who is sitting quietly at the corner, come here and lead the class out.

2. Noun Clause

Dependent Clauses acting as Nouns in sentences are called Noun Clauses or Nominal Clauses. These
often start with “how,” “that,” other WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which, Whose and
Whom), if, whether etc.
Examples:

I like what I hear.

You need to express that it’s crossing a line for you.

He knows how things work around here.

3. Adverbial Clause

By definition, these are Dependent Clauses acting as Adverbs. It means that these clauses have the
power to modify Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs.

Examples:

Alice did the dishes till her legs gave up.

Tina ran to the point of panting vehemently.

I went through the book at a lightning speed.

Principal Clause

These have a Subject (Noun/Pronoun), Finite Verb and an Object and make full sentences that can stand
alone or act as the main part of any Complex or Compound Sentence. Independent and Principal Clauses
are functionally the same but named from different perspectives.

Examples:

I know that boy.

He can jog every morning.

Robin fishes like a pro.

Coordinate Clause

Two or more similarly important Independent Clauses joined by Coordinating Conjunctions (and, or, but
etc.) in terms of Compound Sentences are called Coordinate Clauses.

Examples:

I like taking photos and he loves posing for them.

You prefer flying but she always wants to take a bus.

We are going to visit Terry or he is coming over.

Non-finite Clause
They contain a Participle or an Infinitive Verb that makes the Subject and Verb evident even though
hidden. In terms of a Participle, the Participial Phrase takes place of the Subject or Object of the
sentence.

Examples:

He saw the boy (who was) staring out of the window.

She is the first person (who is) to enter the office.

Hearing the fireworks, the children jumped up.

DEFINITION

A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital letter and ends
with a full-stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark.

The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that expresses a thorough idea
by giving a statement/order, or asking a question, or exclaiming.

Example:

Do it. (In this sentence, a subject ‘you’ is hidden but verb ‘do’ is visible)

“[A sentence is] a group of words, usually containing a verb, that expresses a thought in the
form of a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and starts with a capital letter when
written.”

Types of Sentences

Structurally, sentences are of four types:

 Simple sentence
 Compound sentence
 Complex sentence, and
 Compound-complex sentence.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence must have a single clause (a single verb) which is independent, and it cannot
take another clause.

Example:

I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb)

Compound sentence

A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no dependent
clauses. Some specific conjunctions, punctuation, or both are used to join together these
clauses.

Example:

I always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two independent
clauses – two verbs)

Complex sentence

A complex sentence also has more than one clause but of one them must be an independent
clause and the other/others must be (a) dependent clause(es). There are also some particular
connectors for the clauses of a complex sentence to be connected.

Example:

I know that you always wanted to be a writer. (Here, a dependent clause is followed by a
connector and an independent clause. The other way around is also possible.)

Compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) is a mixture of the features

of compound and complex sentences in one sentence. So, it must contain at least two
independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Example:

I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become a doctor.
(Here, one dependent clause is followed by a complex connector and two independent clauses
with a compound conjunction between them.)

Functionally, sentences are of mainly four types:

 Declarative sentence
 Imperative sentence
 Interrogative sentence, and
 Exclamatory sentence

Declarative sentence:
An assertive sentence (declarative sentence) simply expresses an opinion/feeling, or makes a
statement, or describes things. In other words, it declares something. This type of sentence
ends with a period (i.e., a full-stop).

Examples:

I want to be a good cricketer. (a statement)

I am very happy today. (a feeling)

Imperative sentence:

We use an imperative sentence to make a request or to give a command. Imperative sentences

usually end with a period (i.e., a full stop), but under certain circumstances, it can end with a
note of exclamation (i.e., exclamation mark).

Examples:

Please sit down.

I need you to sit down now!

Interrogative sentence:

An interrogative sentence asks a question. Interrogative sentences must end with a note of
interrogation (i.e., question mark)

Examples:

When are you going to submit your assignment?

Do you know him?

Exclamatory sentence.

An exclamatory sentence expresses overflow of emotions. These emotions can be of happiness,

wonder, sorrow, anger, etc.

Examples:

What a day it was!

I cannot believe he would do that!

References:

Virginia Woolf, (1942). "Craftsmanship." The Death of the Moth and Other Essays:

Julie Beck, September (2014). "How to Look Smart." The Atlantic.

Samuel Butler, (1912). The Note-Books of Samuel Butler.

Tom McArthur, (1992). The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford University
Press.