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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
1.1.1 Market scenario around the world and India

The electric vehicle (EV) market is growing rapidly worldwide, driven by

supportive policies, increasing incentives, expanding model availability and falling
battery costs. EVs are expected to play a key role in the transition to a low-carbon
economy and help achieve the net-zero emissions goals of many countries.
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), there were 10 million electric
cars on the world’s roads at the end of 2020, following a decade of rapid growth.
Electric car registrations increased by 41% in 2020, despite the pandemic-related
worldwide downturn in car sales. Around 3 million electric cars were sold globally
(a 4.6% sales share), and Europe overtook China as the world’s largest EV market
for the first time. The IEA projects that global EV sales will reach 145 million by
2030 under its Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS), which reflects existing policies
and announced targets. This would result in a global EV stock of 230 million and
an EV sales share of 26%. Under its Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS),
which is aligned with the Paris Agreement and other sustainable development
goals, global EV sales would reach 245 million by 2030, leading to a global EV
stock of 325 million and an EV sales share of 45%. The IEA also estimates that
global EV sales will account for over 80% of total car sales by 2050 under the SDS.
The Indian EV market is also evolving fast as close to 0.32 million vehicles
were sold in 2021, up 168% year-on-year. The Indian EV industry is expected to
expand at a CAGR of 36% and touch $150 billion by 2030, according to RBSA
Advisors. The Indian EV market is currently dominated by two-wheelers and three-
wheelers, which account for over 95% of the total EV sales. However, four-
wheelers are also gaining traction, especially in the passenger car segment, where
Tata Motors has a market share of 71%, followed by MG Motors with 14%. The
main drivers of the Indian EV market include supportive regulatory frameworks,
such as FAME II scheme and state-level policies; additional incentives to safeguard
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EV sales from the economic downturn; increasing number of EV models and

battery cost reduction; and increasing consumer awareness and preference for EVs.
The main challenges facing the Indian EV market include the need for more
charging infrastructure, especially public chargers; the lack of standardization and
interoperability of charging systems; the high upfront cost and low range anxiety
of EVs; and the dependence on imports for critical components such as batteries
and motors. At this fast pace the EVs will require the charging system and hence
the demand for chargers will increase.
The recent pressure on petroleum sector is due to the waste of oil reserves and
unwanted use. The shift to electric vehicle at such a larger scale may lead to same
situation of EVs as petroleum sector and hence every volt we need to use efficiently.

1.1.2 Types of EV
• Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs): BEVs are powered by rechargeable batteries
that provide energy to an electric motor, which drives the wheels. They are
fully electric and do not have an internal combustion engine. The range of
BEVs varies, but most can travel between 100-300 miles on a single charge.
Some examples of BEVs including the Tesla Model 3, Nissan Leaf.

Figure 1.1 Battery Electric Vehicle

• Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs): PHEVs combine an electric
vehicle motor as well as gasoline engine. They are being charged from an
external power source, but they also utilize gasoline engine that kicks in when
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the battery charge is low. PHEVs can travel a limited distance on electric power
supply before switching to gasoline power. The range of PHEVs varies, but
most can travel between 20-50 miles on electric power alone. Some examples
of PHEVs include the Toyota Prius Prime, Chevy Volt.

.
Figure 1.2 Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
• Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): HEVs also having both an electric motor as
well as gasoline engine, but they cannot be charged from outside power source.
Instead, of this the battery is charged through regenerative braking, which
converts kinetic energy into electric energy. HEVs cannot run on electric
power alone and rely on the gasoline engine for power. Some examples of
HEVs including the Toyota Prius, Honda Insight as well as Ford Fusion
Hybrid.

• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs): FCEVs are using a fuel cell for generating
generate electricity, which is powering an electric motor. The fuel cell is using
hydrogen as a fuel as well as oxygen from air for producing electricity. FCEVs
only emit water vapor as a by-product and are considered to be zero-emission
vehicles. However, the availability of hydrogen refuelling stations is limited, and
FCEVs are currently more expensive than other types of EVs. Some examples
of FCEVs including the Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Nexo, and Honda Clarity Fuel
Cell. The pollution which is hindering the future potential of natural resources
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has a 30% share of global carbon emissions from transport sector, of this 72%
of the emission are contributed from road transportation. The major concern was
addressed by world leader in COP26 in which different nations pledged different
timeline to reduce their carbon emission, up-to zero carbon emission. With this
conference the achievable target can only be fulfilled by increasing the number
of electric vehicles on road which are environmentally friendly and also helps to
increase the income by reducing the expenditure on maintenance.

Figure 1.3 Hybrid Electric Vehicle

The increase in number of electric vehicles use on road will increase the
demand of electricity and the charging facility infrastructure. To meet the above
two demands i.e., 1) electricity demand [1] and 2) charging infrastructure [2] will
become a burden on developing and under-developed countries who are struggling
to feed their population.
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Figure 1.4 Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle

The two-demand can be fulfilled using an integrated system called static
Bidirectional WPT System with Maximum Energy Efficiency Tracking Approach
for Vehicle to Home Application Plug-in-charging vehicles (PHEVs) rely on
conventional charging system which are not convenient and flexible and require a
lot of investment with complex structure [3]. The discovery of wireless
transmission of energy has developed a new advanced wireless power transfer
system which is easy to access and simple in construction and also with no physical
contact [5-7].

1.1.3 Modes of battery charging

Charging Charging Charging Cost Convenience

Mode Speed Infrastructure
Level 1 2-5 miles of Available at Low cost, no Convenient, but slow
range per standard additional and not suitable for
hour household infrastructure long distance travel
outlets required or larger battery
packs.
Level 2 10-30 miles Becoming Moderate cost, More convenient
of range per more common requires than Level 1, suitable
hour in public installation of for daily use.
locations charging
equipment
DC Rapid 60-80 miles Less common, High cost, Very convenient for
Charging ranging in 20- typically found requires long distance travel,
30 minutes along specialized but can reduce
highways equipment and battery lifespan with
installation repeated use

Wireless Relatively Not widely High cost, Convenient, but not

charging slow charging available, requires as efficient as wired
speed requires installation of charging methods
specialized charging
infrastructure equipment
Table 1.1 Modes of battery charging

1.1.4 Overview of bidirectional wireless power transfer system

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The transmitting unit, also known as the charging pad, is installed in the
ground, typically at parking lots or garages. This unit consists of a transmitter coil
that generates an oscillating magnetic field when it is powered on. The
receiving unit is installed in the vehicle, typically underneath the car, and it consists
of a receiver coil that captures the magnetic field generated by the transmitter coil.

Figure 1.5 Block Diagram for bidirectional power flow

When EV (electric vehicle) parks over the charging pad, receiving unit
detects the magnetic field and converts it into electrical energy, which is used to
charge the vehicle's battery. The charging process is controlled by a power
electronics unit that is managing the power flow among the transmitting as well as
receiving units. This unit ensures that the charging is efficient and safe by
monitoring the temperature, voltage, and current levels during the charging process.
The bidirectional aspect of this technology allows for transferring of power
among the electric vehicle as well as the power grid. When vehicle is not in use,
it can serve as a storage device, storing excess energy from the grid. The stored
energy can be used to power the vehicle or be fed back into the grid during periods
of high demand.
Different topologies used for construction like SS compensation [8,9],
Parallel-Parallel [10], Series-Parallel mixed topology [11]and Series-Parallel series
[12], we will be using ss compensation as more current will be utilized and also the
compensation capacitance selection is allowable dependent only on its self-
inductances without any relation with the load and magnetic coupling [9]. The
paper provides the designing of the system. The Vehicle to Home (V to H) or vice
versa (H to V) power transfer requires a conversion system as we need to convert
AC to DC when Home to Vehicle and DC to AC when Vehicle to Home. For this
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different converter for converting will be used e.g.- Buck-Boost converter. All the
system should be bi-directional and therefore converters should work in two ways.
Other than converters different controllers must be used to control the phase
shifting for triggering the energy flow in a specific direction. The system is being
designed for 3.3kW which follows S AEJ 2954 standards [13]. Through this system
the power communicates into two ways i.e., Vehicle to Home and Home to Vehicle.
For this we are using controllers, converters and two H-bridge inverters/rectifiers
along with coils which are according to SAEJ 2954 WPT/Z2 standards for the
wireless transfer of power [13]. The role of controllers plays a vital role to control
the power flow in a bi-directional system. Controllers helps in updating the
components for acting in different system like an inverter must be converted to
rectifier and vice versa according to the demand of the circuit. The design is using
two H-bridge converters. During energy flow from Home to Vehicle, primary side
high frequency converter will act as inverter and secondary side, high frequency
converter will act as rectifier. During Vehicle to Home [14] the vehicle will act as
DC. The large frequency converter on primary side will act as rectifier and
secondary side will be acting as inverter. For controlling the two H-bridge, we are
using dual phase shift controller with a delay of 90 degree.
A bi-directional static wireless power transfer system using MPPT is a
network that can transfer power wirelessly between two devices in both directions
and also tracking the MPP (maximum power point). The system consists of four
main components: a front side converter, a large frequency primary side converter,
a large frequency secondary side converter, and a bidirectional side chopper.
A front-end converter is a device that is converting AC input voltage to DC
output voltage. It is being utilized for power factor correction as well as low
frequency current harmonic removal in static conversion systems. The front-end
converter can be implemented using different topologies such as boost, buck-boost,
or bridgeless converters.
A high frequency primary converter is a device that converts DC input
voltage to high frequency AC voltage for driving the primary side s coil. The
primary coil is one of the two coils that form an inductive link for wireless power
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transfer. The high frequency primary converter can be implemented using different
topologies such as full-bridge, half-bridge, or push-pull converters.
A high frequency secondary side converter is a device that converts high
frequency AC voltage from the secondary coil to DC output voltage. The secondary
coil is the other coil that forms an inductive link for wireless power transfer. The
high frequency secondary converter can be implemented using different topologies
such as full-bridge, half-bridge, or push-pull converters.
A bidirectional chopper is a device that can control the direction and
magnitude of current flow between two DC sources. It is used for regulating the
power flow between the transmitter and receiver sides of the wireless power
transfer system. It can also perform MPPT control for maximizing the output power
by adjusting its duty.
The circuit working of bi-directional wireless power transfer system with
MPPT having front side converter with large frequency primary and secondary
converter, primary and secondary coil, bidirectional chopper can be explained as
follows:
In forward mode (transmitter to receiver), the front-end converter converts
AC input side voltage to DC output voltage. The high frequency primary converter
converts DC output voltage to high frequency AC voltage. The primary coil
transfers power wirelessly to the secondary coil through magnetic coupling. The
high frequency secondary converter converts high frequency AC voltage to DC
output voltage. The bidirectional chopper regulates the output power by controlling
its duty cycle.
In reverse mode (receiver to transmitter), the bidirectional chopper controls
the direction of current flow from receiver side to transmitter side. The high
frequency secondary converter converts DC input voltage to high frequency AC
voltage. The secondary coil transfers power wirelessly to the primary coil through
magnetic coupling. The high frequency primary converter converts high frequency
AC voltage to DC output voltage. The front-end converter feeds back the surplus
power to grid or load.
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The system can achieve phase synchronization between converters by using

different methodologies such as (PS-PWM), phase-locked loop (PLL), or self-
synchronization techniques.
1.2 MOTIVATION
The world is currently experiencing a significant shift towards renewable
and sustainable energy sources, and one of the most promising areas of this
transformation is the electric vehicle (EV) industry. Electric vehicles offer a
cleaner, more efficient, and sustainable mode of transportation, but they also
require a reliable and efficient method of charging. Currently, EVs are charged
using either wired or wireless charging methods. However, wired charging methods
are limited by the inconvenience and cost of installing and maintaining physical
charging stations. Wireless charging methods, on the other hand, offer a more
convenient and efficient charging option, but they have limitations in terms of
charging range, efficiency, and reliability. Static bidirectional wireless power
transfer is a promising solution to address these limitations and improve the overall
charging experience for ev.
Static bidirectional static wireless power transfer involves the transferring
of energy wirelessly among a power source as well as an electric vehicle. This
technology offers numerous advantages over traditional wired and wireless
charging methods. Firstly, it eliminates the need for physical charging stations,
reducing the cost and inconvenience of installing and maintaining these facilities.
This makes it a more scalable and flexible solution that can be easily integrated into
existing infrastructure. Secondly, it offers a greater charging range, allowing
electric vehicles to charge while in motion, enabling a more seamless and
uninterrupted charging experience. This is particularly useful for long-distance
travel and for fleets of electric vehicles that require continuous charging.
• Convenience: With static bidirectional wireless power transfer, electric
vehicle (EV) owners can charge their vehicles without the need for cables or
physical contact with a charging station. This provides convenience and ease
of use, especially in situations where access to a traditional charging station
may be limited.
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• Increased Efficiency: Bidirectional wireless power transfer allows for a more

efficient use of energy, as it enables the transfer of power among the EV and
the charging infrastructure in both the directions. This means that excess
energy generated by the EV can be fed back into the grid or used to power
other devices, increasing the overall efficiency of the system.
• Reduced Cost: By eliminating the need for physical infrastructure, such as
charging stations and cables, static bidirectional wireless power transfer can
significantly reduce the cost of building and maintaining charging
infrastructure.
• Improved Safety: With no physical touching among the EV as well as
charging infrastructure, static bidirectional wireless power transfer eliminates
the risk of electric shock and other hazards associated with traditional
charging methods.
• Increased Flexibility: Static bidirectional wireless power transfer allows for
greater flexibility in terms of where and how EVs can be charged. EV owners
can charge their vehicles at home or at work, without the need for a dedicated
charging station.
• Reduced Environmental Impact: By enabling the efficient utilization of
renewable sources of energy, such as wind as well as solar power, static
bidirectional wireless power transfer can be used to help reduce the
environmental impact of EV charging.
• Future-Proofing: As EV technology continues to evolve, static bidirectional
wireless power transfer provides a future-proof solution that can adapt to
changes in charging technology and infrastructure,

1.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION

The problem formulation for static bidirectional WPT for EVs can be divided
into two main categories: system design and optimization. The design aspect of the
problem involves determining the appropriate system components, such as the
transmitter as well as receiver side coils, the rectifier, and the operating system,
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ensuring efficient power transfer. The optimization aspect of the problem involves
maximizing the power transfer efficiency while minimizing losses and safety
hazards.
Electric vehicles (EVs) competing to replace traditional ICE (fuel)-powered
vehicles in the near future, it is critical that their constraints be solved in order to
improve their performance in the consumer marketplace. The EVs require suitable
charging infrastructure to support their operation which is similar to fuel-based
vehicles, but only drawback is that EVs cannot be charged in a matter of minutes
in comparison to process of refuelling.
Charging stations need EVs to be connected to a plug and occupy the space.
As a result, charging stations cannot accommodate a huge number of automobiles.
The Charging Station needs a developed infrastructure which can be overcome by
making every house a power station which will be available easily. The charge of
electric vehicle can be used in emergency situation to supply the power. The charge
inside vehicle can be utilized during peak power demand. Two different power
transfer system for charging the vehicle and supplying power to home from battery.
One of the main challenges of designing a static bidirectional WPT system
for EVs is to ensure that the system is safe and efficient. Safety is a critical issue
because the system involves the transfer of high-power levels, which can pose a
risk of electric shock and fire hazards. Therefore, the system must be designed to
meet strict safety standards and regulations. Efficiency is also a key factor, as it
determines the effectiveness of the system and the amount of power that can be
transferred wirelessly. To achieve high efficiency, the system must be designed to
minimize losses, such as resistance losses in the coils and rectifier, and to optimize
the coupling among the transmitter as well as receiver side coils.
Another important factor of the problem formulation is optimization of the
system parameters. The parameters that need to be optimized include the frequency
of the alternating magnetic field, the sizing and shaping of the transmitter and
receiver coils, and the spacing between them. These parameters affect the coupling
among the coils as well as the power transferring efficiency. For example,
increasing the frequency can increase the power transfer efficiency, but it can also
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increase the losses due to higher resistance. Similarly, increasing the distance
between the coils can reduce the coupling, but it can also reduce the efficiency.

1.4 PURPOSE OF PROJECT

Wireless power transfer (WPT) is becoming an important area of study and
development in recent years, with a focus on applications in electric vehicles (EVs).
The primary goal of WPT for EVs is to provide a convenient and efficient way to
charge the vehicle's batteries without the need for physical connections. This
technology is particularly important for EVs because it allows them to be charged
on the go, without having to stop at a charging station or plug into a power outlet.
The purpose of a project on static bidirectional WPT for EVs is to develop a
system that can efficiently transfer power wirelessly in both directions, starting
from grid to the vehicle and same on other side. The system will use static
(stationary) charging pads that are installed in the ground or mounted on a surface,
and which can be used to wirelessly charge the vehicle's batteries. The system will
be designed to be scalable, so that it can be used in a variety of different settings,
from personal garages to public parking lots.
One of the main advantages of static bidirectional WPT is that it allows for
greater flexibility and convenience when it comes to charging EVs. For example,
drivers can park their vehicles over a charging pad and have their batteries charged
automatically, without having to manually plug in a charging cable. This is
especially important in situations where it may be difficult or inconvenient to find
a traditional charging station, such as in urban areas or on long road trips.
Another advantage of static bidirectional WPT is that it can potentially reduce
the need for large and expensive battery packs in EVs. With the ability to charge
on the go, EVs can be designed with smaller batteries that are more lightweight and
less expensive, without sacrificing range or performance. This can make EVs more
accessible and affordable for a wider range of consumers.
The development of a static bidirectional WPT system for EVs also has the
potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions as well as improving air quality.
By making it more convenient as well as accessible to charge EVs, more people
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may be encouraged to switch to electric vehicles, which produce fewer emissions

than traditional gasoline-powered cars. In addition, the system can potentially be
powered by renewable sources of energy, such as solar or wind power, can further
reduce the carbon footprint of the transportation sector.

1.5 OBJECTIVE
The objective of a project on static bidirectional wireless power transferring
for electric automobiles is to develop a BWPT system that allows for efficient and
convenient charging of electric vehicles and transferring of this stored energy from
battery to home and similarly from home to battery . This technology involving the
utilizing of electromagnetic waves for transmitting power wirelessly from a power
source to the vehicle, and vice versa, using resonant magnetic fields.
One of the primary goals for this project is to improve the accessibility and
convenience of electric vehicle charging. Currently, many electric vehicle owners
rely on charging stations with physical cables, which can be inconvenient and time-
consuming. With static bidirectional wireless power transfer, electric vehicle
owners could simply park their vehicles over a charging pad, and the charging
process would begin automatically. To create a Bi-Directional wireless charging
system that can charge stationary EVs. To build a high-frequency frequency
inverter capable of delivering high frequency AC current at a frequency of 85 kHz.
To create appropriate conducting coils capable of achieving magnetic coupling with
minimal losses.
Another objective of this project is to increase the efficiency of electric
vehicle charging through MPPT. Using of wireless power transfer technology has
the potential to reduce energy losses associated with traditional cable-based
charging systems. By improving the efficiency of electric vehicle charging, this
technology could help to reduce the environmental impact of electric vehicles by
minimizing energy waste.
Another objective of this system is to develop a suitable coil and
compensation network for efficient and effective wireless power transfer.
Furthermore, the development of static bidirectional wireless power transfer
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technology could help to address the issue of range anxiety that many electric
vehicles owners experience. By increasing the availability and convenience of
charging, this technology could make it easier for drivers to maintain the charge
levels needed to travel longer distances without worrying about running out of
power. The objective of static bidirectional wireless power transferring for electric
cars (EVs) providing a convenient and efficient way for EV owners to charge their
vehicles and use the stored energy to power their homes or businesses. This
technology is commonly known as vehicle-to-home (V2H) or home-to-vehicle
(H2V) power transfer.
With static bidirectional wireless power transfer, EV owners can park their
cars in a designated spot equipped with a wireless charging pad, and the car's battery
can be charged without the need for physical contact or cables. Additionally, the
energy storage in the vehicle's battery can be used for powering a home or business
during peak demand periods or in the time of a power shortage. The main objective
of this technology is to reduce dependence on traditional power sources and
increase the use of renewable energy sources. This technology can also help to
reduce carbon emissions by promoting the use of clean energy sources.
Overall, the objective of a project on static bidirectional wireless power
transmission system for electric vehicles is to develop a technique that is more
efficient, convenient, and accessible than current charging methods. This
technology has the potential to help accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles by
making them more practical and appealing to a wider range of consumers.

1.6 CONSTRAINS
According to SAEJ294 standard WPT is classified into four categories
according to the maximum VA drawn from the home
WPT1=3.3KVA
WPT2=7.7KVA
WPT3=11.1KVA
WPT4=22KVA
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Vertical spacing in between grounding surface and lower surface of coil

defines the type of Wireless power transfer i.e., WPT Z class. We use here
WPT/z2with range or vertical distance of 140-210mm.
Value of Ntot has to be maintained under all conditions normal or when there is coil
mis alignment. Under nominal conditions Ntot should be≥0.85 and when there is
misalignment it shall be ≥0.75.80% efficiency has to be maintained.
For any bidirectional power transfer to take place power should be supplied
by voltage at a frequency between 79-90kHz.
Nominal frequency value 𝒇𝒉𝒇,𝑵 =85KHz (produced by high frequency convertor
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CHAPTER 2
EXISTING TOPOLOGY
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.1 Introduction to literature
In this literature various papers have proposed different approaches and
technologies to enhance the effectiveness of wireless power transfer for electric
vehicles, while also highlighting the potential advantages and difficulties of
bidirectional wireless power transfer systems. A number of articles have also
provided a comprehensive overview of the current state of wireless power transfer
technology, touching on topics such as standardization efforts and technical
hurdles. The methods suggested in these articles include optimizing the geometry
of the coils in the transmitter and receiver, integrating an energy storage system,
and enabling the capacity for grid-tie. These solutions aim to enhance the
efficiency and practicality of wireless power transfer for electric vehicles,
potentially increasing their range and convenience. However, the implementation
of these systems faces various obstacles, such as safety concerns, technical
complexity, and regulatory limitations. Nonetheless, as wireless power transfer
technology continues to advance and standardize, it has the potential to play an
increasingly significant role in the future of electric vehicle transportation.
• Ahn, M., & Cho, H. (2014). “Design and optimization of a static wireless
power transfer system for electric vehicles”. International Journal of Precision
Engineering and Manufacturing, 15(3), 513-520.
Inference: The study proposes a static wireless power transfer system that
reduces energy loss and improves power transfer efficiency by optimizing the
shape of the transmitter coil. This implies that the current systems have energy
loss and lower efficiency, and the proposed system aims to address these issues
by optimizing the coil's shape. The approach may lead to more efficient
wireless power transfer systems.
• Kim, J., et al. (2015). An experimental study on wireless power transfer for
electric vehicles using inductive coupling. International Journal of Automotive
 17

Technology, 16(3), 475-481.

Inference: The experiment shows that the inductive coupling method of
wireless power transfer for electric vehicles has high efficiency and stable
power transmission characteristics. This suggests that inductive coupling is a
promising technology for wireless power transfer for electric vehicles. The
results of the experiment indicate that the method has a high efficiency and
stable power transmission characteristics, which may lead to more reliable and
effective wireless charging for electric vehicles.
• Wong, S. S., & Tan, S. C. (2016). “A review of wireless power transfer for
electric vehicles”. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 53, 1454-
1464.
Inference: The paper provides a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art
in wireless power transfer for electric vehicles, including various wireless
power transfer technologies, efficiency improvement methods, and
standardization efforts. This suggests that the paper provides a detailed
overview of the current state-of-the-art in wireless power transfer for electric
vehicles. It covers various technologies, methods to improve efficiency, and
standardization efforts. The information provided in the paper may help
researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals to better understand the
current status and future direction of wireless power transfer for electric
vehicles.
• Rashid, M. Z. A., et al. (2017). “Wireless power transfer for electric vehicles:
state-of-the-art and future trends”. IEEE Transactions on Transportation
Electrification, 3(1), 34-51.
Inference: The paper provides a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art
in wireless power transfer for electric vehicles, including various wireless
power transfer technologies, efficiency improvement methods, and
standardization efforts. This suggests that the paper provides a detailed
overview of the current state-of-the-art in wireless power transfer for electric
vehicles. It covers various technologies, methods to improve efficiency, and
standardization efforts. The information provided in the paper may help
 18

researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals to better understand the

current status and future direction of wireless power transfer for electric
vehicles.
• Kim, Y., & Cho, H. (2017). Design and analysis of a bidirectional wireless
power transfer system for electric vehicles”. International Journal of
Automotive Technology, 18(2), 307-313.
Inference: The study proposes a bidirectional wireless power transfer system
that enables not only vehicle-to-grid (V2G) but also vehicle-to-home (V2H)
power transfer with high efficiency and low electromagnetic interference. This
suggests that the proposed system can transfer power bidirectionally between
the electric vehicle, grid, and home. This may enable users to sell excess power
back to the grid or power their home with their electric vehicle. Additionally,
the high efficiency and low electromagnetic interference may make the system
more practical and reliable for use in real-world applications.
• Liu, C., et al. (2018). Bidirectional wireless power transfer for electric vehicles
with grid-tie capability. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 33(10),
8258-8268.
Inference: The paper proposes a bidirectional wireless power transfer system
that enables grid-tie capability, which can significantly improve the power
quality and reduce the cost of power electronics.
• Zhang, Y., et al. (2018). Bidirectional wireless power transfer for electric
vehicles with energy storage system. Energies, 11(7), 1863.
Inference: The paper proposes a bidirectional wireless power transfer system
that can enable grid-tie capability, improving power quality and reducing
power electronics costs. The study proposes a bidirectional wireless power
transfer system that incorporates an energy storage system, which can improve
the power transfer efficiency and flexibility of the system.
• Kim, Y., & Cho, H. (2018). Analysis and design of a bidirectional wireless
power transfer system for electric vehicles. Energies, 11(9), 2429.
 19

Inference: The study proposes a bidirectional wireless power transfer system

that can achieve high power transfer efficiency and low electromagnetic
interference by optimizing the coil geometry and frequency.
• Ahn, M., & Cho, H. (2018). Design and optimization of a bidirectional wireless
power transfer system for electric vehicles. Energies, 11(6), 1586.
Inference: The study proposes a bidirectional wireless power transfer system
that can achieve high power transfer efficiency and low electromagnetic
interference by optimizing the transmitter and receiver coil geometries.
• Jiajun Liu, Weiwen Deng, and Chengbin Ma. "Bidirectional Wireless
Charging for Electric Vehicles: A Review." 2018. IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology.
Inference: This paper reviews the state of the art in bidirectional wireless
charging for electric vehicles and identifies key challenges. This paper
provides a comprehensive review of bidirectional wireless power transfer for
electric vehicles, discussing potential benefits and challenges of
implementation.
• Armando Orjuela, Javier Espinosa, and David Granados. "A Novel
Bidirectional Wireless Power Transfer System for Electric Vehicle
Applications." 2018. IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electrification.
Inference: The proposed bidirectional wireless power transfer system achieves
high efficiency and can be used for both V2H and H2V applications. The
proposed bidirectional wireless charging system can help balance the power
grid and reduce the need for expensive upgrades.
• Hyun-Jae Kim, Tae-Seok Lee, and Jee-Hoon Jung. "Bidirectional Wireless
Power Transfer for Electric Vehicle Applications: A Review." 2017.
International Journal of Automotive Technology.
Inference: The proposed bidirectional wireless charging system has the
potential to enhance the stability of the power grid by balancing the supply and
demand of electricity. This could help to reduce the need for expensive
upgrades to the grid infrastructure and ensure a more reliable energy supply for
consumers.
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• Amir M. Ebrahimi, Amirhossein Toliyat, and Babak Fahimi. "A Bidirectional

Wireless Charging System for Electric Vehicles and Its Impact on the Power
Grid." 2019. Energies.
Inference: The paper introduces a novel wireless power transfer system that
can adapt to the changing conditions of urban environments. The feasibility of
this approach is demonstrated through computer simulations, suggesting that it
could offer a promising solution for powering electric vehicles in crowded
cities.
• Ali Fathabadi, Hamed Khalili, and Mehdi Savaghebi. "Dynamic Wireless
Power Transfer for Electric Vehicles in Urban Environments." 2017. IEEE
Transactions on Smart Grid.
Inference: This paper proposes a dynamic wireless power transfer system for
electric vehicles in urban environments and demonstrates its feasibility through
simulations.
• Wei Gong, Yulong Miao, and Zhihua Feng. "Investigation of a Bidirectional
Wireless Charging System for Electric Vehicles with High Power Levels."
2017. Journal of Power Sources.
Inference: The proposed bidirectional wireless charging system can handle
high power levels and has a high efficiency.
• Shangming Yang, Lina Guo, and Weiwei Zhu. "Bidirectional Wireless Power
Transfer for Electric Vehicles and Its Impact on the Power Grid." 2019. IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems.
Inference: The proposed bidirectional wireless power transfer system could be
instrumental in reducing the impact of electric vehicle charging on the power
grid. By allowing energy to flow in both directions, the system can help to
mitigate the strain on the grid during peak charging periods.
• Anamika Gupta, Dinesh Kumar Sharma, and Aditya Kumar. "A Bidirectional
Wireless Charging System for Electric Vehicles Based on Magnetic Resonant
Coupling." 2018. Energies.
 21

Inference: The proposed bidirectional wireless charging based on magnetic

resonant coupling is highly efficient and can operate over a long distance. This
could make it a suitable option for charging electric vehicles in a variety of
settings, including public parking lots and highways.
• Ho-Sung Kim, Jong-Woo Jung, and Ki Jin Han. "Bidirectional Wireless Power
Transfer System for Electric Vehicles with Reduced Magnetic Field Leakage."
2017. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics.
Inference: The proposed bidirectional wireless power transfer system reduces
magnetic field leakage and achieves high efficiency.
• Dechao Li, Yong Li, and Tianhao Wu. "Optimal Design and Control of a
Bidirectional Wireless Power Transfer System for Electric Vehicles." 2019.
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics.
Inference: The proposed optimal design and control strategy for a bidirectional
wireless power transfer system achieves high efficiency and stable operation.
• M. Shahjalal, M. Nishat, M. Rishad Ahmed, S. Tamanna, J. Haider, “A
critical review on charging technologies of electric vehicles, Energies
2022, 15 8239.”
Inference: In this paper gives a brief overview of the current technologies used
in EV charging as of 2022.
• Kafeel Ahmed Kalwar, M. Aamir and Saad Mekhilef, “Inductively coupled
power transfer (ICPT) for electric vehicle charging, Renewable and
Sustainable energy reviews 47 (2015), 462-475.”
Inference: In this paper the introduction to the concept of wireless power
transfer which can be applied to EV.
• Toshiyuki Fujita, Tomio Yasuda and Hirofumi Akagi, “A Dynamic wireless
power transfer system applicable to a stationary system, IEEE transactions on
industry applications, vol. 53 no. 4 July 2017.”
Inference: The paper discusses the concept and estimation of parameters for a
wireless power transfer (WPT) system, along with an overview of how the
 22

system may behave under dynamic conditions. This information can aid in the
development and optimization of WPT systems for various applications.
• U. Surendrakumaran, Alamelu Nachiappan, “Voltage full bridge inverter
topology for ICPT application, International journal of pure and applied
mathematics volume 118 No. 24 2018.”
Inference: This paper introduces a voltage-fed inverter topology that can be
used for fast switching and high-power DC-AC conversions. Such a topology
can enhance the efficiency and performance of power electronic systems,
especially those requiring high-frequency operation.
• Mingyu Park, Van Thuan Nyugen, Seung Duck, Seong Woo Yim and Kijun
Park, “A Study of wireless power transfer topologies for 3.3 kW and 6.6 kW
Electric vehicle charging infrastructure, IEEE Transportation Electrification
Conference and Expo 2016.”
Inference: The paper presents comparison results for various compensation
topologies and highlights the factors to consider when selecting a suitable
topology for medium and high-power systems. This can aid in the design and
optimization of power electronic systems for various applications.
• Ricardio Matias, Bernardo Cunha and Rui Martins, “Modelling Inductive
Coupling for Wireless Power Transfer to Integrated circuits.”
Inference: The paper provides a detailed explanation of the fabrication and
design procedures of components used in wireless power transfer (WPT)
systems. Such information can aid in the development and optimization of
WPT systems for various applications.
• Wen, T., Luo, X., Zhang, Y., & Yang, J. (2019). A Review on Wireless Power
Transfer Technology for Electric Vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, 34(11), 10605-10619.
Inference: This paper offers an overview of wireless power transfer technology
for electric vehicles, including the latest developments in static bidirectional
systems. Such systems can enable efficient and convenient charging of electric
vehicles, making them more practical for daily use.
 23

• Cheng, M., Li, Y., Li, M., & Li, D. (2018). A comprehensive review on static
wireless power transfer for electric vehicles. Applied Energy, 228, 2177-2193.
Inference: The paper presents the analysis and design of a bidirectional
wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles. Such a system can enable
efficient and convenient charging of electric vehicles, while also allowing them
to provide power back to the grid during peak demand.
• Lee, C., Lee, H., & Chun, T. (2017). Analysis and design of a bidirectional
wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles. Energies, 10(9), 1367.
Inference: This paper provides a comprehensive review of wireless power
transfer technologies for electric vehicles, with a particular focus on static
bidirectional systems. Such systems can enable efficient and convenient
charging of electric vehicles, making them more practical for daily use
• Fang, H., Tan, X., & Zhang, Z. (2019). The design and experimental research
on a bidirectional wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles.
Energies, 12(8), 1482.
Inference: This paper presents the design and experimental research on a
bidirectional wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles.
• Luo, X., Wen, T., Yang, J., & Zhang, Y. (2018). Wireless Power Transfer
Technologies for Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review. IEEE
Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 67(11), 11052-11065.
Inference: This paper provides a comprehensive review of wireless power
transfer technologies for electric vehicles, including static bidirectional
systems. Such systems can enable efficient and convenient charging of electric
vehicles, making them more practical for daily use.
• Zhang, Y., Luo, X., & Wen, T. (2019). Wireless Power Transfer Technologies
for Electric Vehicles: A Review of the State of the Art. IEEE Journal of
Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, 7(4), 3011-3021.
Inference: The paper reviews the state of the art in wireless power transfer
technologies for electric vehicles, including bidirectional systems. This
 24

information can be useful for researchers and practitioners interested in

developing and optimizing WPT systems for electric vehicles
• Wang, F., & Jiang, B. (2021). Design and implementation of a bidirectional
wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles. Journal of Power
Electronics, 21(2), 275-283.
Inference: This paper presents the design and implementation of a bidirectional
wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles, which can enable efficient
and convenient charging of vehicles while also allowing them to provide power
back to the grid during peak demand. Such a system can make electric vehicles
more practical for daily use.
• Li, J., & Liu, W. (2020). Design and analysis of a bidirectional wireless
power transfer system for electric vehicles. Journal of Power Electronics,
20(4), 1006-1017.
Inference: This paper presents the design and analysis of a bidirectional
wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles. The paper presents the
analysis and design of a bidirectional wireless power transfer system for
electric vehicles, which can enable efficient and convenient charging of
vehicles while also allowing them to provide power back to the grid during
peak demand. Such a system can make electric vehicles more practical for
daily use.
• Zhang, H., Cui, N., & Cui, X. (2020). Design and analysis of a
bidirectional wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles.
International Journal of Automotive Technology, 21(6), 1257-1265.
Inference: This paper presents the design and analysis of a bidirectional
wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles. This inference suggests
that the paper focuses on the development and evaluation of a wireless power
transfer system that can provide electricity to electric vehicles in both
directions, i.e., from the grid to the vehicle and from the vehicle to the grid.
The paper may discuss the design specifications, technical aspects, and
performance evaluation of the system. This paper presents the design and
analysis of a bidirectional wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles.
 25

• Wu, T., Gao, Y., Xu, J., & Zhang, Y. (2019). Study on the dynamic
characteristics of a bidirectional wireless power transfer system for electric
vehicles. Journal of Power Electronics, 19(6), 1612-1622.
Inference: This paper studies the dynamic characteristics of a bidirectional
wireless power transfer system for electric vehicles. This inference implies
that the paper examines the behaviour and performance of a wireless power
transfer system for electric vehicles under dynamic conditions, such as
varying power demand, speed, and direction of travel. The paper may
analyse the system's efficiency, reliability, and safety under different
scenarios and provide insights into optimizing its design and operation.
• Liu, C., Cheng, M., Chen, H., & Sun, Y. (2020). “A comprehensive review
of wireless power transfer for electric vehicles”. IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, 36(5), 4913-4933.
Inference: This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-
art of wireless power transfer for electric vehicles, including static
bidirectional systems. This inference suggests that the paper aims to review
and summarize the existing literature on wireless power transfer technology
for electric vehicles, including static bidirectional systems. The paper may
discuss the evolution of the technology, its current status, and the challenges
and opportunities for its further development and adoption. It may also
highlight the differences and similarities between static and dynamic wireless
power transfer systems.
• Kim, J. H., Kwon, J. M., & Jang, G. (2019). “Design and performance analysis
of a resonant repeater for static wireless power transfer to electric vehicles”.
IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 34(6), 5716-5725.
Inference: This paper presents a resonant repeater design for static wireless
power transfer to electric vehicles and analyses its performance. This inference
suggests that the paper focuses on the development and evaluation of a
resonant repeater design for static wireless power transfer to electric vehicles.
The paper may describe the technical specifications, working principles, and
performance evaluation of the proposed design. It may also compare the
 26

proposed design with other existing designs and provide insights into
optimizing its efficiency and reliability.
• Wang, K., Li, X., & Qiu, Z. (2018). “A review of the wireless power transfer
technology for electric vehicles: Prospects and challenges. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews”, 82, 3080-3091.
Inference: This paper reviews the current state of wireless power transfer
technology for electric vehicles and discusses the prospects and challenges for
its widespread adoption. This inference implies that the paper aims to provide
a critical review of the current status of wireless power transfer technology for
electric vehicles and discuss the potential barriers and opportunities for its
widespread adoption. The paper may analyse the technical, economic,
regulatory, and social factors that influence the adoption of the technology and
propose strategies for overcoming the challenges and
promoting its deployment.

2.2 INFERENCE ON LITERATURE

The project on static bidirectional wireless power transfer for electric
vehicles V2H and H2V aims to provide a convenient and efficient way to transfer
power wirelessly between electric vehicles and the power grid. The system utilizes
a bidirectional wireless power transfer mechanism, which allows power to be
transferred in both directions, from the grid to the vehicle (H2V) and from the
vehicle to the grid (V2H).
The project addresses the increasing demand for electric vehicles and the need
for a reliable and efficient way to charge them. The system's bidirectional power
transfer capability enables electric vehicles to not only consume power from the
grid but also feed excess power back to the grid, creating a more sustainable and
environmentally friendly energy ecosystem.
The project utilizes static wireless power transfer technology, which
eliminates the need for physical contacts between the charging components,
improving the system's efficiency and reliability. The system's efficiency is further
enhanced.
 27

2.3 SUMMARY
Various research articles on wireless power transfer systems for electric
vehicles have been summarized. The articles propose different methods and
systems to improve the efficiency of wireless power transfer for electric vehicles,
and discuss the potential benefits and challenges of bidirectional wireless power
transfer systems. Several articles also review the current state of the art in wireless
power transfer technology, and discuss standardization efforts and technical
challenges. The proposed systems include optimizing the shape of the transmitter
and receiver coils, incorporating an energy storage system, and enabling grid-tie
capability. The potential benefits of bidirectional wireless power transfer systems
include balancing the power grid, reducing the need for expensive grid upgrades,
and enabling vehicle-to-grid and vehicle-to-home power transfer.
It can be inferred that the scientific community is interested in exploring the
potential of wireless power transfer for electric vehicles. The studies focus on
developing and optimizing bidirectional wireless power transfer systems that are
highly efficient and can transfer power in a stable and reliable manner. The
researchers have identified several technical challenges, including optimizing coil
geometry, frequency, and power levels, as well as addressing electromagnetic
interference and improving power quality. The studies also explore the potential
benefits of bidirectional wireless power transfer systems, including their ability to
balance the power grid, reduce energy loss, and enable vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and
vehicle-to-home (V2H) power transfer. Overall, the research indicates that wireless
power transfer has the potential to revolutionize the way we charge electric
vehicles, but there are still significant technical and practical challenges that need
to be address
 28

CHAPTER 3
DESIGN & METHODOLOGY
3.1 STATIC WIRELESS CHARGING SYSTEM

Wireless charging technology has evolved rapidly in current years, and it is

now possible for charging electrical products without the need for wires or cables.
The inventing of wireless type of charging technology has led to the creation of
static wireless charging systems, which allow devices to charge without the need
for any contact with a charging pad. Static wireless charging systems consist of
several components that work together to deliver power wirelessly to the devices
that need to be charged. In this paper, we will explore the technical and theoretical
aspects of static wireless charging systems, focusing on the components that make
up these systems and how they work together to deliver power wirelessly.

Figure 3.1 Static Wireless power transfer system

 29

3.2 BIDIRECTIONAL WPT SYSTEM

A bi-directional wireless power transferring network with MPPT is a system
that can transfer power wirelessly between two devices in both directions and also
tracking the maximum power point. System consists of four main components: a
front-end side converter, a high frequency primary side converter, a high frequency
secondary side converter, and a bidirectional chopper.
A front-end converter is a device that is converting AC input voltage to DC
output side voltage. It is utilised for pf correction as well as low frequency current
harmonic removal in static converting systems. The front-end converter can be
implemented using different topologies such as boost, buck-boost, or bridgeless
converters.

Figure 3.2 Bidirectional Wireless Power Transmission

High frequency primary converter is a device that converts DC input voltage
to high frequency AC voltage for driving the primary side coil. The primary coil is
one of the two coils that form an inductive link for wireless power transfer. The
high frequency primary converter can be implemented using different topologies
such as full-bridge, half-bridge, or push-pull side converters.
A high frequency secondary converter is a device that converts high
frequency AC voltage from the secondary side coil to DC output voltage. The
secondary coil is the other coil that forms an inductive link for wireless power
transfer. The high frequency secondary converter can be implemented using
different topologies such as full-bridge, half-bridge, or push-pull converters.
A bidirectional chopper is a device that can control the direction and
magnitude of current flow between two DC sources. It is used for regulating the
 30

power flow between the transmitter and receiver sides of the wireless power
transfer system. It can also perform MPPT control for maximizing the output power
by adjusting its duty.
The circuit working of bi-directional wireless power transfer system with
MPPT having front end converter high frequency primary and secondary converter,
primary and secondary coil, bidirectional chopper can be explained as follows:
In forward mode (transmitter to receiver), the front-end converter converts
AC input voltage to DC output voltage. The high frequency primary converter
converts DC output voltage to high frequency AC voltage. The primary coil
transfers power wirelessly to the secondary coil through magnetic coupling. The
large frequency on secondary converter converts large frequency AC voltage to
Direct Current output voltage. The bidirectional chopper regulates the output power
by controlling its duty cycle.
In reverse mode (receiver to transmitter), the bidirectional chopper controls
the direction of current flow from receiver side to transmitter side. The high
frequency secondary converter converts DC input voltage to high frequency AC
voltage. The secondary coil transfers power wirelessly to the primary coil through
magnetic coupling. The high frequency primary converter converts high frequency
AC voltage to DC output voltage. The front-end converter feeds back the surplus
power to grid or load.
The system can achieve phase synchronization between converters by using
different methods such as phase-shifted pulse width modulation (PS-PWM), phase-
locked loop (PLL), or self-synchronization techniques.

3.3 MODES OF OPERATION

3.3.1 Forward direction from grid to battery
When electricity is being transferred from the grid to a battery using a
wireless power transfer (WPT) system, the AC power from the grid is first
converted into DC power using a rectifier. The DC power is then filtered to remove
any distortions or ripples. This filtered DC energy is then fed to a high-frequency
primary inverter, which is controlled by a phase delay mechanism. The inverter
 31

increases the frequency of the DC power from 50Hz to 85KHz, which is required
for the WPT system. The increased frequency DC power is then transferred to the
secondary side of a transformer using mutual induction. The transformer is
designed to step down the voltage to a level that can be easily handled by a
converter, which acts as a rectifier. The rectified DC power is then sent to a
bidirectional chopper, which operates in the Buck mode. The bidirectional chopper
can either increase or decrease the voltage level of the DC power, depending on
whether the power is being transferred from the grid to the battery or vice
versa.When the power is being transferred from the grid to the battery, the
bidirectional chopper acts as a Buck converter and decreases the voltage level of
the DC power. This decreased voltage level DC power is then fed to the battery.
Conversely, when the power is being transferred from the battery to the grid, the
bidirectional chopper acts as a Boost converter and increases the voltage level of
the DC power. This increased voltage level DC power is then fed to the high-
frequency primary inverter to be transferred wirelessly to the grid.

Figure 3.3 Power flow in Forward and Reverse direction

3.3.2 Reverse direction from battery to grid
The bidirectional flow of power is made possible by the ability to use the
energy stored in the battery to supplement the grid during periods of high demand
or power shortages. In such cases, the bidirectional chopper operates in Boost mode
and increases the voltage of the DC power from the battery. This increased voltage
DC power is then fed to the converter, which in this case acts as an inverter since it
is controlled by a gate pulse. The inverter converts the DC power to AC power,
which is fed to the secondary coil of the transformer, which now acts as the primary
 32

coil. Through mutual induction, the AC power is transferred to the other side of the
transformer where the inverter now acts as a rectifier, converting the AC power
back to DC power. This DC power is then converted back to AC power using a
high-frequency primary inverter, which decreases the frequency from 85KHz to the
standard 50Hz.During periods of high demand or power shortages, the bidirectional
flow of power allows the battery to supply power to the grid and help overcome the
power shortages, thereby enhancing the efficiency of the grid. Conversely, during
periods of low demand, excess power generated by the grid can be used to charge
the battery, thereby improving the overall efficiency of the system.

3.4 DESIGN AND CHALLENGES OF THE BI-DIRECTIONAL SYSTEM

Top-notch design and implementation of bidirectional static wireless power
transfer systems have always been a daunting task. However, with the advent of
new and improved technologies like Litz wire and the development of high-power
magnetics, the design process has been made more compact and efficient. Although
several technologies are put in place to ensure the efficiency of the static wireless
power transfer system, a lot of factors still pose significant challenges. Below we
discuss the design and challenges of Static wireless power transfer systems.
Bidirectional Static power transfer systems are becoming increasingly popular in
modern power systems. It provides an alternative for transferring power to the load
from a source that differs from the primary power supply. These systems do not use
any mechanical devices, and instead, they rely on advanced electronic components
to provide an efficient, reliable and cost-effective way of transferring power.
However, designing a static power transfer system is challenging due to several
factors, including complexity, compatibility, and reliability.
The first challenge faced in designing a static power transfer system is
complexity. The system must be able to accommodate different electrical loads and
volatile conditions. For instance, the system must be able to detect and adjust to
sudden changes in voltage or frequency, which can damage the components if not
handled correctly. The control system must also be able to monitor the system 24/7,
and have strategies to handle any faults or errors. Therefore, the designers of static
 33

power transfer systems must have a clear understanding of power system dynamics,
electrical components, and control systems.
The second challenge faced in designing static power transfer systems is
compatibility. The components used in the system must be compatible with each
other and with the existing systems. For instance, the system must be able to operate
in different modes, including single-phase or three-phase modes. The components
must be able to work effectively with both AC and DC power sources, and also
handle different frequencies. Incompatibility can lead to system failure, which can
result in significant losses for the operator.
The third challenge is reliability. Bidirectional static power transfer systems
require a high level of reliability, as they are used to transfer power to critical loads.
A power failure can have severe consequences, and therefore, the system must be
designed to minimize the risk of failure. The components should have a long-life
span, should not require frequent maintenance, and should be able to operate under
extreme conditions. The system must also have a robust fault detection system,
which can detect any errors or faults and take necessary actions.
Therefore, we need an MPPT System to overcome the challenges.

3.5 STANDARDS IN WPT

Wireless power transferring (WPT) is a technique that is allowing electric

vehicles (EVs) to be charged without plugging in a cable. WPT can offer
convenience, safety, and efficiency benefits for EV users and operators. However,
to ensure compatibility and interoperability among different WPT systems and
vehicles, there is a need for a common standard that defines the requirements and
specifications for WPT.

SAE J2954 is a standard for wireless power transfer for light-duty plug-in
(PEVs) led by SAE International, a global association of engineers and technical
experts in the automotive and aerospace industries. The SAE J2954 standard creates
an across the industry standard that outlines acceptable standards for the
interoperability, EMF, safety, baseline performance, and WPT certification for
light-duty PEVs.
 34

SAE J2954 defines various charging levels that are based on the levels
defined for SAE J1772 conductive AC charge levels 1, 2, and 3, with some
variations. The charging levels are WPT 1 (up to 3.7 kW), WPT 2 (up to 7.7 kW),
and WPT 3 (up to 11 kW). These levels enable SAE J2954 provides a charging
rates selection according to vehicle demands, enabling better car packaging and
consumer convenience. Both home (private) recharging as well as commercial
wireless charging are supported by the specification.
Bidirectional energy transmission and unidirectional charging are addressed
in SAE J2954. which allows the vehicle to send power back to the grid or other
loads, may be evaluated for a future standard. The standard is intended to be used
in stationary applications (charging while vehicle is not in motion); dynamic
applications, which allow charging while the vehicle is moving, may be considered
in the future.

SAE J2954 outlines standards for interoperability, efficiency, and safety. It

also includes suggested techniques for assessing electromagnetic emissions,
although regulatory agencies regulate the specifications and test methodologies. A
performance-based review of potential designs utilising a standardised test station
and methods was utilised to develop the compatibility criteria in this standard,
leading to the definition of reference units that are employed to assess the
performance that may be expected of products.

SAE J2954 aims to facilitate the adoption and deployment of WPT for light-
duty PEVs by providing a common framework and guidance for manufacturers,
suppliers, regulators, and users. The standard is expected to evolve and improve
over time as more data and experience are gathered from field testing and
commercialization of WPT systems and vehicles.

3.6 MATHEMATIC MODELLING

3.6.1 Mathematical Constrains

According to SAEJ294 standard WPT is classified into four categories based to the
grid's maximum VA draw;
 35

WPT1=3.3KVA
WPT2=7.7KVA
WPT3=11.1KVA
WPT4=22KVA
Points to be noted
• The type of WPT is determined by vertical spacing in between the ground
surface and bottom surfacing of the coil. i.e., WPT Z category. We use here
WPT/z2with range or vertical distance of 140-210m
• Value of Ntot has to be maintained under all conditions normal or when there
is coil mis alignment. Under nominal conditions Ntot should be≥0.85 and
when there is misalignment it shall be ≥0.75.80% efficiency has to be
maintained.
• For any bidirectional power transfer to take place power should be supplied
by voltage at a frequency between 79-90kHz.
• Nominal frequency value 𝑓ℎ𝑓,𝑁 =85KHz (produced by high frequency
convertor)
3.6.2 Grid side parameters

Figure 3.4 Equivalent Circuit

 36

Nominal grid RMS value of voltage is 230V as majority of users have

single phase connection. From these further calculations we conclude the size of
various active and passive power converter components so we consider the peak
value of all the quantities which we are going to further use in our calculations.
Peak value of normal grid voltage,
𝑉𝐺,𝑁 =230√2=325(approx.) (3.1)
Minimum and maximum allowed voltages
𝑉𝐺,𝑚 =0.9
𝑉𝐺,𝑁 =0.9×230√2=292.5V (3.2)
𝑉𝐺,𝑀 =1.1
𝑉𝐺,𝑁 =1.1×230√2=357.5V (3.3)
As we know grid nominal frequency,
𝑓𝐺,𝑁 =50 Hz
Power demand (power drawn by the user) defined as,
𝑃𝐺,𝑁 =3.3KW
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 (3.4)
𝑃
𝐼=𝑉
𝑃
𝐺,𝑁
𝐼𝐺,𝑁 = 0.9×230 = 16𝐴 (3.5)

Peak value 𝐼𝐺,𝑁 =16√2=2.2624A

Min efficiency of system or total efficiency,
Using the equation (2) we get,
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦
𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (3.6)
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑
 37

Table 3.1 Measured values for grid

S.NO PARAMETERS CALCULATED VALUES
1. 𝑉𝐺,𝑁 325V
2. 𝑉𝐺,𝑚 292.5V
3. 𝑉𝐺,𝑀 357.5V
4. 𝐼𝐺,𝑁 2.2624V

3.6.3 Compensation Network and Sizing of Coupling Coils

For better efficiency and power transfer we generally go for compensation
networks. This network is placed on both primary and secondary side. In order to
remove any kind of ripples it follows the principle of resonance for power transfer
from primary to secondary. This is generally done by matching the inductance and
capacitance across the two networks. We generally use series compensation
network because in series circuit current remains same. And it also increases the
efficiency of power transfer. It removes any kind of ripples so current in the coils
is almost sinusoidal the nominal frequency the capacitor and inductance across the
inductor acts as short circuit to current flow so as a result voltage induced in the
primary side as well as secondary coil is equal to VHPFC and VHFSC.
During the battery charging because of the presence of resistance forces the
HFPC to produce a voltage VHFPC,1 larger than that produced in primary coil to
compensate the voltage drop. In the similar way VHFSC,1 is generally lower than
voltage induced in secondary coil.
Now we calculate the power flow output at output HFPC that is given as an
input of secondary coil. For this we generally define the efficiencies of primary and
secondary coils as ƞ𝑃 and ƞ𝑆 . Power is divided by two as we same for one side.
Transmission efficiency, from eq (3.2)
𝑃
ƞ𝑡 = 𝑃𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,𝐶 (3.7)
𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,𝑑

𝑃
ƞ𝑡 = 𝑃𝐵 = 0.8 (3.8)
𝐺

Active power output of HFPS

 38

PHFPC,C = VHFPC,1 IP/2 (3.9)

We know,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔𝐿
Putting his value in equation (3) and considering the Mutual Inductance M and
transmission ƞt,
𝐼𝑆 𝜔𝐿 𝑀𝐼𝑃
𝑃𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝐶 = 2ƞ𝑡,𝑃

(3.10)
Active power at input of HFSC,
𝐼𝑃 𝜔𝐿 𝑀𝐼𝑆 ×ƞ𝑡,𝑆
𝑃𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝐶 = (3.11)
2

As we know that primary and secondary coils are identical ƞ𝑡 is equally divided
between them,
ƞ𝑡,𝑃 = ƞ𝑡,𝑆 = √ƞ𝑡 (3.12)
We know here,
During the charging mode on primary side
𝜔𝐻𝐹,𝑁 𝑀𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,1 = 𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,1 (3.13)
√ ƞ𝑡

On secondary side,
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶 1 = 𝜔𝐻𝐹,𝑁 𝑀𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶 √ƞ𝑡 (3.14)
Nominal angular frequency of HFPC is,
𝜔𝐻𝐹,𝑁 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐻𝐹,𝑁 (3.15)
𝑓𝐻𝐹,𝑁 =85kHz
Power at input at HFSC and battery is charged when the amplitude of current is
𝑃
𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,𝑁,𝑐 = 2 𝑉 𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,𝑁,𝑐 (3.16)
𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,1,𝑀

= 35.2𝐴
Now for the current to be flow in secondary side n coil the voltage that will
be induced in secondary coil due to this current causing a further voltage drop
because of the presence of the resistance should be less than the fundamental value
VHFPC.
 39

Now we calculate the value of mutual inductance in between two coils for the
charge frequency,
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,1 𝑀
𝑀≤𝐼 √ƞ𝑡 (3.17)
𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,𝑁,𝑐 𝜔𝐻𝐹,𝑀

= 27.6𝜇𝐻
Same value needs to be calculated and verified for discharging mode. Now
we calculate the amplitude of current at primary side for discharging.
2𝑃𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝑑
𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝑑 = (3.18)
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,1,𝑑

= 16.82𝐴
For this current to be flown in the primary side voltage induced in
secondary side coil and increased by its voltage drop caused by the presence of
resistance should be less than the fundamental value on secondary side i.e., VHFSC.
Similar to equation (10),
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,1,𝑀
𝑀≤𝐼 √ ƞ𝑡 (3.19)
𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝑑 𝜔 𝐻𝐹,𝑀

= 16.7𝜇𝐻
Now value of M is smaller in primary side during discharging i.e., is 16.7
so the value of M is set to 16.5 µH. So, we finally calculate here the value of M
which will now help us to determine I flowing during charging and discharging and
therefore help in establishing the size of switches. Let us consider here the worst
condition when its frequency is small. Since we know power transfer occurs at
higher frequency.
Now we calculate here the fundamental component of 𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶 at the minimum
operating frequency at discharging mode.
𝜔𝐻𝐹,𝑚 𝑀𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,𝑁,𝐶
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,1,𝑀,𝐶 = (3.20)
√ ƞ𝑡

= 300𝑉
Now the amplitude of current can be calculated for minimum frequency supplied
by HFPC,
2𝑃𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝐶
𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝐶 = 𝑉 (3.21)
𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,1,𝑚,𝑐

= 21.1𝐴
 40

Likewise, the voltage fundamental component for secondary side of discharging

mode,
𝜔𝐻𝐹,𝑚 𝑀𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝑑
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,1,𝑚,𝑑 = (3.22)
√ ƞ𝑡

= 143.5𝑉
Now the amplitude of current can be calculated for minimum frequency supplied
by HFSC, using equation (3.14),
2𝑃𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝑑
𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,𝑁,𝑑 = 𝑉 (3.23)
𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,1,𝑚,𝑑

= 72.9𝐴
Now after a comparison between 𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝐶 and 𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝑑 it has been found
that switches ,primary coil and resonant capacitor have to be sized in accordance
with 𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝐶 same goes with secondary side where the components have to
designed in accordance with the discharging current on secondary side that
𝑖𝑠 𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,1,𝑁,𝑑 .
Now we need to calculate the value of inductor and resonant capacitance for which
we define the coupling coefficient as denoted by,
𝑀
𝐾= (3.24)
√𝐿𝑃 √𝐿𝑆

𝐾 = 0.12
If we assume the same size of two coils in equation (3.17) the self-
inductance of primary and secondary will be same that is,
𝑀
𝐶 = 𝐿𝑆 = (3.25)
𝐾

= 162𝜇𝐻
As the resonant capacitance is dependent on nominal frequency 𝑓𝐻𝐹,𝑁 so
resonant capacitance,
1 1
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑆 = 𝜔2 = 𝜔2 (3.26)
𝐻𝐹,𝑁 𝐿𝑃 𝐻𝐹,𝑁 𝐿𝑆

= 21.7𝑁𝑓
 41

Table 3.2 Calculated Parameters for compensation network

S.NO PARAMETERS CALCULATED VALUES
1. ƞ𝑡 0.8
2. 𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,𝑁,𝑐 35.2A
3. 𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,𝑁,𝑑 16.82A
4. 𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,1,𝑀,𝐶 300V
5. 𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,𝑁,𝑑 72.9A
6. K 0.12
7. 𝐿𝑆 162𝜇𝐻
8. 𝐶𝑃 21.7𝑁𝑓

3.7 DESIGN OF POWER CONVERTOR TOPOLOGIES

Figure 3.5 High Frequency Inverter Topology

3.7.1 High Frequency Primary Converter
Connected to grid by front end convertor and on the other side to primary
coils through compensation networks capable of producing a square wave at its
output if we ignore the V drop in the switches and the voltage ripple with
amplitude
4
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,1,𝑀 = 𝜋 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 (3.27)

= 573𝑉
It generally generates a high frequency AC voltage as required by the
wireless power transfer denoted by 𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶 . During the charging operation HFPC is
generally controlling with help of phase shifting technique with which we can
 42

assemble a semi-square wave with a fundamental frequency that is the same as the
switching frequency.
𝜎
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶,1 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 sin 2 (3.28)
IFEC IDCP

T5 T6

CDCP
VDCP

T7 T8

Figure 3.6 High Frequency Primary Converter

3.7.2 High Frequency Secondary Converter
Connected to the secondary coil on one side and the battery on the other
side is generally similar to the primary convertor but it acts as a rectifier as
connected to the battery so all its switches remain open during charging process.
The VHFSC is in the phase with secondary current IHFSC maximum amplitude of
reference component that is generally equal to,
4
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,1,𝑀 = 𝜋 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑆 (3.29)

= 165.5𝑉
During the discharging mode the process is reversed where HFSC acts as
inverter and HFPC acts as rectifier. Control operation of HFSC remains same as
HFPC. During the discharging operation the 𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶 is in phase with secondary
current𝐼𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶 with maximum amplitude of fundamental component.
The voltage is the fundamental frequency of the semi-square wave's
fundamental component is equal to the switching frequency with an amplitude,
4 𝜎
𝑉𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶,1 = 𝜋 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑆 sin 2 (3.30)
 43

IDCS IBC

T9 T10
iHFSC

CDCS

T11 T12

Figure 3.7 High Frequency Secondary Converter

3.7.3 Bi-directional Chopper
A chopper is generally used to chop the constant DC voltage applied at its
terminals to give variable DC voltage. Here we generally go for a bidirectional
chopper that generally supports the power flow in two directions. The bidirectional
chopper used is generally of Buck-boost type acting as a buck convertor during
charging operation when the inductor charges from the source and a boost convertor
during discharging when source voltage remains zero and inductor discharges
through battery. Controlling the current and voltage during charging and
discharging.
As mentioned earlier 𝑉 𝐵𝐶,𝑀 was found to be 120V.But there will always be
some voltage drop across the chopper switches so we intentionally place a higher
voltage across the capacitor CDCS than VBC,M so therefore 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 =130V.
The maximum discharging current is generally written as IB,n,D calculated
earlier as 50A. An inductor is generally placed between the battery and the switch
which serves two functions that is separating the VBC from its battery voltage as
well as controlling and reduction in the current oscillations in order to protect the
battery from malfunctions,
𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐷𝐵𝐶 =
𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝐵
=
𝑉𝐵𝐶
Ripple value of current ∆𝐼 B,
 44

1
∆𝐼𝐵 = 𝐿 𝑉𝐵 (1 − 𝐷𝐵𝐶 )𝑇𝐵𝐶

(3.31)
Where TBC is the time period of switching of chopper. Battery voltage VB
=1/VBC is written as. If ∆IB is generally high then VB is generally low. For the worst
case when ∆IB is high when we choose Li2TIO3 cells for which VB is generally low
so maximum value of current ripple will be obtained when the battery is charged to
minimum value that is 72V. WE have assumed that the frequency on both the HFPC
and HFSC is same so oscillations remains in limit of inductance.
1
𝑇𝐵𝐶 =
85000
Now we calculate here the `minimum value of inductance,
𝑉𝐵 ,𝐿𝑖2 TiO3,𝑚 (1 − Dm)T
𝐿𝐵𝐶 = (3.32)
0.05 𝐼𝐵,𝑁,𝐷

= 151 × 10−6
Now we are interested in calculating the size of secondary capacitor which
can be calculated if we know the current flowing through it. Now if we know the
power exchanged during charging and discharging through the chopper, we can
easily calculate the average value of the IBC.
𝑃𝐵𝐶,𝑁,𝐶
𝐼𝐵𝐶,𝑁,𝐶 = (3.33)
𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑆

= 22.0𝐴
just like in equation (3.26), for discharging,
𝑃𝐵𝐶,𝑁,𝑑
𝐼𝐵𝐶,𝑁,𝑑 = (3.34)
𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑆

= 41.2𝐴
DC elements of current is generally equal to the average value of the IBC that is,
π
𝐼𝐷𝐶𝑆,𝑁,𝑐 = 2 𝐼𝐵𝐶,𝑁,𝐶 (3.35)

= 34.5𝐴
Similarly, just like equation (3.28),
π
𝐼𝐷𝐶𝑆,𝑁,𝑑 = 2 𝐼𝐵𝐶,𝑁,𝑑 (3.36)

= 64.7𝐴
 45

The switching frequency is generally =85KHz so here the frequency will be

twice this frequency that will be 170KHz.Now we calculate the value of CDCS that
generally depends on the hypothesis that it is flowing by the alternating components
of current IDCS and minimum switching frequency of 𝜔HF,m=79KHz
And the voltage ripple across capacitor,
∆𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑆 = 0.1𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑆 (3.37)
1 π /2
𝐶𝐷𝐶𝑆 = 𝜔 2 ∫asin( 2/ π ) 𝐼𝐷𝐶𝑆,𝑁,𝑑 [ sin(θ) − 2 π ] dθ (3.38)
𝐻𝐹,𝑚 ∆𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑆

By solving the equation (3.29),

𝐼𝐷𝐶𝑆,𝑁,𝑑 4 2 2
= 2 [√1 − − 1 + 𝑎 sin ] (3.39)
𝜔𝐻𝐹,𝑚 ∆𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑆 𝜋2 𝜋 𝜋

𝐶𝐷𝐶𝑆 = 4.22𝜇𝐹

IBC IB
LBC

VDCS VBC VB

BATTERY

Figure 3.8 Bi-Directional Chopper

Table 3.3 Calculated Parameters for chopper

S.NO PARAMETERS CALCULATED VALUES
1. 𝐿𝐵𝐶 151 × 10−6
2. 𝐼𝐵𝐶,𝑁,𝐶 22.0𝐴
3. 𝐼𝐵𝐶,𝑁,𝑑 41.2𝐴
4. 𝐼𝐷𝐶𝑆,𝑁,𝑐 34.5𝐴
5. 𝐼𝐷𝐶𝑆,𝑁,𝑑 64.7A
6. 𝐶𝐷𝐶𝑆 4.22𝜇𝐹
 46

3.7.4 Front end Convertor

Grid is connected to inductor LG which serves two purpose that is ne is
separating or separating the grid voltage (VG) from the voltage modified by the
FEC. The increase inside the fundamental component of voltage must be used to
balance out the voltage drop on the LG Filter. VFEC1. During the charging mode the
energy is being stored so IG increases so IG leads the voltage. During discharging
energy is released so IG lags the voltage.
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 (3.40)
= 315.2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
And the minimum power factor cos (𝜃𝐺,𝑚 )=0.95
𝜃𝐺,𝑚 = cos −1 (0.95) = 18.195 (3.41)
(𝜔𝐺 𝐿𝐺 𝐼𝐺 )2 + 𝑉𝐺 2 + 2𝜔𝐺 𝐿𝐺 𝜔𝐺 𝑉𝐺 sin 𝜃𝐺 )
𝑉𝐹𝐸𝐶,1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝜔𝐺 𝐿𝐺 𝐼𝐺 )2 + 𝑉𝐺 2 + 2𝜔𝐺 𝐿𝐺 𝜔𝐺 𝑉𝐺 sin 𝜃𝐺 )1⁄2 (3.42)
𝑉𝐹𝐸𝐶,1𝑚𝑎𝑥 =395
Grid is connected to the rectifier containing four Mosfet switches which
convert AC to DC. This Dc is given to capacitor which produces constant voltage.
If we assume ideal switches for FEC 𝑉𝐹𝐸𝐶1,𝑚 𝑉𝐹𝐸𝐶1,𝑚 =𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 which is the voltage
across capacitor.𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 must be maintained at constant if even there are oscillations
induced by exchange of instantaneous power exchange between grid. 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 is
approx. kept at 450V.
Low frequency element of IFEC comprises mainly by regular contribution
that is equivalent to IDCP as well as sinusoidal contribution is twice grid side
frequency flowing through the capacitor and produces a ripple voltage.
𝜋
1 𝑉𝐺 𝐼𝐺 sin 𝜃𝐺 1 1 1
∆𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 =
2 2 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝐷𝐶𝑃 2𝜔𝐺
∫−2𝜋 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃(32) (3.43)
2

By integrating the equation, we get,

𝑃𝐺
= 4𝜔 (3.44)
𝐺 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝐷𝐶𝑃

Now from here the value of CDCP can be calculated from given parameters
Normal grid power PG,n , min frequency,
𝜔𝑚 = 298.45 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
 47

∆ 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 =25V,
𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 =450 and PG=3.3KW
Therefore 𝐶𝐷𝐶𝑃 can be calculated as,
𝑃𝐺
(3.45)
4𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 𝜔𝐺 ∆𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃

=0.25mF
Maximum current possible going towards the switches in filter, inductor, and
primary side DC capacitor is 𝐼𝐺,𝑚 .
Table 3.4 Calculated Parameters for front end converter
S.NO PARAMETERS CALCULATED VALUES

1. 𝜔 315.2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
2. 𝑉𝐹𝐸𝐶,1𝑚𝑎𝑥 395V
3. ∆ 𝑉𝐷𝐶𝑃 25V
4. PG 3.3KW

3.7.5 Grid and Battery Side Parameters

Due to the high energy density and longer cycle life we generally go for
lithium. ion batteries and referred in CEIO-21 standards. Nominal battery voltage
of car 𝑉𝐵,𝑁 =96V. In order to reach this voltage, we LiFePo4 battery with
specifications of Li cells.
Nominal Volt 𝑉𝑁 =3.2
Min volt 𝑉𝑚 =2.5
Max volt 𝑉𝑀 =3.65
No of cells =30
Min battery voltage =75V
Max battery voltage= 109V
Battery pack is made of 30 cells connected in series with overall nominal
capacity 100Ah.Nominal Voltage 𝑉𝐵,𝑁 is 96V. Working Voltage varies between
75V and 109 V. 50 A is the nominal intake and output current. Battery management
system (BMS) controls the current that is to be injected or removed from battery.
Functions of BMS are-
 48

i. managing battery charging and discharging

ii. Measures the battery's state of charge (SOC) and, in accordance with its
levels, controls the battery's functions, such as taking power from a vehicle
to provide domestic loads, utilising grid power to replenish the battery, and
ceasing operations.
Table 3.5 Parameters for grid and battery
Parameters Symbol Value
Grid Side Voltage 𝑉𝐺,𝑀 358V
Grid Side Current 𝐼𝐺,𝑀 33.32A
Battery Side voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐶,𝑀 120V
Battery Side Current 𝐼𝐵,𝑁,𝐶 37.4A
Battery side Current 𝐼𝐵,𝑁,𝐷 50A
Grid Side Voltage 𝑉𝐺,𝑀 358V

The precise SOC estimation is very important for proper functioning of

V2G and V2H.According to SAEJ2924 standard total system efficiency𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡 =0.85.
𝑁𝑡 that is alignment has an impact on the efficiency of the transmission among two
coils.𝑁𝑡 =0.92.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑁𝐶 > 𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0.924
𝑁𝐶 > 0.924
The efficiency of each power convertor is somewhat similar according to
the hypothesis that all convertors have same efficiency,
𝑁𝐹𝐸𝐶 = 𝑁𝐻𝐹𝑃𝐶 = 𝑁𝐻𝐹𝑆𝐶 = 𝑁𝐵𝐶 = 4√𝑁𝐶 (3.46)
= 0.98
With electric vehicles, the nominal maximum power absorbed by home
users alone cannot exceed 𝑃𝐺,𝑁 =3.3kVA. Therefore, the maximum power to be
injected into the battery during charging,
𝑃𝐵,𝑁,𝐶
𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (3.47)
𝑃𝐺,𝑁

From above we can get,

 49

𝑃𝐵,𝑁,𝐶 = 𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡 × 𝑃𝐺,𝑁 = 0.85 × 3.3 = 2.805𝑘𝑊

Two charging modes or states of battery
• Constant current state (Bulk charging)
• Constant Voltage state (float charging)
𝐼𝐵,𝑁,𝐶 is the current absorbed by the battery during its first step of charging that is
constant I stage
𝑃𝐵,𝑁,𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵,𝑚 × 𝐼𝐵,𝑁,𝐶 (3.48)
From the above equation we get 𝐼𝐵,𝑁,𝐶 as,
𝑃𝐵,𝑁,𝐶
𝐼𝐵,𝑁,𝐶 = = 37.33𝐴 (3.49)
𝑉𝐵,𝑚

Nominal battery charging current was 50A,

𝐼𝐵,𝑁,𝐶 < 50𝐴 (3.50)
So, if Charging time will be higher battery life will increase and thermal
stress will reduce.
During the constant current mode voltage of charging increase from to
𝑉𝐵,𝑀 and current remains constant.in constant voltage mode where current decreases
gradually so does the voltage but this does not affect size of BWV2H.
IFEC IDCP

T1 T3
iG LG

VG VFEC VDCP

T2 T4

Figure 3.9 Grid side circuit diagram

3.8 EXCHANGE OF POWER FROM GRID TO FRONT-END

CONVERTER
When the power injected is fluctuating between 0 and 0.2 𝑃𝐺,𝑁 the load can
behave either capacitive or inductive load with power factor of grid ranging
 50

between 0. 95<cosβG<1.When the injected power ranges from 0.𝑃𝐺,𝑁

<PG<0.5𝑃𝐺,𝑁 then cos𝜃𝐺 is at 1. When injected power Grid side circuit diagram
range is higher than 0.5𝑃𝐺,𝑁 user has to be injecting reactive power of
capacitive category which is behaving like an inductive load. Grid is connected to
the rectifier containing four mosfet switches which convert AC to DC. This Dc is
given to capacitor which produces constant voltage.
Table -3.6 Calculated values for grid and battery side
Parameter (PB,N) PG,N PFEC,N PHFPC,N PHFSC,N PBC,N PB,N
Charging Mode 3.30 3.23 3.17 2.92 2.86 2.80 KW
(KW) KW KW KW KW KW
Dis-Charging 4.63 4.72 4.82 5.24 5.35 5.45KW
Mode (KW) KW KW KW KW KW

3.9 MPPT
The main and secondary coils in Bi-directional WPT systems are separated by
air, which is a component of the loosely coupled transformer. The transmission
efficiency of the WPT system is somewhat low when comparing to the
conventional DC/DC converter with the tightly coupled transformer. Thus,
increasing the WPT system's effectiveness has always been a focus of research. The
fluctuations in the network load and the coupling coefficient between the coils have
a significant impact on the QWWPT system's efficiency. In many real-world
situations, the load and coupling will alter.
 51

Figure 3.10 MPPT implementation in WPT

Equivalent load resistance of the system is,
2
𝑅𝐿𝐸 = 𝜋2 𝑅𝐿 (3.51)

𝑅𝐿 is the ratio of charging voltage to a charging current.

𝑍𝑑 indicates the impedance reflected from the secondary side to the primary side,
and M represents the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary coils
in WPT bi-directional system. These quantities can be represented, respectively, as
(𝜔𝑀2 )
𝑍𝑑 = 𝑅 (3.52)
𝐿𝐸 +𝑅𝑆

𝜔𝑀𝐼𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝐿𝐸 = (𝑅 )2 𝑅𝐿𝐸 (3.53)
𝐿𝐸 +𝑅𝑠

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑝2 (𝑅𝑝 + 𝑍𝑑 ) (3.54)

Here we can see that efficiency will be dependent on M and 𝑅𝐿𝐸 and hence
an optimal 𝑅𝐿𝐸 is required to maximize the efficiency which will be same for V2H
and H2V.
From equation (38) and (39) we can get the efficiency as,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
ղ= 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝐿𝐸
=𝑅 2
(3.55)
𝑝 ((𝑅𝑠 +𝑅𝐿𝐸 )⁄𝜔𝑀) +𝑅𝑠 +𝑅𝐿𝐸

The optimal load resistance in a bidirectional can be derived as,

𝑅𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝑅𝑠 √1 + 𝑆𝑄2 (3.56)

 52

Quality factor is indicated by 𝑆𝑄 which can be derived by using formula,

𝑆𝑄 = 𝐾 √𝑄𝑝 𝑄𝑠 (3.57)
p is the primary circuit quality factor and is defined as,
𝜔𝐿𝑝
𝑄𝑝 = and similarly, we can find for secondary quality factor.
𝑅𝑝

The coupling coefficient has a relationship with the optimal load resistance
that corresponds to the highest efficiency. In other words, the system has various
maximum efficiency points that correspond to various coupling coefficients.
By taking efficiency from 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 and 𝑃𝑖𝑛 and associating it to 𝑅𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 we get,
2 +1
√1+𝑆𝑄
ղ= (3.58)
2 −1
√1+𝑆𝑄

It can be seen from above that the larger 𝑆𝑄 is, the higher is ղ. In general,
𝑆𝑄 is much larger than 1 to ensure the reasonable efficiency of WPT system.
Therefore, 𝑅𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 can be approximated as,

𝑅
𝑅𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝜔𝑀√ 𝑠⁄𝑅 (3.59)
𝑃

𝑅𝑠 , 𝑅𝑃 are equivalent series resistance on secondary and primary side respectively.

3.9.1 Control for MPPT

The load resistance and coupling coefficient have an impact on system
efficiency. As the load resistance deviates from the ideal load resistance, the
efficiency falls. Maintaining the equivalent load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝐸 at the same level as
the optimal load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 is important to keep the system operating at the
point of maximum efficiency. Nevertheless, RLE is determined by RL in a typical
Bidirectional WPT system. Hence, an impedance conversion circuit must be placed
between RLE and RL in order to dissociate 𝑅𝐿𝐸 from 𝑅𝐿 . A tracking control is also
required because RL and 𝑅𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 both have a tendency to shift. This tracking
control, also known as MEPT control, aims to maximize system efficiency.
The secondary resonant current Is can be written as when the equivalent
load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝐸 is equal to 𝑅𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 ,
 53

𝜔𝑀𝐼𝑝
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑅 (3.60)
𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 + 𝑅𝑆

But we know that 𝑅𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 >> 𝑅𝑆 , hence,

𝜔𝑀𝐼𝑝
𝐼𝑠 ≅ 𝑅 (3.61)
𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡

Now putting the value of 𝑅𝐿𝐸𝑜𝑝𝑡 into the above equation we get,
𝐼𝑠 = 𝛼𝐼𝑝 (3.62)
Where 𝛼,
𝑅
𝛼 = √ 𝑝⁄𝑅 (3.63)
𝑠

In bidirectional WPT the secondary resonant current 𝑐 is twice the

magnitude of the main resonant current 𝐼𝑝 and is independent of the coupling
coefficient when the system is operating at its maximum efficiency point, as can be
seen from above equation of 𝐼𝑝 . The reverse happens when the power is transferred
in reverse direction.
Because 𝑅𝑃 and 𝑅𝑠 are constant and quantifiable for a given system and is
also a fixed value. In instance, may be calculated immediately without measuring
𝑅𝑃 and 𝑅𝑠 when the primary coil and secondary coil are the same. Thus, the
following can be deduced as an MEPT control method: The primary side uses
wireless communication to transmit the value of 𝛼𝐼𝑝 to the secondary side. And
using the impedance conversion circuit, the secondary side modifies the equivalent
load resistance 𝑅𝐿𝐸 to equalise 𝑅𝐿𝐸 and 𝐼𝑝 . When the load resistance or coupling
coefficient changes, this approach can achieve MEPT. This MEPT control system
can actually be applied to both low-power (such as portable electronic gadgets) and
high-power (such as electric vehicles) applications.

3.9.2 Tracking error

When 𝐼𝑠 = 𝛼𝐼𝑝 , the equivalent load resistance can be expressed as
𝐼 𝑅
𝑅𝐿𝐸 = 𝜔𝑀 𝐼𝑠 − 𝑅𝑆 = 𝜔𝑀√𝑅 𝑆 − 𝑅𝑆 (3.64)
𝑆 𝑃
 54

Now we get efficiency value in case of error which will be reflected same
in bidirectional way i.e., V2H and H2V,
𝑆𝑄 −1
η𝑒𝑟𝑟 = (3.65)
𝑆𝑄 +1

Therefore, tracking error can be obtained as

𝛿𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = η𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 − η𝑒𝑟𝑟 (3.66)

Figure 3.11 𝜹𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 varying with 𝑺𝑸

3.9.3 Tracking error estimation

The values of RP and RS will change under various factors during operation
for example the load change during the change of power transfer direction.
𝑅𝑃
Hence, 𝜌 = being a parameter which is assumed to be changed due to change
𝑅𝑆

of load is β %
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑜 (1 + 𝛽) (3.67)
Therefore, pre-set value of α can be obtained by
𝑃 𝑅
𝛼𝑜 = √(1+𝛽)𝑅 (3.68)
𝑆

In case of deviation when, 𝐼𝑆 = 𝛼𝐼𝑝 the equivalent load resistance can be expressed
𝑅
𝑅𝐸𝑞 = 𝜔𝑀√(1 + 𝛽) 𝑅 𝑆 − 𝑅𝑆 (3.69)
𝑃

we get efficiency value in case of error

𝑆𝑄 √1+𝛽−1
η𝑒𝑟𝑟 = (3.70)
𝑆𝑄 √1+𝛽+1+𝛽

Therefore, tracking error can be obtained as

 55

2 −1
√1+𝑆𝑄 𝑆𝑄 √1+𝛽−1
𝛿𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = − (3.71)
2 +1 𝑆𝑄 √1+𝛽+1+𝛽
√1+𝑆𝑄

Therefore, expressions for tracking error are obtained in both ideal

condition and working condition for bidirectional WPT.

CHAPTER - 4
RESULT & DISCUSSION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the experimental results performed on both oh
MATLAB software as well as hardware. It also gives description of hardware
components used, rating of individual components and bi directional power flow.
The cost and budget for the project has also been analyzed at the end of this
chapter.

4.2 MATLAB SIMULATION RESULTS AND TESTING

Here in this section, we have discussed above the waveforms obtained by
simulation for the given values and parameters entered.
4.2.1 Forward direction flow
In the first section we deal with the power flow from home to vehicle i.e.,
H2V where AC power is converted to DC by front-end converter. This DC power
is given to HFPC which is controlled by phase shift of 90º so that it acts as inverter
and due to diagonal switching, ON and OFF of switched acts to convert DC to AC
that is given to primary coil through compensation network. On secondary side, we
apply a phase shift of 0º at HFSC so that it acts as rectifier and convert AC to DC
and is given to EV battery
 56

(a) (b)
Figure 4.1 (a) and 4.1 (b) depicts the primary voltage and primary current of
the circuit respectively.
The above graph (a) and (b) depicts the voltage and current on primary coil
received from compensation network which was passed to it by HFPC after
converting the power from DC to AC. The peak voltage at primary side is reaching
up-to approximately 3.2kV and the primary current reaches a peak value of
approximately 44A. This current and voltage is transferred towards secondary side
through mutual induction.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.2 (a) and (b) depicts the secondary side voltage and current
It can be visualized from graphs of primary that they are bigger in size as
compared to graphs on secondary side as a source is located on primary side. The
load is on the secondary side and there is a little loss in power transfer from electric
(primary side) to magnetic (mutual induction) and again to electric (secondary side)
therefore, the peak voltage and current is reducing a little as seen in the graph of
secondary current and voltage. The peak voltage and peak current on secondary
 57

side is approximately 2.9kV and 41A. this indicates the transfer of power from
primary side is approximately equal to the power transferred on secondary side.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.3 (a) and (b) represents the load current and voltage which can be
used to derive the power demand.
The graph rises for specific values then operate in constant region.
If we multiply the peak value attained in two graphs,
𝑉𝐿 = 325.8𝑉, 𝐼𝐿 = 10.86𝐴
𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉𝐿 × 𝐼𝐿 = 325.8 × 10.86 = 3.5𝐾𝑊
We obtained the approximate required power demand by customer or load.
4.2.2 Reverse direction flow
In this mode the secondary side will act as main side as secondary side will
transfer the power to primary side which will supply the power to home. Here the
peak value of secondary side will be passed on to primary side by mutual induction.
 58

(a) (b)
Figure 4.4 (a) and (b) represents the primary side voltage and current
respectively.
The peak value during vehicle to home is recorded as 2.9kV and 41A,
voltage and current respectively. This current and power is passed on to primary
side from secondary side through coupling and then will be supplied to home from
vehicle when vehicle is in rest phase.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.5 (a) and (b) represents the secondary side voltage and current
respectively
The voltage and current which is transferred to primary side from secondary
side is recorded as 3.2kV and 44A which is to be supplied to the home via HFPC.
 59

(a) (b)
Figure 4.6 (a) and (b) represents the load current and voltage respectively,
Similar to, Home to vehicle, we have simulated the graphs obtained for

S.NO PARAMETERS FOWARD POWER REVERSE

FLOW POWER FLOW
1. Output Voltage 325.8V 343.3V
2. Input Power 3.6KW 4.0KW
3. Output Power 3.4KW 3.8KW
4. Output Current 10.86A 11.44A
5. Efficiency 93.77% 93.77%
vehicle to home i.e., V2H. By seeing these graphs and comparing them with the
graphs obtained in home to vehicle we conclude that in both the cases the graphs
obtained are similar. Just the roles of converter are reversed. As of now converters
of both the sides acts as inverters because a phase shift of 0º is applied to converters
connected to home, so it acts as rectifier.
Similarly, efficiency calculated for both the cases of charging and
discharging to ղ remains equal.
Table 4.1 Observation from simulation

Figure 4.7 Represents the MPPT achieved at K=0.12

The MPPT result is achieved by using the equation (41) in which the
inductance is taken as mentioned in equation 10, and the 𝑅𝑠 and 𝑅𝑝 as 0.9 ohm.
 60

The maximum power for K=0.12 according to equation (17) is achieved at

efficiency greater than 80%.

4.3 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

4.3.1 Hardware image
The Bi-directional wireless power transfer system has been designed for 3.3kW and
operating at a frequency of 85kHz.

Figure 4.8 Hardware setup for testing

4.3.2 Components used
1. Driver Circuit
2. Protection Circuit
3. Leg High Frequency Inverter
4. Current & Voltage Clamp Sensor
5. Dc Link Capacitor
6. Power Regulator
7. Shell Type Transformer
8. Rectifier Circuit
 61

9. Snubber Circuit
10. Battery (250V)
11. Resistive Load Bank
12. Mosfet
13. Centre Tap Transformer

4.3.3 Specifications of components

DRIVER CIRCUIT - A switching circuitry made consisting of two switching
elements with connection in series as well as turned on as well as off in
complementary fashion makes out a driver circuit in an inverter. A first DC power
source in connection with the parallel to the shifting circuit.
PROTECTION CIRCUIT - A power inverter's overloading safeguard uses a
controller circuit to turn off the power inverter if an overloaded condition arises and
an initial circuit that tracks current flowing through the power inverter to the
electrical load.
CURRENT & VOLTAGE CLAMP SENSOR - Current and Voltage Sensors (AC
and DC) Current and voltage sensors, used for voltage and current monitoring,
logging, or proof-of-operation applications,
DC LINK CAPACITOR - The DC-Link capacitor is the element that sinks or
sources the respective currents.
SHELL TRANSFORMER - A kind of transformer with the primary as well as the
secondary windings mounted on the middle limb plus a magnetic circuit made up
of one core limb and two peripheral limbs.
RECTIFIER - A rectifier is an electronic device that converts an alternating current
into a direct current by using one or more P-N junction diodes.
SNUBBER CIRCUIT - A snubber is a circuit that is used in semiconductor devices
for protection and performance enhancements.
RESISTIVE LOAD BANK - The most popular kind of load bank, a DC resistance
load bank, offers equal loading to both generators as well as prime movers. In other
 62

words, the generator applies a comparable quantity of loading onto the prime mover
for every kilowatt (or horsepower) of load placed on it via the load banks.
MOSFET - The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET,
MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a semiconductor device based on field-effect transistor
(FET) and is mostly in commonly fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon.
It consists of an insulated gate, the voltage of which is the prime parameter that
determining conductivity of devices while in operation.
CENTRE TAP TRANSFORMER - For signalling reasons, a DC route can be
created across an AC paired amplifier using centre-tapped transformers.

Figure 4.9 Inverter schematic diagram

• Above figures show a 2-leg inverter module in practicality as well as in block
diagram format. It consists of 2 transformers with 4 regulators each to control
the IGBT gate driver circuit and protection circuit. The protection circuit will
show overcurrent or overvoltage condition via an LED if it crosses threshold
value which is 12-15 A and V. The purpose of the gate driver circuit is to
amplify the PWM signals of which is supplied by FPGA module. The
magnitude of PWM signals is around 3-5 A which the gate driver circuit will
increase to 12-15A. There are 4 MOSFET switches in the high frequency
inverter (HFI) module, which has a heat sink to dissipate any heat generated
by switching action. There are two clamp sensors at either ends of the inverter
to sense output current and voltage to provide to the protection circuit. There
 63

is one rectifier circuit which converts incoming AC to pulsating DC and

forwards it to the DC-link capacitor to obtain pure DC to be supplied to the
HFI. Finally, the output terminals of the HFI are connected to a 3.0 kW load
bank to test the working of the inverter.

Table 4.2 Parameters for inverter

ELEMENT VALUE

Centre Tap Transformer 18A

Power regulator 18V

Snubber circuit 2000 V DC

Gate driver PWM signal 15 A

Rectifier 1kV

DC-link capacitor 450 V

MOSFET 1.2kV

Current Sensor 12 A

Parallel DC link capacitor 450V

No of turns 18

Coil Dimension 350mm*350mm*30mm

Dimension of wire 5 sq mm

Spacing between coils 10cm

Load capacity 1200 W

Input voltage, Input current 325V, 10.15A

 64

Output voltage, Output current 292.5V,11.2A

4.4 HARDWARE RESULTS

Figure 4.10 Grid to Battery

In the figure 4.10, the power flow is directed from grid to vehicle. Grid side is
denoted by putting a load of 1200W(primary) which is glowing in the figure 4.10
whereas the load which is not glowing denotes vehicle side.
The power is supplied from auto-transformer taken approximately at 160V and this
AC supply is converted to DC by 2-leg inverter which is using four drivers board
to increase the frequency from 50Hz to 85kHz. This power is passed on to the
transmitter which using mutual induction between the receiver and transmitter at a
distance of 10cm will transmit energy to the load on secondary side which is of
1200W, same as primary side.
The glowing bulb shows the power flow direction which we wanted to achieve.
 65

Figure 4.11 Battery to Grid

In the figure 4.11, the power flow is directed from battery to grid. Battery side is
denoted by putting a load of 1200W(secondary) which is glowing in the figure 4.11
whereas the load which is not glowing denotes vehicle side.
The power is supplied from auto-transformer taken approximately at 160V and this
AC supply is converted to DC by 2-leg inverter which is using four drivers board
to increase the frequency from 50Hz to 85kHz. This power is passed on to the
transmitter which using mutual induction between the receiver and transmitter at a
distance of 10cm will transmit energy to the load on secondary side which is of
1200W, same as primary side.
The glowing bulb shows the power flow direction which we wanted to achieve.
 66

4.4.1 FPGA Pulse

G1 G2 G3 G4

Figure 4.12 Pulses for switches

G1,G2,G3&G4 indicates the four switches on the inverter leg. The
information given relates to the characteristics of a hardware gate signal generated
using a Spartan 6 FPGA embedded kit and programmed using Xilinx software
development tool. The gate signal has a duration of 11.76 microseconds and an
amplitude of 5 volts. There are four signals with a frequency of 85 kilohertz, and a
dead time between them ranges from 0.22 to 0.6 microseconds. It is noteworthy
that G1 and G2 are inversely proportional, while G3 and G4 are also inversely
proportional. This implies that as one increases, the other decreases. The purpose
of gating is to control the on/off state of a signal or to select a particular part of a
waveform. The hardware gate signal is typically used in signal processing
applications, such as audio and video signal processing, as well as in control
systems, such as motor control and robotics. The Spartan 6 FPGA embedded kit
provides a flexible and versatile platform for generating complex gate signals with
high precision and accuracy.The FPGA is responsible for generating 5 PWM
signals which to covert 50 Hz grid frequency to 85 kHz switching frequency. The
pulse generation is coded in the FPGA module using Spartan 6 Xylink in VLSI
platform
 67

The inverter was tested for 3 cases which are

i) No load
ii) 1.5 kW
4.4.2 No load

(a) (b)
Figure 4.13 (a) represents the input graph which is at 50Hz (in blue and brown)
and (b) represents the zoomed output graph in red and green which is at
85kHz.
C1 and C2 represents the input waveform for Voltage and current whereas
C3 and C4 represents output waveform for voltage and current
• C1 represents AC current (Blue)
• C2 is DC-link capacitor current (Brown)
• C3 Inverter output voltage (Red)
• C4 Inverter output AC current (Green)
This is the condition when there is no load connected to the output side so
the waveform remains the same for input and output.
Figure 4.13 graph is generally obtained at a frequency of 50Hz which is the
input for the HFPI received from the grid side.
Figure graph 2 is the output graph obtained at 85kHz frequency with the
help of drivers board and FPGA. Open circuit voltage remains same for both
conditions and leakage current is minimum.
 68

4.4.3 For 1.5 kW load

(a) (b)
Figure 4.14 (a) represents the input graph which is at 50 Hz (in blue and
brown) and (b) represents the zoomed output graph in red and green which
is at 85 kHz.
C1 and C2 represents the input waveform for Voltage and current whereas
C3 and C4 represents output waveform for voltage and current
• C1 represents AC current (Blue)
• C2 is DC-link capacitor current (Brown)
• C3 Inverter output voltage (Red)
• C4 Inverter output AC current (Green)
This is the condition when there is maximum load connected to the
output side so the waveform remains the same for input and output.
Figure graph is generally obtained at a frequency of 50Hz which is the input
for the HFPI received from the grid side.
Figure graph 2 is the output graph obtained at 85kHz frequency with the
help of
drivers board and FPGA.
 69

4.5 BI-DIRECTIONAL HARDWARE GRAPHS

4.5.1 From grid to battery

Figure 4.15 From grid to battery

C1 represents output voltage of inverter supply from the grid after
crossing through the high frequency inverter is an ac square waveform which is
square because of switching on and off the mosfet switches of inverter.C2
represents the inverter output current from the primary side inverter. C3 represents
the receiver output voltage which is obtained after mutual induction with primary
side coil. Receiver is connected with capacitor. C4 represents the receiver output
current obtained at the secondary side. Lamp load on secondary side glows on.
Inverter 1 is fed through autotransformer. Therefore, input voltage to inverter 1 is
160 V and current is 2A.
Similarly output voltage of inverter is 195V and current is 6A.
Whereas output voltage of receiver pad is 187V and current is 4.6A.
187×4.6
Therefore is ƞ=195× 195×6 =73%
 70

4.5.2 From battery to grid

Figure 4.16 From battery to grid

Here the flow of supply is reversed and acts in bi directional manner.
C1 represents output voltage of inverter 2 which now acts as primary as battery is
the source now as same graphs are obtained as before. C2 represents the output
current measured at the output of inverter 2. C3 represents the output voltage of
receiver coil on the other side which acted as transmitter before. C4 represents the
output current at the receiver side. Inverter 2 is fed through autotransformer.
Therefore, input voltage to inverter 2 is 160 V and current is 2A.
Similarly output voltage of inverter is 195V and current is 6A.
Whereas output voltage of receiver pad is 187V and current is 4.6A.
187×4.6
Therefore is ƞ=195× 195×6 =73%
 71

4.6 BUDGET & COST COMPARISON

Table 4.3 Budget and cost comparison
Unit
No. Item / Particulars No. of Units Price Total

1200V/ 40A/200kHz
1 Peak SIC MOSFET 8 5000 47200

2 Heat sink 1 2100 2478

3 Cooling fan 2 1000 2360

4 HCPL316J Driver 8 4000 37760

680mfd/450v dc
5 capacitor 2 2400 5664

+15/-
15/0.5A,+5v/0.5A
6 Isolated Power supply 1 1700 2006

230v/18-018v/0-9v
7 /1A transformer 1 700 826

8 Protection circuit
8 Tested board 1 2400 2832

Temperature sensor
9 with over Protection 1 1400 1652

Isolated SMPS 15v

10 /3A 1 3000 3540

11 Current Sensor 6 2500 17700

Voltage Sensor with

signal conditioner
12 board 1 1200 1416

Single phase bridge

13 rectifier 60A 2 1100 2596
 72

14 4 Snubber capacitor 5 190 1121

4MM
Thickness600*600m
15 m Ilem sheet 1 1100 1298

16 4mm Agerlic Sheet 1 660 779

17 Bs2 Connector 18 20 425

18 ST12 Connector 24 20 567

19 IR Switch 1 50 59

20 Reset Switch 1 30 36

21 Power card 1 120 142

22 Charging Pads 5 3500 20650

23 IOT Component 1 9752 11893

1,65,000
 73

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
This project outlines a thorough, stepwise designing process for BWV2H,
providing a useful tool for the creation that can be quickly applied to greater power
WPT systems. The basic limitations are established with regard to the grid-side
elements, the efficiency, as well as the operational frequency of wireless power transfer,
beginning first from Italian standard scientific ruling for the connectivity of active
loading to the LV utility as well as the SAE J2954 specification for wireless power
transfer chargers. The power restrictions in each stage of the BWV2H are then
determined, along with the grid-side and battery-side requirements. After comparing
the both charging and discharging modes, the maximising permitted currents as well as
voltages are determined for each converter to determine the correct values to take into
account for the designing. Finally, reactive components for the WPT are sized based on
the coupled inductor between the two coils needed to transfer the active power specified
in earlier steps. This includes the capacitance of the compensation networks. The
MATLAB simulation for the 3.3kW bi-directional wireless power transfer system
presented in this paper demonstrated that this system is a viable option for large-scale
applications. The system was easy to set up and able to deliver the desired power
efficiently with low current ripple. The results demonstrate that this system can
effectively transfer energy wirelessly even over a large distance. Additionally, this
system can be integrated easily into other systems, providing a flexible and cost-
effective solution for a variety of applications. This makes it a promising option for
further research and development to continue exploring its potential.
We were successful in achieving in obtaining the bidirectional wireless power transfer
from home to vehicle and and vehicle to home and meet up the desired expectations
5.1 FUTURE SCOPE
Bidirectional static wireless power transfer technology for electric vehicles,
known as V2G (vehicle-to-grid) and G2V (grid-to-vehicle), is a promising
advancement in the field of electric vehicle charging. It involves the use of stationary
wireless charging pads that enable the transfer of power between electric vehicles and
the grid, without the need for physical cables or plugs. The future scope for bidirectional
static wireless power transfer is immense, with potential applications and benefits
including:
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Improved efficiency: Bidirectional static wireless power transfer can improve the
efficiency of electric vehicle charging by reducing energy loss through cable resistance
and by enabling real-time power management.
Convenience: The use of stationary wireless charging pads eliminates the need for
drivers to manually connect and disconnect cables, making it a more convenient and
user-friendly way to charge electric vehicles.
Increased range: With the use of bidirectional static wireless power transfer, electric
vehicle owners can potentially charge their vehicles more frequently, resulting in
increased driving range.
Cost savings: By utilizing V2G and G2V technology, electric vehicle owners can
potentially reduce their energy bills by selling excess energy back to the grid during
peak hours when prices are higher.
Environmental benefits: The use of electric vehicles with bidirectional static wireless
power transfer technology can help reduce the carbon footprint of the transportation
sector by reducing reliance on fossil fuels and by increasing the use of renewable energy
sources.
Infrastructure development: The adoption of bidirectional static wireless power transfer
technology will require the development of supporting infrastructure, including
charging pads and grid infrastructure. This presents opportunities for new businesses
and jobs in the renewable energy sector.
Increased adoption of electric vehicles: The availability of bidirectional static wireless
power transfer technology can potentially increase the adoption of electric vehicles by
making charging more convenient and accessible.
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