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BASIC ELECTRICAL AND
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
S. Salivahanan is the Principal of SSN College of Engineering, Chennai. He obtained
his B.E. degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from PSG College of
Technology, Coimbatore, M.E. degree in Communication Systems from NIT, Trichy
and Ph.D. in the area of Microwave Integrated Circuits from Madurai Kamaraj
University. He has four decades of teaching, research, administration and industrial
experience both in India and abroad. He has taught at NIT, Trichy, A.C. College of
Engineering and Technology, Karaikudi, RV College of Engineering, Bangalore, and
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi. He has industrial experience as Sci-
entist/Engineer at Space Applications Centre, ISRO, Ahmedabad, Telecommunication
Engineer at State Organization of Electricity, Iraq and Electronics Engineer at Electric Dar Establishment,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
He is the author of 40 popular books which include all-time bestsellers such as Basic Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Electronic Devices and Circuits, Linear Integrated Circuits, and Digital Signal
Processing, all published by McGraw Hill Education. He has also authored the books on Digital Circuits
and Design, Electromagnetic Field Theory, Circuit Theory, Network Analysis and Synthesis and Control
Systems Engineering. He has published several papers at national and international levels.
Professor Salivahanan is the recipient of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan National Award for Best Engineering
College Principal for 2011 from ISTE, and IEEE Outstanding Branch Counsellor and Advisor Award in
the Asia-Pacific region for 1996–97. He was the Chairman of IEEE Madras Section for two years 2008 and
2009 and Syndicate Member of Anna University.
He is a Senior Member of IEEE, Fellow of IETE, Fellow of Institution of Engineers (India), Life Mem-
ber of ISTE and Life Member of Society for EMC Engineers. He is also a member of IEEE societies in
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Communications, Signal Processing, and Aerospace and Electronics.
R. Rengaraj is Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering, SSN College of Engineering, Chennai. He obtained his B.E. degree in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Tirunelveli, M.E. degree in Power Systems Engineering and Ph.D. in the area of Com-
bined Heat and Power, both from Anna University, Chennai. He has authored a book
on Control Systems Engineering. He has more than 13 years of teaching and research
experience. He has published several research publications in refereed international
journals and in the proceedings of international conferences. He has received TATA
Rao Gold Medal from the Institution of Engineers (India) in 2011. He is a Life Member
of ISTE and a Member of IEEE.
G.R. Venkatakrishnan is Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering, SSN College of Engineering, Chennai. He obtained his B.E.
degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering and M.E. degree in Control Systems
from Anna University, Chennai. He has authored a book on Control Systems Engineer-
ing and has published many research papers in national and international journals and
conferences. He is a Life Member of ISTE and a Member of IEEE.
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING
S. Salivahanan
Principal
SSN College of Engineering
Chennai
R. Rengaraj
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Chennai
G.R. Venkatakrishnan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Chennai
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering
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CONTENTS
Preface ix
1. AC Circuits and Power Systems 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Three-Phase Supply 1
1.3 Basics of a Three-Phase Power System 3
1.4 Generation of Three-Phase Voltages 5
1.5 Analysis of the Three-Phase System 6
1.6 Steps to Draw Phasor Diagram 17
1.7 Star–Delta Conversion 17
1.8 Power Measurment in a Three-Phase System 31
1.9 Introduction to Electric Power System 44
1.10 Introduction to Power System Protection 48
1.11 Circuit Breaker 49
1.12 Fuse 52
1.13 Protective Relays 55
1.14 Introduction to Tariff 57
1.15 Power Factor 63
1.16 Power Factor Improvement or Correction 65
Two-Mark Questions and Answers 68
Review Questions 71
2. Transformers 72
2.1 Introduction 72
2.2 Single-Phase Transformer 72
2.3 EMF Equation of the Transformer 78
2.4 Reasons for not Using DC Supply as a Source 79
2.5 Types of Transformers 79
2.6 Ideal Transformer 80
2.7 Accounting for Finite Permeability and Core Loss 80
2.8 Transformer on Load 82
vi Contents
2.9 Effect of Winding Resistances 89

2.10 Effect of Leakage Reactance 91
2.11 Winding Impedance 92
2.12 Transformer on Load with Winding Impedances 94
2.13 Circuit Model or Equivalent Circuit of Transformer 96
2.14 Per Unit System 100
2.15 Voltage Regulation 100
2.16 Name Plate Rating of a Transformer 104
2.17 Losses in a Transformer 107
2.18 Efficiency of the Transformer 108
2.19 All-Day Efficiency 112
2.20 Determination of Parameters of Circuit Model of Transformer 117
2.21 Auto-Transformer 125
2.22 Three-Phase Transformer 130
2.23 Voltage and Current Relationship for Different Connections 135
Two Mark Questions and Answers 137
Review Questions 141
3. DC Machines 145
3.1 Introduction 145
3.2 DC Generator 145
3.3 Armature Reaction 154
3.4 Commutation 156
3.5 Types of DC Generators 157
3.6 Electrical Equivalent Circuits, Current and Voltage Equations of DC Generators 158
3.7 Characteristics of DC Generators 164
3.8 Applications of DC Generators 171
3.9 DC Motor 171
3.10 Types of DC Motor 176
3.11 Characteristics of DC Motors 183
3.12 Speed Control of DC Motors 191
3.13 Losses in DC Machines 194
3.14 Power-Flow Diagram 196
3.15 Starting DC Motors 197
3.16 Applications of DC Motors 199
3.17 Universal Motor 200
Contents vii
4. AC Machines 207
4.2 Three-Phase Induction Motor 207
4.3 Slip of an Induction Motor 213
4.4 Effect of Slip on Rotor Parameters 214
4.5 Three-Phase Induction Motor vs Transformer 218
4.6 Torque Equation 221
4.7 Effect of Change in Rotor Resistance on Torque 227
4.8 Effect of Change in Rotor Reactance on Torque 227
4.9 Losses in Induction Motors 236
4.10 Power Flow in Induction Motor 236
4.11 Relation Between P2, Pc and Pm 237
4.12 Efficiency of an Induction Motor 240
4.13 Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor 240
4.14 Phasor Diagram of an Induction Motor 252
4.15 Starters 252
4.16 Speed Control of a Three-Phase Induction Motor 257
4.17 Single-Phase Induction Motor 260
4.18 Types of Single-Phase Induction Motors 262
4.19 Equivalent Circuit of a Single-Phase Induction Motor 266
4.20 Alternator or a Three-Phase AC Generator 268
4.21 EMF Equation of an Alternator 273
4.22 Parameters of Armature Winding 275
4.23 Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance 276
4.24 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator 277
4.25 Voltage Equation of the Alternator 277
4.26 Phasor Diagram of the Loaded Alternator 277
4.27 Voltage Regulation of an Alternator 278
4.28 Synchronous Motor 284
4.29 Methods of Starting Synchronous Motors 286
4.30 Behaviour of a Synchronous Motor on Loading 288
4.31 Phasor Diagram 290
4.32 V and Inverted-V Curves 291
4.33 Expression for Back EMF or Induced EMF Per Phase in a Synchronous Motor 292
4.34 Power Flow in Synchronous Motor 293
4.35 Power Developed by a Synchronous Motor 294
4.36 Comparison Between Synchronous and Induction Motors 295
4.37 Stepper Motor 302
4.38 Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) Motor 307
Two Marks Questions and Answers 311
viii Contents
5. Measurement and Instrumentation 321

5.2 Essential Requirements of Measuring Instruments 321
5.3 Elements of the Measuring Instruments 321
5.4 Types of Electrical and Electronic Measuring Instruments 324
5.5 Principles of Electrical Indicating Instruments 325
5.6 Types of Indicating Instruments 328
5.7 Moving-iron Instruments 328
5.8 Moving-coil Instruments 334
5.9 Electro Dynamometer Type 337
5.10 Electrothermic Instruments 342
5.11 Electrostatic Type Instrument 346
5.12 Induction Type Instruments 349
5.13 Rectifier Type Instruments 352
5.14 Ammeter 355
5.15 DC Voltmeter 357
5.16 Digital Voltmeter (DVM) 358
5.17 Ohmmeter 360
5.18 Digital Multimeter 363
5.19 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 364
5.20 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments 372
5.21 Errors in Measurement 378
5.22 Introduction to Transducer 380
5.23 Classification of Transducers 380
5.24 Resistive Transducer 382
5.25 Inductive Transducer 389
5.26 Capacitive Transducers 392
5.27 Thermoelectric Transducer 394
5.28 Piezoelectric Transducer 396
5.29 Photoelectric Transducer 397
5.30 Hall Effect Transducers 398
5.31 Mechanical Tranducers 400
PREFACE
Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering is designed specifically to cater to the needs of second
semester ECE students. The book has a perfect blend of focused content and complete coverage. Solved
university question papers, which are tagged with specific topics, will be extremely helpful to students from
the examination point of view. Simple, easy-to-understand and jargon-free text elucidates the fundamentals
of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering. Several solved examples, schematic diagrams and adequate
questions further helps students to understand and apply the concepts.
SALIENT FEATURES
Comprehensive coverage as per the latest Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering syllabus
Solutions of examination papers from 2010 to 2017 are present appropriately within the chapters
Solved university questions as solved examples incorporated appropriately within each chapter
Theory questions are tagged within each chapter
Rich exam-oriented pedagogy
Solved Numerical Examples within chapters: 96
Two-Mark Questions and Answers at the end of each chapter: 150
Unsolved Review Questions: 270
CHAPTER ORGANISATION
Chapter 1 deals with three phase power supply, three phase power measurement, transmission and
distribution of electrical energy, protection of power system, tariff and power factor improvement.
Chapter 2 is devoted to introduction of ideal transformer, circuit model of transformer and determina-
tion of parameters, efficiency and auto-transformers.
Chapter 3 describes the constructional features of various motors, methods of excitation and magneti-
sation characteristics, starting and speed control and universal motor.
Chapter 4 focuses on the principle of operation of three-phase induction motors, equivalent circuit,
single phase induction motors, types of starting and speed control methods, working principle of alterna-
tor, synchronous motors, stepper motors and brushless DC motors.
x Preface
Chapter 5 concentrates on the type of electrical and electronic instruments, principles of electrical
instruments, multimeters, oscilloscopes, transducers and their classifications and applications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors sincerely thank the management of SSN College of Engineering, Chennai for the constant
encouragement, and for providing necessary facilities for completing this project.
The authors are highly appreciative of the editorial and production team of McGraw Hill Education (India)
for their initiation and support to bring out this edition in a short span of time.
The authors would like to take this opportunity to thank the reviewers especially the colleagues V. Thiyaga-
rajan, U. Shajith Ali, Alagudheeraj S. Malathy and D. Umarani from EEE department, and M. Karthikeyan
from Velammal Engineering College, Chennai for their useful comments and suggestions.
The authors would also like to thank Mr. G. Muralikrishnan, Panimalar Engineering College, Chennai, for
his valuable feedback.
Finally, they thank their family members Mrs. Kalavathy Salivahanan, S. Santhosh Kanna & S. Subadesh
Kanna, Mrs. Rajalakshmi Rengaraj, R. Harivarshan and Master R. Devprasath, and Mr. S. Rajan Babu,
Mrs. Sumathi Babu, Mrs. G. R. Hemalakshmi Prakash & Mrs. R. Jeya Jeyaprakash for their patience and
constant inspiration during the preparation of this book.
Any constructive criticism, suggestions and corrections for further improvement of the book will be most
appreciated.
S. Salivahanan
R. Rengaraj
G. R. Venkatakrishnan
Publisher’s Note:
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments, all of which can be sent to
info.india@mheducation.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
CHAPTER 1
AC Circuits and
Power Systems
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical power is generated, transmitted, distributed in sinusoidal form for the commercial, industrial and
domestic applications. In general, two types of electrical power can be generated: single-phase power and
poly-phase power. The main disadvantage of single-phase power supply is that it can carry only a reasonable
amount of power but poly-phase system is normally used to generate, transmit and distribute bulk electric
power. This chapter deals with the three-phase system, which is a type of poly-phase system. The generation
of three-phase electric power, the relationship between voltage and current, and their power measurements
are also discussed.
Further, the transmission and distribution of electric power, the necessity of protecting the power system
and operation of various protective devices like circuit breaker, fuse and relay are explained. Tariff refers
to the price of electrical energy that the consumer is charged for consumption. Tariff plays a major role
in maintaining a healthy relation between the supplier and consumer. Hence, due consideration has to be
given in fixing the tariff and the consumers must be charged with different tariffs, based on their usage. The
different objectives and characteristics of tariff, factors affecting the tariff, and different types of tariff are
discussed in this chapter. In an AC power system, power factor plays a major role in analysing the system
performance. If the power factor is low, heavy current will flow and damage the system. The causes of low
power factor, its consequences and the methods to improve the power factor are described in this chapter.
1.2 THREE-PHASE SUPPLY

In an electrical power system, there are two types of systems, namely: single-phase and poly-phase systems.
A single-phase system consists of two wires, where the current flows through one wire and returns through
another wire, when it is energized by two terminals. Generally, in most of the households and small industries
where the required capacity of a motor is not greater than 5 horsepower, single-phase systems are used. But
nowadays, a three-phase system, which is a type of poly-phase system, is used to generate, transmit and
distribute electrical energy.
In a three-phase system, three conductors can carry three alternating electrical quantities at the same
frequency. The electrical quantities in these three conductors reach the same peak amplitude at different
instances, as shown in Figure 1.1.
2 Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering
120° 120° 120°
Voltage amplitude
0 Time
180° R Y B
Figure 1.1 Three-phase Power System of an Electrical Quantity
If any one of the alternating quantities is taken as a reference, the other two are delayed by one-third and
two-thirds of a cycle of the alternating quantity i.e., 120° apart. Therefore, three-phase power systems can
be viewed as the combination of three separate single-phase systems, with 120° phase difference.
1.2.1 Advantages of a Three-phase Power System

The advantages of a three-phase system over a single-phase system are:
1. The power-to-weight ratio of a three-phase system is high when compared to a single-phase system i.e.,
for the same electrical power, the size of energy source required in a three-phase system is less when
compared to a single-phase system.
2. For transmission of electrical power, the requirement of conductor material in a three-phase system is
less, when compared to a single-phase system.
3. Instantaneous power is always constant in a three-phase system, when compared to pulsating power in
a single-phase system.
4. A three-phase system will have better power factor and efficiency, when compared to a single-phase
system.
5. For a given size of the system, higher output power can be obtained in a three-phase system, when
compared to a single-phase system.
6. A three-phase system is efficient, reliable, economical and has better regulation when compared to a
single-phase system.
7. When a fault occurs in a single line, the other two lines can be used to transmit the power to the load.
8. Motors that operate on a three-phase supply do not require any starting devices like a capacitor to run it.
9. Torque produced in the motor using a three-phase supply is uniform, when compared to pulsating
torque produced by using a single-phase supply.
10. A three-phase system can be used to supply the electrical energy for a single-phase load.
11. A three-phase supply can be rectified into DC supply with very low ripple factor, when compared to a
single-phase supply.
12. Parallel operation is easy in a three-phase system, when compared to a single-phase system.
AC Circuits and Power Systems 3
1.3 BASICS OF A THREE-PHASE POWER SYSTEM

The colour codes of the wires used in a three-phase system vary from country to country. In India, Red (R),
Yellow (Y) and Blue (B) are the colour codes used in three-phase systems. The two different configura-
tions by which the three wires in a three-phase system are connected are: star (Y) connection and delta (D)
connection. The different types of three-phase power systems are: (i) three-phase, three-wire system and
(ii) three-phase, four-wire system. The fourth wire in a three-phase four-wire system is the neutral wire,
represented in black colour. It is known that the three-phase power system can be used as source and load.
As a source, a three-phase power system can be used as either three or four-wire star connection or
three-wire delta connection. Similarly, as a load, depending upon the application, the type of connection and
configuration of a three-phase power system varies. The different terms used in three-phase power systems
are described as follows:
● Phase: A branch of the circuit in a three-phase system is known as a phase.
● Line: The wire that connects the source and load is known as transmission line or line.
● Neutral: The fourth wire in the three-phase system, where all the phases in a star connection are
connected together is known as neutral.

● Phase voltage: The voltage measured between a line and neutral or the voltage across a particular
phase is called as phase voltage. It is represented as VRB = VRN - VBN or simply VR , VY , VB .

● Line voltage or line-to-line voltage: The voltage measured between any two lines in a three-
phase power system is known as line voltage. It is represented as VRY , VYB and VBR and is given by
VRY , = VR – VY , VYB , = VY – VB and VBR = VB – VR respectively.
● Line currents: The currents flowing through a particular line are called line currents, represented by
I R , IY and I B .
● Phase current: The current flowing through a single-phase or a branch of the system is called as
phase current. It is represented as I RY , IYB and I BR and is given by I RY = I R - IY , IYB = IY - I B and

I BR = I B - I R respectively.
● Load impedance: For a star-connected load, the impedance between the line and neutral is called
load or line impedance and for a delta-connected load, the impedance between two lines is called
load or phase impedance.
● Phase sequence: The time order or the sequence in which the electrical quantity in the three-phase
system reach their respective maximum values is known as phase sequence. If the phase sequence of
a particular system is RYB, then it indicates that R phase reaches the maximum value of electrical
quantity at first and then followed by Y phase and B phase.
● Balanced condition: The condition for having a balanced source or a balanced load is given below.
(i) Balanced source: A three-phase system is said to be a balanced source, if the phase voltage of each
phase has the same magnitude and frequency and the phase difference between the lines is 120°.
(ii) Balanced load: A three-phase system is said to be a balanced load if the impedance is same for all
the phases, either in star or delta connection.
● Unbalanced condition: If the load impedance differs in one or more phases, then the three-phase
system is said to be an unbalanced load. This unbalanced condition leads to changes in line and phase
currents.
● Three-phase source: If the three-phase system is used to generate a three-phase power supply, then
it is said to be a three-phase source.

● Three-phase load: If the three-phase system uses the three-phase supply to perform certain functions,
then it is said to be a three-phase load.

● Power factor: The cosine of the angle between phase voltage and the phase current is known as power
factor. It can be lagging, leading or unity, depending upon the type of load connected to the system.
If the phase current lags behind the phase voltage, then it is a lagging power factor load. If the phase
current leads the phase voltage, then it is a leading power factor load. Similarly, if the phase current
is in phase with the phase voltage, then it is a unity power factor load.
● Phasor diagram: The diagram that represents the line voltage, phase voltage, line current and phase
current of a three-phase source or a three-phase load is known as a phasor diagram. In a star-connected

three-phase system, phase voltage is taken as the reference; while, in a delta-connected three-phase
system, line voltage is taken as the reference.
The schematic diagrams of a three-phase star-connected power system with three wires and four wires
are shown in Figures 1.2 (a) and (b) respectively.
R
VRN
R
VRN
VBN
VBN VYN
B N
N
B VYN
Y
Y
(a)
R VRN
R
VRN
VBN VYN VBN
B
N
B VYN
Y Y
N N
(b)
Figure 1.2 Schematic Diagram of a Star-connected Three-phase System
The schematic diagram of a three-phase delta-connected power system is shown in Figure 1.3.
R
R
R
VBR VRY VRB
Y
VYB
B
B Y
VYB B
VYR
Y
Figure 1.3 Schematic Diagram of a Delta-connected Three-phase System

The relation between the phase voltages in star-connected balanced three-phase system is given by:
VRN = |Vm | –0o ¸
ÔÔ
VYN = |Vm | – - 120o ˝ (1.1)
o oÔ
VBN = |Vm | – + 120 or |Vm | – - 240 Ô˛
where, Vm is the maximum value of the voltage in volts
Similarly, the relation between the line voltages in a delta-connected balanced three-phase system is given by:
VRY = |V | – 0o ¸
o
ÔÔ
VYB = |V | – -120 ˝ (1.2)
o oÔ
VBR = |V | – + 120 or |V | – - 240 Ô˛
The vector diagrams of balanced star and delta-connected power systems using the above equations are
shown in Figures 1.4 (a) and (b) respectively.
VBN VBR
120° 120°
120° VRN 120° VRY
120° 120°
VYN VYB
(a) (b)
Figure 1.4 Vector Diagram of Balanced (a) Star (b) Delta-connected Systems
1.4 GENERATION OF THREE-PHASE VOLTAGES

The primary requirement in a three-phase system before analysing the balanced and unbalanced condition is
the generation of three-phase voltages. A three-phase AC generator or an alternator is used to generate the
three-phase voltages. The two main components of AC generator or an alternator are the field and armature, in
which either field or armature is stationary. Therefore, the alternator configurations by which the three-phase
voltage can be generated are: (i) stationary field with rotating armature and (ii) rotating field with stationary
armature. The instantaneous phase voltages of the three-phase system, when connected in star are given by:
VRN = Vm sin(w t ) ¸
o
Ô
VYN = Vm sin(w t - 120 ) ˝ (1.3)
o o Ô
VBN = Vm sin(w t - 240 ) = Vm sin(w t + 120 )˛
where, Vm is the maximum value of the voltage in volts.
Adding all the instantaneous voltages given in Eqn. (1.3), we get
VRN + VYN + VBN = Vm sin w t + Vm sin(w t - 120∞) + Vm sin(w t + 120∞)
= Vm [sin w t + sin w t cos 120∞ - cos w t sin 120∞ + sin w t cos 120∞ + cos w t sin 120°]
È Ê -1ˆ ˘
= Vm [sin w t + 2 sin w t cos 120∞] = Vm Ísin w t + 2 sin w t Á ˜ ˙ = 0
Î Ë 2 ¯˚
Therefore, VRN + VYN + VBN = 0 (1.4)

It is clear from Eqn. (1.4) that the phasor addition of all the phase voltages at any instant in a three-phase
balanced star-connected system is always zero. Similarly, if the instantaneous line voltages of the three-phase
system, when connected in delta connection, are added, we get VRY + VYB + VBR = 0 .
1.5 ANALYSIS OF THE THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

The different three-phase systems for which the relationship between phase and line voltages, phase and
line currents, power, and phasor diagrams are discussed as follows:
1. Three-phase balanced star-connected source
2. Three-phase balanced delta-connected source
3. Three-phase balanced star-connected load
4. Three-phase balanced delta-connected load
5. Three-phase unbalanced delta-connected load
6. Three-phase unbalanced four-wire star-connected load
7. Three-phase unbalanced three-wire star-connected load
1.5.1 Three-Phase Balanced Star-Connected Source [AU April/May, 2015]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced star- R IR

connected source with phase sequence RYB is shown in
Figure 1.5. IR
In a balanced system, all the magnitudes of phase voltages, VRN VRY
line voltages, phase currents and line currents are equal,
which can be represented as: VBR
|VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |Vph| ; |VRY | = |VYB| = |VBR| = |VL| (1.5) VYN
N
IY
| I R| = | IY | = | I B| = | I L| ; | I RY | = | IYB| = | I BR| = | I ph| (1.6) IB
VBN
B Y VYB
Relationship Among Line and Phase Quantities IB
Current Relationship
Figure 1.5 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase
Appling Kirchhoff’s current law at nodes R, Y and B Balanced Star-connected Source
shown in Figure 1.5, we get:
I RY = I R ; IYB = IY ; I BR = I B (1.7)
From Eqns. (1.6) and (1.7), we can conclude that, in a balanced star-connected three-phase source, phase
current is equal to the line current, as given by
I ph = I L (1.8)
Voltage Relationship
It is known that, VRY = VRN - VYN
Using the parallelogram law of addition and the vector diagram shown in Figure 1.6, we get:
|VRY | = |VRN |2 + |VYN |2 + 2 |VRN ||VYN | cos 60∞

Using Eqn. (1.5) in the above equation and solving, we get:
|VRY | = 3 |Vph| (1.9)

Similarly, we get:
|VYB| = 3 |Vph| and |VBR| = 3 |Vph| (1.10)

Therefore, using Eqns. (1.5), (1.9) and (1.10), we get the relation between the line and phase voltages, which is
|VL| = 3 |Vph| (1.11)

Hence, it can be concluded that in a star-connected balanced three-phase source, the line voltage is 3
1
times the phase voltage or that the phase voltage is times the line voltage. It is to be noted that the angle
3
between the phase voltage and the line voltage is 30°.
Vector Diagram
The vector diagram for a three-phase balanced star-connected VBN VBN –VYN VRY
source, by considering the phase voltage as reference, is shown
in Figure 1.6.
120°
Power Relationship 30°
The real power produced per phase in the system shown in Figure
–VRN 120° 120° VRN
1.5 is Pph = |Vph|| I ph| cos f .
Therefore, the total real power produced in the system is given
by
VYN –VBN
P = 3 |Vph|| I ph| cos f (1.12)
Using Eqns. (1.8) and (1.11), we get
|VL|
P=3 | I L| cos f = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f (W) (1.13) VYB
3
Similarly, the total reactive power, Q, and total apparent power, Figure 1.6 Vector Diagram for a
S, produced in the system are given by: Three-phase Balanced Star-
connected Source
Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f (VAR) (1.14)
S = 3 |VL|| I L| (VA) (1.15)
1.5.2 Three-Phase Balanced Delta-Connected Source [AU April/May, 2015]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced delta-connected source with phase sequence RYB is shown
in Figure 1.7.
R IR
VL3 IBR VL1

IRY VRY
VBR
IYB IY
Y
B
VYB
VL2
IB
Figure 1.7 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Source
Relationship Among Line and Phase Quantities

Current Relationship
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at the node R in Figure 1.7, we have
I R = I RY - I BR
Using the vector diagram shown in Figure 1.8, and applying the parallelogram law of addition, we get
| I R| = | I RY |2 + | I BR|2 + 2 | I RY || I RB| cos 60∞

Solving the above equation by using Eqn. (1.6), we get
| I R| = 3 | I ph| (1.16)
Similarly, we get:
| IY | = 3 | I ph| and | I B| = 3 | I ph| (1.17)

Therefore, using Eqns. (1.6), (1.16) and (1.17), we get the relation between the line and phase currents as
| I L| = 3 | I ph| (1.18)
Hence, it can be concluded that in a delta-connected balanced three-phase source, the line current is 3
1
times the phase current or that the phase current is times the line current. It is to be noted that the phase
3
angle between the phase current and the line current is 30°.
Voltage Relationship
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the loop consisting of VR and VRY in Figure 1.7, we have:
VRN = VRY ; VYN = VYB and VBN = VBR (1.19)
Using Eqns. (1.5) and (1.19), we can conclude that, in a balanced delta-connected three-phase source, phase
voltage is equal to the line voltage, as given in Eqn. (1.20).
Vph = VL (1.20)
Vector Diagram IB
The vector diagram for a balanced delta-connected source, by
considering the phase currents as reference vector, is shown in
Figure 1.8.
IBR –IYB
Power Relationship
The real power produced per phase in the system shown in Figure
1.6 is Pph = |Vph || I ph | cos f . 120°
–IRY 120° IRY
Therefore, the total real power produced in the system is given by
30°
P = 3 |Vph|| I ph| cos f (1.21) 120°
Using Eqns. (1.18) and (1.20), we get

| I L| IY IYB –IBR IR
P = 3 |VL| cos f = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f (W) (1.22)
3 Figure 1.8 Phasor Diagram for a
Similarly, the total reactive power, Q, and total apparent power, S, Balanced Delta-connected
produced in the system are given by: Source
Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f (VAR) (1.23)
S = 3 |VL|| I L| (VA) (1.24)
1.5.3 Three-Phase Balanced Star-Connected Load [AU April/May, 2015]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced star-connected load with phase sequence RYB is shown in
Figure 1.9.
IL1
R
IR
VRN ZR = Zph
VRY
VBR N VBN
IB
IL2 Z ph
Y ZY = ZB = Zph
IY VYN B
VYB
IL3
Figure 1.9 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Star-connected Load

Relationship Among Phase Current, Phase Voltage and Load Impedance

Let ZR, ZY and ZB be the load impedances in R, Y and B phases respectively. But in a balanced load condi-
tion, all the load impedances are equal to the load impedance per phase, Zph, represented as:
ZR = ZY = ZB = Zph (1.25)
The current, voltage and power relationship between the line and phase quantities, explained in
Section 1.4.1, is applicable to the balanced three-phase star-connected load, i.e.,
I ph = I L ; |VL| = 3 |Vph| ; P = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f ; Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f

and S = 3 |VL|| I L| (1.26)
The relation between phase current, phase voltage and load impedance per phase is given by:
Vph
I ph =
Z ph
Load Impedance
If the load is lagging, leading and unity power factor in nature, then the load impedance is given by
Zph = Rph + jXph, Zph = Rph – jXph and Zph = Rph respectively.
Power Factor
The power factor of the given three-phase star-connected balanced load is cos f.
Phasor Diagram
The phasor diagram for a three-phase balanced star-connected load with lagging and leading power factor
load is shown in Figures 1.10 (a) and (b) respectively.
VBR VBN –VYN

VBN VBN VRY VRY
–VYN IB
IB
f 120° 30°
f 120°
IR
f
30° VRN
–VRN 120° 120°
–VRN 120° f VRN
120° f
f IR
IY
IY
VYN –VBN
VYN –VBN
VYB VYB
(a) (b)
Figure 1.10 Phasor Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Star-connected Load with (a) Lagging and (b) Lead-
ing Power Factor
1.5.4 Three-Phase Balanced Delta-Connected Load

The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced delta-connected load with phase sequence RYB is shown
in Figure 1.11.
IR R
IBR
V
VL1 Zph L3
VRY
Zph
VBR
IRY
IY Zph
Y IB
B
IYB
VYB VL2
IB
Figure 1.11 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Load
Relationship Among Phase Current, Phase Voltage and Load Impedance

The current, voltage and power relationship between the line and phase quantities, explained in Section
1.4.2, is applicable to the balanced three-phase delta-connected load, i.e.,
Vph = VL ; | I L| = 3 | I ph| ; P = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f ; Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f

and S = 3 |VL|| I L| (1.27)
The relation between phase current, phase voltage and load impedance per phase is given by:
Vph
I ph =
Z ph
Load Impedance
If the load is lagging, leading or unity power factor in nature, then the load impedance is given by
Zph = Rph + jXph; Zph = Rph – jXph or Zph = Rph respectively.
Power Factor
The power factor of the given three-phase delta-connected balanced load is cos f.
Phasor Diagram
The phasor diagram for a three-phase balanced delta-connected load with lagging and leading power factor
load is shown in Figures 1.12 (a) and (b) respectively.
VBR IB
IB
VBR
IBR
–IYB
IBR
IYB
–IRY f f
120° IRY
120° 120°
120° VRY
f
f –IRY 30° VRY
IY f 120° 30° IRY 120°
f
IR
IYB
–IBR
–IBR IYB
IY
IR
VYB
VYB
(a) (b)
Figure 1.12 Phasor Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Load with (a) Lagging and (b) Lead-
ing Power Factor
1.5.5 Three-Phase Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load [AU May/June, 2014]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase unbalanced delta-connected load with phase sequence RYB is shown
in Figure 1.13.
IR R
IBR
VBR
VRY |ZBR|–fBR
VRY
|ZRY|–fRY
VBR
IRY |ZYB|–fYB
Y IYB
B
IY
VYB VYB
IB
Figure 1.13 Three-phase Unbalanced Delta-connected Load
The load impedance across R-Y, Y-B and B-R terminals is given by |ZRY|–fRY, |ZYB|–fYB and |ZBR|–fBR
respectively. It is known that in delta connection, the phase and line voltages are same. Since there is a
change in load impedance, there will be changes only in the line and phase currents.
The phase and line currents in the system are given by:
VRY V VYB V
I RY = = RY ; IYB = = YB
| Z RY | –j RY Z RY | ZYB| –jYB ZYB
VBR V
and I BR = = BR (1.28)
| Z BR| –j BR Z BR
I R = I RY - I BR ; IY = IYB - I RY and I B = I BR - IYB (1.29)
Also, the total real power, reactive power and apparent power for the unbalanced delta-connected load are
given in Eqns. (1.30) to (1.32) respectively.
P = |VRN || I RY | cos f RY + |VYN || IYB| cos fYB + |VBN || I BR| cos f BR (1.30)
Q = |VRN || I RY | sin f RY + |VYN || IYB| sin fYB + |VBN || I BR| sin f BR (1.31)
S = |VRN || I RY | + |VYN || IYB| + |VBN || I BR| (1.32)
1.5.6 Three-Phase Unbalanced Four-Wire Star-Connected Load [AU May/June, 2014]

The circuit diagram for a three-phase four-wire unbalanced star-connected load, with phase sequence RYB,
is shown in Figure 1.14.
IR
R
VRN |ZR|–fR
VRY
IN
N VBN
|ZY|–fY N
|ZB|–fB
VBR
VYN
Y
IY
VYB
IB
B
Figure 1.14 Three-phase Four-wire Unbalanced Star-connected Load
The load impedance across R-N, Y-N and B-N terminals are given by |ZR|–fR, |ZY|–fY and |ZB|–fB respec-
tively. In star-connected load, the line and phase currents are equal as given by:
VRN V VYN V VBN V
IR = = RN ; IY = = YN and I B = = BN (1.33)
| Z R| –j R ZR | ZY | –jY ZY | Z B| –j B ZB
The current flowing through the neutral point is obtained using Kirchhoff’s current law as given by:
I N = I R + IY + I B
The phase voltages in this system are given by:

|VRY | |Vph|
|VRN | = –q R - 30o or –q R - 30o (1.34)
3 3
|VYB| |Vph|
|VYN | = –qY - 30o or –q R - 90o (1.35)
3 3
|VBR| |Vph|
|VBN | = –q B - 30o or –q R - 210° (1.36)
3 3
Also, the total real power, reactive power and apparent power for the unbalanced delta-connected load are
given by:
P = |VRN||IR|cos fRY + |VYN||IY|cos fYB + |VBN||IB|cos fBR (1.37)
Q = |VRN||IR|sin fRY + |VYN||IY|sin fYB + |VBN||IB|sin fBR (1.38)
S = |VRN||IR| + |VYN||IY| + |VBN||IB| (1.39)
1.5.7 Three-Phase Unbalanced Three-Wire Star-Connected Load

[AU May/June, 2014]
The circuit diagram for a three-phase three-wire unbal- IR

anced star-connected load, with phase sequence RYB, is R
shown in Figure 1.15.
The potential of a neutral point in this system is dif-
ferent from the potential of a neutral point in a balanced I1 ZR
star-connected source. Such neutral points are called as VRY
floating neutral points, as the relation between the phase
voltage, line voltage and supply voltage do not exist and ZY N ZB
the phase angle between any two phases will not be 120°. VBR
This creates difficulties in determining the line and phase IY
voltages and currents of the load. The solution to these Y
difficulties can be achieved by any one of the following
I2
three methods: VYB
(a) Star-to-delta conversion
(b) Mesh analysis IB
B
(c) Millman’s theorem
Figure 1.15 Three-phase Three-wire Unbalanced
Star-to-Delta Conversion Star-connected Load
In this method, the star-connected unbalanced load is
converted into delta-connected unbalanced load, which eliminates the problem of floating neutral points.
Once the star to delta conversion is performed, the system starts to act as a three-phase unbalanced delta-
connected load. The line and phase voltages and currents can be obtained using the equations indicated in
Section 1.4.5. The detailed description of star-to-delta conversion is discussed in Section 1.7.
Mesh Analysis
The circuit diagram of a three-phase unbalanced three-wire star-connected load, with phase sequence RYB,
is shown in Figure 1.15. Let I1 and I 2 be the currents flowing through loop 1 and loop 2 respectively.
Applying mesh analysis to Figure 1.15, we get

For loop 1,
VRY = I1Z R + ( I1 - I 2 ) ZY = I1Z R + I1ZY - I 2 ZY
(1.40)
VRY = I1 ( Z R + ZY ) - I 2 ZY
For loop 2,
VYB = I 2 Z B + ( I 2 - I1 ) ZY = I 2 Z B + I 2 ZY - I 2 ZY
(1.41)
VYB = - I1Z B + I 2 ( Z B + ZY )
Upon solving Eqns. (1.40) and (1.41), the currents I1 and I 2 can be determined.
From Figure 1.15, we get:
I R = I1 ; I B = - I 2 and IY = I1 - I 2 (or) I 2 - I1 [Depending on the magnitude of higher value]
If I R , IY and I B are determined, then the phase and line voltages can be calculated using Eqns. (1.42)
and (1.43) respectively.
VRN = I R Z R , VYN = IY ZY and VBN = I B Z B (1.42)
VRY = VRN - VYN , VYB = VYN - VBN and VBR = VBN - VRN (1.43)
Millman’s Theorem
According to Millman’s theorem, if number of voltages sources V1 , V2 , V3 º Vn with internal impedances
Z1, Z2, …, Zn. are in parallel, as shown in Figure 1.16 (a), then it can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source Veq in series with impedance Zeq, as shown in Figure 1.16(b).
V1 V2 Vn
+ + ... +
Z1 Z 2 Z n V1 Y1 + V2Y2 + ... + VnYn
Where, Veq = = and
1 1 1 Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yn
+ + ... +
Z1 Z 2 Zn
1 1 1
Z eq = or =
1 1 1 Yeq Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yn
+ + ... +
Z1 Z2 Zn
1 1 1 1 1
Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = Za = Zeq =
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn Yeq
+ + + + +
V1 ∼ V2 ∼ V3 ∼ Vn ∼ Veq ∼
(a) (b)
Figure 1.16 Milliman’s Theorem Representation

The unbalanced three-wire star-connected load, which is supplied by a balanced star-connected source,
to which Millman’s Theorem is applied, is shown in Figure 1.16.
R IR R
VRN1 VRN2
N2
VBN1 N1 VBN2
VYN1 Y IY Y
B VYN2 B
IB
Figure 1.17 Application of Milliman’s Theorem to Unbalanced Three-wire Star-connected Load
Applying Millman’s theorem to Figure 1.17, we get
VRN 1YR + VYN 1YY + VBN 1YB

VN 1N 2 =
YB + YY + YB
Where, YR, YY and YB are admittances of unbalanced three-wire star load, connected such that:
1 1 1
YR = ; YY = ; YB =
ZR ZY ZB
Therefore, VRN 1 = VRN 2 + VN 1N 2

And VRN 2 = VRN 1 - VN 1N 2
Similarly, VYN 2 = VYN 1 - VN 1N 2 and VBN 2 = VBN 1 - VN 1N 2

The line (or phase) currents are given by:
VRN 2 VRN 2 V VYN 2 V VBN 2

IR = = ; IY = YN 2 = and I B = BN 2 =
ZR | Z R| –q R ZY | ZY | –qY ZB | Z B| –q B
Different Types of Balanced Connection

The different types of connections, which can exist in three-phase systems, are:
1. Star-connected source – star-connected load
2. Star-connected source – delta-connected load
3. Delta-connected source – star-connected load
4. Delta-connected source – delta-connected load
1.6 STEPS TO DRAW PHASOR DIAGRAM

Check for the type of load connection
Star connection Delta connection
Draw VRN, (phase voltage) Draw VRY (phase voltage =

which is the reference line voltage) which is the
voltage phasor reference voltage phasor
Draw VYN and VBN Draw VYB and VBR

displaced by 120° from displaced by 120° from
each other and VRN each other and VRY
Using the parallelogram law of addition, Based on the type of load, draw phase
draw line voltages VRY, VYB and VBR currents IRY, IYB and IBR such that IRY
such that VRY leads VRN by 30°, VYB is displaced from VRY by fRY, IYB
leads VYN by 30° and VBR leads is displaced from VYB by fYB and IBR
VBN by 30° is displaced from VBR by fBR
Based on the type of load, draw (phase Using the parallelogram law of addition,
currents = line currents) IR, IY, IB such draw line currents IR, IY and IB such
that IR is displaced from VRN by fR, IY is that IR lags IRY by 30°, IY lags IYB
displaced from VYN by fY and IB by 30° and IB leads IBR by 30°
is displaced from VBN by fB
1.7 STAR–DELTA CONVERSION [AU May/June, 2013]
The transformation or replacement of the three-phase star-connected load to a three-phase delta-connected

load and vice versa is known star–delta conversion. This conversion is required in three-phase loads to
simplify and analyse the complex circuits. As an example, if a three-phase load is connected in delta, it
can be transformed into an equivalent star-connected load and after analysis, the results are converted back
into their original delta equivalent. The converted equivalent circuit will have the same current and voltage
levels at its network terminals, as it appears in the original circuit. The two different conversions existing
in three-phase systems are: (i) star-to-delta conversion and (ii) delta-to-star conversion.
1.7.1 Star-to-Delta Conversion

In this conversion, star-connected three-phase load, shown in Figure 1.18 (a), is converted into delta-connected
three-phase system, as shown in Figure 1.18 (b).
The equivalent impedances in delta-connected load are given by:
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R ¸
Z RY = Ô
ZB Ô
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R Ô
ZYB = ˝ (1.44)
ZR Ô
Z R ZY + ZY Z B + Z B Z R Ô
Z BR = Ô
ZY ˛
R
R
ZBR ZRY
ZR
B ZYB Y
ZB ZY
B Y
Figure 1.18 Star-to-delta Conversion
1.7.2 Delta-to-Star Conversion

In this conversion, star-connected three-phase load, shown in Figure 1.19 (a), is converted into delta-
connected three-phase system, as shown in Figure 1.19 (b).
R
R
ZBR ZRY
ZR
B ZYB Y
ZB ZY
B
Y
Figure 1.19 Delta-to-star Conversion
The equivalent impedances in star-connected load are given by:

Z RY Z BR ¸
ZR =
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR ÔÔ
ZYB Z RY Ô
ZY = ˝ (1.45)
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR Ô
ZYB + Z BR Ô
ZB = Ô
Z RY + ZYB + Z BR ˛
Example 1.1
For the circuit shown below in Figure E1.1, calculate the line current, power and power factor. The values
of R, L and C in each phase are 10 W, 1 H and 100 mF respectively. [AU Nov/Dec, 2012]
Solution
The load impedance in each phase is a parallel combination of R, L and C, as given by
1
Z R = ZY = Z B = = 9.262 - j 2.615 = 9.624– -15.77∞ W
1 1 1
+ +
R X L XC
R IR
C R L
400 V, 50 Hz
C L
R
R
L C
IB
B
IY
B
Figure E1.1
|VL| 400
For a star connected load, |VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |V ph| = = = 230.94 V
3 3
In a balanced star-connected load, the line current or phase current is given by
|Vph | 230.94
I R = IY = I B = I ph = I L = = = 24–15.77° A
ZR 9.624– - 15.77°
The power factor of the system is given by
cos f = cos(Vph ^ I ph ) = cos(15.77°) = 0.9624
– – – –
where V ph ^ I ph represents the phase angle between V ph and I ph
The power consumed by the load is
P = 3 VLIL cos f = 3 ¥ 400 ¥ 24 ¥ 0.9624
= 16 kW
Example 1.2
A balanced star-connected load having an impedance of 15 + j20 W per phase is connected to three-phase,
440V, 50 Hz. Find the line current and power absorbed by the load. [AU April/May, 2014]
Solution
Given, load impedance, Zph = 15 + j20 W and line voltage, |VL| = 440 V.
|VL| 440
For a star-connected load, |VRN | = |VYN | = |VBN | = |Vph | = = = 254.03 V
3 3
In a star-connected load, magnitude of line and phase currents are equal and hence,
Vph 254.03 254.03
IL = = = = 10.16– - 53.13° A
Z ph 15 + j 20 25–53.13
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“For forms of government let fools contest;
Whate’er is best administer’d, is best.”[369]
Pope’s Essay on Man.
Dr. Rittenhouse was, undoubtedly, among those who entertained

the most sanguine expectations, that the political institutions in the
United States, formed as they are according to the republican model,
would tend to meliorate the condition of the people, and “promote the
general welfare.” He may at some time have even “believed political,
as well as moral evil, to be intruders into the society of men.”[370] But
some passages in his Oration plainly shew, that, as has been
already observed, he had no faith in the perfectibility of human
reason,[371] in this life. He was also too sound a philosopher not to
know, that if, by the best rules of philosophical ratiocination, many
well known phænomena in the natural world could not be reached,
with respect to their nature and causes, in such manner as to render
these susceptible of demonstrative proof,—nothing like certainty in
the result, much less perfection, could be calculated on, in putting
the theories of a science, such as government, to the test of
experiment.
If it be asked: ‘Where are the Works of Rittenhouse?’ a ready and

satisfactory answer to the question is at hand. Although he published
no ponderous volumes, he has left behind him great and honourable
memorials of his genius, his science and his skill; such as will long
remain, as Monuments of the extraordinary extent of his practical
usefulness in his day, and of his well-earned fame. “He has not
indeed made a world,” as Mr. Jefferson, in speaking of his Orrery,
emphatically expresses himself; “but he has, by imitation,
approached nearer its Maker, than any man who has lived from the
creation to this day.”[372] As long, too, as the geographical boundaries
of Pennsylvania, connected in part with those of the neighbouring
states, shall continue to define the respective jurisdictions of their
local sovereignties and rights, considered as members of a great
confederated nation; so long will they serve to distinguish the name
of Rittenhouse.[373] Nay, some of the rivers and canals, even some
principal roads, in the country of his nativity, bear testimony to his
talents, his public spirit and his industry. His inventions and
improvements, in various specimens of mechanism, conceived and
executed by himself, fully manifest, that, “as an artist, he has
exhibited as great a proof of mechanical genius as the world has
ever produced.”[374] And, as a man of extensive and profound
science, his various philosophical papers, but more especially those
relating to his astronomical observations, justify Mr. Jefferson’s
remark, that he was “second to no Astronomer living,”—that he was,
“in genius the first, because self-taught.”[375]
Such, then, were the “Works” of this truly great man. And it
appears that they were, in general, not only arduous in their
execution, and highly beneficial in their uses and effects; but that
they were likewise the productions of a lofty, penetrating and active
genius, great knowledge and skill, and the most indefatigable
perseverance.[376]
But though Dr. Rittenhouse published no great systematic literary

work, he communicated to others by his conversation, and by such
of his writings as have been given to the world, much valuable
philosophical information. He instructed, liberally, such persons as
were desirous of acquiring knowledge from a social intercourse with
him. The elevated station his character maintained, both for wisdom
and integrity, exhibited him to his cotemporaries as an example
worthy of being imitated:[377] and thus, in reality, his high reputation
operated as a powerful incitement upon many of his countrymen, to
pursue similar objects of science, inspiring them with a taste to
cultivate the true philosophy.
The reputation of this distinguished man, as a mathematician and

astronomer, was pre-eminently great, in every civilized part of the
western world. Perhaps no man’s philosophical talents were ever
held in higher estimation, nor more deservedly so, by those qualified
to form a proper judgment of them, wherever his name was known;
not excepting those of Newton himself. His celebrity was far from
being confined within the limits of his native country: his Orrery, with
the proceedings and results of the Observation of that phænomenon
which so greatly interested the principal astronomers of both
hemispheres, the Transit of Venus in 1769, had rendered him justly
celebrated in Europe as well as America, as a philosopher of the
highest grade, at the age of thirty-seven years.
The peculiar circumstances of his Life, which have been amply

detailed in these Memoirs, were of such a nature as to preclude him,
in a great measure, from opportunities of carrying on a
correspondence with men of science and letters, abroad: the
extremely delicate, and oftentimes infirm state of his general health,
in addition to his numerous avocations, his long continued, various,
and important employments in the public service, left him little leisure
for literary pursuits of any kind. Indeed, nothing less than the
wonderful energy of his mind, and his extraordinary industry, could
have enabled him to write as much as he has done.[378]
Dr. Rittenhouse never attempted to amuse the world with any

hypothetical system of philosophy, or with opinions, merely
speculative, on any subject. The great objects of his pursuits,
through life, were Certainty and Truth: hence, he never advanced an
opinion, concerning any thing whatever, which he did not consider as
being either susceptible of verification by experiment and the
evidence of our senses, or, where the nature of the subject did not
admit of such proof, capable of being tested by the soundest
principles of human reason. Yet, though this profound investigator of
nature viewed “sober certainty” as the great desideratum in
philosophy, he was by no means a dogmatist; even with respect to
that portion of natural science which is capable of demonstration.
Notwithstanding the opinion he entertained of the vast extent to
which the faculties of the mind may be enlarged by a proper
improvement of them, he was fully aware that its powers are limited.
Like his great predecessor, Maclaurin, “the farther he advanced in
the knowledge of geometry and of nature, the greater his aversion
grew to perfect systems, hypotheses, and dogmatizing: without
peevishly despising the attainments we can arrive at, or the uses to
which they serve, he saw there lay infinitely more beyond our reach.”
Like him, also, he considered “our highest discoveries as being but a
dawn of knowledge, suited to our circumstances and wants in this
life; which, however, we ought thankfully to acquiesce in, for the
present, in hopes that it will be improved in a happier and more
perfect state.”[379] Rittenhouse never supposed, that, (to use the
words of Maclaurin’s biographer[380]), “because demonstrative
evidence is the most perfect, it should be—as, by some, it has been
—taken for granted, there is no other.” On the contrary, our
philosopher believed that there are many truths, natural as well as
moral, which are beyond the reach of demonstration; consequently,
not to be rejected, solely by reason of their insusceptibility of this
kind of proof. Hence, in his Oration he says, “Our Religion teaches
us what Philosophy could not have taught; and we ought to admire,
with reverence, the great things it has pleased Divine Providence to
perform, beyond the ordinary course of nature, for man, who is
undoubtedly the most noble inhabitant of this globe. But,” continues
this truly good man, “neither Religion nor Philosophy forbid us to
believe, that infinite Wisdom and Power, prompted by infinite
Goodness, may, throughout the vast extent of creation and duration,
have frequently interposed in a manner quite incomprehensible to
us, when it became necessary to the happiness of created beings of
some other rank or degree.”
Such were the pious reflections of a Christian Philosopher; the

sublime sentiments of an eminently distinguished Astronomer.
Should it be enquired: What was the system of Philosophy, to

which Dr. Rittenhouse adhered? though such a question can
scarcely be anticipated, after what has been already said; the
answer may be furnished in a few words: He was a thorough and
zealous disciple of the Newtonian school. He early embraced, and
perseveringly cultivated, “the Philosophy of Newton;” which “disdains
to make use of subterfuges,” which “is not reduced to the necessity
of using them, because it pretends not to be of nature’s privy
council;” while “other systems of philosophy have ever found it
necessary to conceal their weakness and inconsistency, under the
veil of unintelligible terms and phrases, to which no two mortals
perhaps ever affixed the same meaning.”[381]
With Newton, too, our Philosopher entertained the most exalted
conceptions of the Deity. He did not imagine, as his illustrious
predecessor was unjustly charged with having done, that infinite
space is an attribute of the Deity; that He is present in all parts of
space, by diffusion;[382] but, like that great man, he did believe, that
the Deity endures from eternity to eternity, and is present from infinity
to infinity; yet that He is not eternity or infinity, space or duration. For,
says Dr. Rittenhouse, “Nothing can better demonstrate the
immediate presence of the Deity in every part of space, whether
vacant or occupied by matter, than Astronomy does. It was from an
Astronomer St. Paul quoted that exalted expression, so often since
repeated, ‘In God we live, and move, and have our being.’”[383]
The terms of profound veneration, in which our Philosopher spoke,

on all occasions, of the character of Newton, demonstrate most
clearly his complete and undeviating attachment to the Principles of
that astonishing man.[384] Indeed, he appears to have taken him as
his model; and, certainly, he resembled him much, in many points of
character. Parallels have often been drawn between distinguished
men; and in comparatively a few instances, a strong resemblance
has been discovered, in some prominent features of character,
between two or more persons. Yet the infinite variety of talent, that
appears throughout the human race; the almost incredible difference
in the grades of intellectual endowment, distinguishing the sons of
men from each other; and the adventitious circumstances peculiar to
each individual, which either direct or controul his conduct, and seem
to mark his destiny in life; all these, taken together, produce such an
endless diversity of character in the species, as to render it
impracticable, if not absolutely impossible, to find any two men who
greatly resemble each other in many particulars.
There are, nevertheless, so many circumstances founded on

natural causes, that indicate an extraordinary similitude in the
genius, disposition and principles of Rittenhouse, and his great
Prototype; so many, moreover, of a singular nature, connected with
events purely adventitious, wherein the condition, occupations and
pursuits of these philosophers, with other eventual relations
depending wholly on accident, resembled each other; that an
interesting parallel, between them, might be attempted with no
inconsiderable share of success.
In the course of these Memoirs, the Biographer of Rittenhouse

has endeavoured to furnish a faithful representation of the
Philosopher and of the Man. He was desirous of delineating his true
character, in both points of view; that the world may be enabled to
make a just estimate of the genius, the principles, and the conduct of
a person, so celebrated in name. But, in order that the more correct
judgment might be formed of his virtues and talents, and of the
services he has rendered to society, it became necessary to
describe the sphere in which he moved; so far, at least, as to present
to view occasional sketches of the complexion of the Times in which
he lived, and of some of the more prominent Characters who were
his compatriots. The Memorialist has therefore conveyed to the mind
of his reader some idea of the moral, political, and literary state of
society, more particularly in the country of our Philosopher’s
residence, within the same period. This rendered it proper to notice
the rise, nature, and progress of certain Institutions, upon which
science and the arts, with many of the benefits of civil polity, greatly
depend; such as tend to diffuse useful knowledge throughout the
community, to promote the general weal, and to meliorate the
condition of the great family of mankind.
It has been already observed, that every individual in society is

more or less closely connected with it, in various ways: and it is
obvious, that an eminent citizen, one, especially, standing in
relations of a public nature in the community of which he is a
member, usually has his history and character so interwoven with
those of his own times, that it is difficult to understand the former
thoroughly, without possessing a competent knowledge of the latter.
The Life of such a man as Rittenhouse could not, therefore, in
many respects, be either well comprehended or duly estimated,
unless there had been connected with it some account of men and
things, to which his private pursuits and public employments were,
directly or indirectly, related.
In whatever light, then, a retrospective view of Dr. Rittenhouse’s
character may be taken, it will be found to present a model worthy of
imitation. The mild and amiable virtues of domestic life, and similar
dispositions in the intercourses of private society, decorated his
whole deportment, as a man and as a citizen; the more stern
qualities of the patriot equally distinguished him as the friend of his
native country, in all his public relations; while the principles of
genuine philanthrophy impressed his heart with feelings of the most
extended benevolence. In all these respects, nevertheless, some
have equalled, though few, if any, have surpassed him. But when,
united to virtues and dispositions, such as these, the powerful
genius, the extensive philosophical talents and attainments, the self-
acquired and extraordinary mechanical skill of Dr. Rittenhouse,
shall also have been considered; it will be acknowledged, that the
Memoirs of his Life, commemorate a Man truly great. They recal to
his surviving countrymen, and to their posterity, a remembrance of
his excellence and usefulness; presenting to them such a specimen
of worth and abilities, as is highly deserving of being emulated. At
the same time, they exhibit to the world a faithful portrait of a Man,
whose character had early acquired the well-earned respect of the
wise and good in other nations. During his life, the name of
Rittenhouse received due homage from some of the most
illustrious Philosophers of Europe. In his own country, that name
cannot cease to be venerated, so long as genius, science, and
virtue, shall be held in the high estimation to which they are entitled.
It has been observed by a noble author[385] of the present day, “that

the decline of public spirit in matters of Taste, is a certain indication
of political decay.” To whatever degree the justness of this
observation may extend, it will apply still more forcibly to any country,
wherein a disregard, consequently a declension of learning, science
and moral virtue, is perceived. Rittenhouse lived in an eventful age.
During a long period of his life, he witnessed a comparative simplicity
of manners and much integrity of character, among his countrymen.
He beheld a progressive course of useful knowledge, and an
advance in those arts and refinements of polished society, which
minister as well to the rational enjoyments as to the conveniences of
human life; and these he saw accompanied by almost every species
of public improvements, promoted by the liberal spirit of the people
and fostered by the benign genius of the government. Our
Philosopher himself, one-and-twenty years before his death, in
speaking of the rapid progress his countrymen had then made in
almost every species of social refinements, made this remark: “We
have made most surprising, I had almost said unnatural, advances
towards the meridian of glory.”[386] But this good man dreaded even
at that time, what he always most earnestly deprecated, that Luxury
would, ere long, follow in the train of an highly cultivated state of
manners and too sumptuous a style of living: for, he considered an
excess of such refinements as leading to that depravity of morals
which often accompanies “Luxury,” and, as he has expressed it, “her
constant follower, Tyranny.”
The gloomy anticipations, which he sometimes entertained, of a

future depression of the interests of learning in his native country,
from such causes, he lived not to see realized. There is, indeed,
ground on which a reasonable hope may be founded, that,
notwithstanding the operation of some inauspicious circumstances,
in these times, occasioned by the present distracted state of the
political world, literature, science and the arts, will yet be
successfully cultivated in the United States of America. Dr.
Rittenhouse had the good fortune to live in an age when virtue and
talents were honoured; when abilities to serve the country, and an
honest attachment to its best interests, were the surest passports to
the public confidence and esteem. In the latter years of his life, it was
a source of great gratification to him to know that his country was
prosperous; it being then in the full enjoyment of all the arts of
peace, and other blessings of a well-ordered society. He was greatly
respected and esteemed by his illustrious compatriot, Washington;
whose magnanimity taught him to spurn with disdain all petty
considerations, arising from such mere difference of opinion in the
speculations of politics, as could neither undermine the principles of
a Patriot, nor affect the fidelity of an honest Man. Very many
distinguished men, besides, were his contemporaries; and by
persons of this description, almost universally, as well as by all his
countrymen of every class, to whom his person or character was
known, he was held in the highest estimation: indeed, few men ever
enjoyed a larger share of the public regard.
Some years after the decease of Dr. Rittenhouse, it was judged

expedient to transfer his perishable remains from their first place of
sepulture, to another: they were accordingly removed; and interred in
the cemetery adjoining the Presbyterian church in Pine-street,
Philadelphia, near the body of his son-in-law, Mr. Sergeant. The
grave of the celebrated American Astronomer is enclosed, under a
plain slab of marble, thus inscribed:
IN MEMORY OF
DAVID RITTENHOUSE,
BORN APRIL 8th, 1732,
DIED JUNE 26th; 1796;
AND
HANNAH RITTENHOUSE,
HIS WIFE,
Who died October 15th,
1799,
Aged 64 years.
But, although no costly tomb contains the ashes of this eminently-

distinguished Man; although no sculptured cenotaph, in any part of
his country, blazons his genius or records his fame; and
notwithstanding the chisel of the statuary has never been employed
in obedience to the public voice, to produce a permanent
resemblance of his countenance and figure; yet a monument of more
durable nature than any of these, consecrates his virtues, his talents,
and his usefulness. A grateful remembrance of his modest worth is
enshrined in the hearts of the wise and the good of his own age and
country; and the name of David Rittenhouse will be every where
perpetuated with veneration and renown, among the sons of science
and the benefactors of mankind.
302. Rush’s Eulog. on Ritt.
303. “Astronomy, like the Christian religion, if you will allow me the
comparison,” said our philosopher, “has a much greater influence on
our knowledge in general, and perhaps on our manners too, than is
commonly imagined. Though but few men are its particular votaries,
yet the Light it affords is universally diffused among us; and it is
difficult for us to divest ourselves of its influence so far, as to frame
any competent idea of what would be our situation without it.” See
Ritt. Orat.
In another part of his Oration is this passage—“Our Religion

teaches us what Philosophy could not have taught: and we ought to
admire, with reverence, the great things it has pleased Divine
Providence to perform, beyond the ordinary course of nature, for
man, who is, undoubtedly, the most noble inhabitant of this globe,”
&c.
And in addition to these sentiments, uttered and published by our

philosopher himself, let the testimony of Dr. Rush, who had long and
intimately known him, be quoted, from the learned professor’s
Eulogium: “He believed in the Christian Revelation,” says the Doctor;
and then subjoins—“Of this he gave many proofs; not only in the
conformity of his life to the precepts of the Gospel, but in his letters
and conversation.”
304. Equivalent to 36,066⅔ American or Spanish dollars.
305. The elder of these ladies became, in the year 1788, the
second wife of Jonathan Dickinson Sergeant, Esq. late an eminent
lawyer in Philadelphia, and sometime attorney-general of
Pennsylvania. This gentleman was one of the five persons
delegated, on the 20th of February, 1776, by the convention of New-
Jersey (where he then resided,) to represent that colony in congress:
his colleagues were, the late governor Livingston, and John de Hart,
Richard Smith, and John Cooper, Esquires. Mr. Sergeant died of the
yellow fever in Philadelphia, on the 8th of October, 1793; after having
been many weeks actively and benevolently employed, with a few
other gentlemen of humanity, in the prosecution of such measures,
as the sufferings of those of the citizens who had not fled, and the
general welfare of the city required, at that calamitous period. He left
issue a son and two daughters, by this marriage, besides several
children by his first wife.
The other daughter of Dr. Rittenhouse was married in the year

1790, to Nicholas Baker Waters, M. D. of Philadelphia, a young
physician of respectable talents and amiable disposition. Dr. Waters
died of a pulmonary disease, in August, 1794, at a very early age,
leaving one son, an only child.
Dr. Rittenhouse named his second daughter, Esther, in

compliment to his sister Barton. In a letter to the Rev. Mr. Barton,
written on the occasion of the birth of this younger child, he says
—“To me, it is a matter of indifference, but to my Eleanor it was a
great disappointment, to have a girl, having promised herself a boy;
and it had long since been resolved that this child, if a son, should be
called Thomas, after yourself.” The eldest daughter was named
Elizabeth, after his own mother.
306. Dr. Rush has very beautifully expressed the same sentiment,
in a passage of his Eulogium on our philosopher. After remarking,
that his bodily infirmities “contributed much to the perfection of his
virtue, by producing habitual patience and resignation to the will of
heaven, and a constant eye to the hour of his dissolution,” he says:
“It was a window through which he often looked with pleasure
towards a place of existence, where, from the increase and
perfection of his intuitive faculties, he would probably acquire more
knowledge in an hour, than he had acquired in his whole life, by the
slow operations of reason; and where, from the greater magnitude
and extent of the objects of his contemplation, his native globe would
appear like his cradle, and all the events of time, like the
amusements of his infant years.” Such, too, must have been the
ideas, impressed on the mind of Rittenhouse himself, when, in the
morning of his life, he imagined the angel Gabriel looking down from
the seat of perfect knowledge, and viewing, benignly, far from
beholding with a smile of contempt, the efforts of Newton, to
demonstrate the actual motion of our earth. W. B.
307. See Eulog. on Ritt.
308. About twenty-six years and an half.—Dr. Franklin was

President from the institution of the society, in Jan. 1769, until his
death, on the 17th of April, 1790; and Dr. Rittenhouse, who
succeeded him in Jan. 1791, continued in the office until he died, the
26th of June, 1796. W. B.
309. See Mr. Malone’s Account of the Life and Writings of Sir
Joshua Reynolds, prefixed to the works of Sir Joshua.
310. See Rush’s Eulog. on Ritt.
311. “His manners were civil and engaging, to such a degree, that
he seldom passed an hour, even in a public house in travelling
through our country, without being followed by the good wishes of all
who attended upon him.” Rush’s Eulogium on Ritt.
312. Dr. Rittenhouse’s brother Benjamin, in a written

communication made to the writer of these memoirs in the year
1796, observes, that the Doctor, “when in health, was cheerful; and
his passions, unless they were excited by the abuses and knavery of
men, either in public or private life, were moderate: but where he
conceived that the interest or liberties of his country were
endangered, he would, on those occasions, express himself with
great warmth and asperity.”
313. See his Oration.
314. It was publicly declared by the same acrimonious writer who

charged Dr. Rittenhouse with being an atheist, (namely, Mr. William
Cobbett,) and with an equal disregard of truth, as has been already
shewn, that the Doctor signed “the inflammatory Resolutions” of the
Democratic Society against the Excise-law, which, as he alleged,
produced the Western Insurrection in Pennsylvania, in the year
1794. Dr. Rittenhouse, it is well known, did not even attend the
meetings of that society. This is admitted by Mr. Cobbett himself, in
the following invidious paragraph, extracted from a pamphlet written
and published by the late William L. Smith, Esq. of South-Carolina,
and republished by Cobbett in his own works: it is in these words
—“Rittenhouse was a great philosopher; but the only proof we have
had of his political talents, was, his suffering himself to be wheedled
into the presidency of the democratic society of Philadelphia; a
society with which he was even ashamed to associate, though
cajoled and flattered into the loan of his name.”
315. The memorialist cannot deprive himself of the gratification of

introducing, on the present occasion, a little anecdote communicated
to him by his friend, Francis Johnston, Esq. characteristic of our
philosopher’s amiable simplicity and benevolent disposition.
Circumstances as unimportant in themselves, as the one here
related, sometimes make us acquainted with the true character of
individuals.
Colonel Johnston, who was bred a scholar, and held with

reputation the rank of a colonel in the American service in the war of
the revolution, was, at an early period of his life, a zealous admirer of
the character of Rittenhouse. But long afterwards, and while the
Doctor officiated as state-treasurer, that gentleman held the next
great office in the financial department of the state. The connexion of
those offices occasioned almost daily visits from the colonel to the
state-treasury, and intercourse with the treasurer himself; and this
produced a reciprocal friendship between the two gentlemen. “For a
time,” says Col. Johnston, “Dr. Rittenhouse managed the business of
his office with the utmost attention and assiduity: but his all-
capacious mind could no longer be restrained from its native
pursuits; his money and his counter, therefore, he resigned into the
hands of his beloved wife, who, although possessed of all the
feminine virtues, performed the arduous duties of the office with a
masculine understanding, with accuracy and unwearied attention.”
“My intimacy with Dr. Rittenhouse,” continues the colonel,

“introduced between us a concern in some property, in the western
part of the city, which often induced us to walk out together, to visit it.
That part of the property which laid on the main street, belonged to
me; and being more exposed to the depredations of the disorderly
people who then inhabited that neighbourhood, was consequently
often injured in the fences or board-inclosures. More than once, I
have seen this philosopher, who never thought it any degradation of
philosophy, to bow at the shrine of friendship, marching along my
line of fence, and most industriously, and in a most masterly manner,
with his own hammer and nails, mending or repairing the same.”
“This anecdote I mention thus particularly,” adds the worthy

colonel, “with a view of shewing, that in addition to Dr. Rittenhouse’s
other virtues, humanity and friendship were leading traits in his
excellent character.”
316. In expressing his admiration of “that dispositions of lands and

seas, which affords a communication between distant regions, and a
mutual exchange of benefits,” Dr. Rittenhouse unquestionably had in
view a commercial, as well as social, intercourse between the
inhabitants of different climes: he was too enlightened a man, not to
have been aware of its “benefits.” “A civilized nation, without
commerce,” (as the writer of these memoirs had occasion to observe
in a former publication,[316a]) “is a solecism in politics. It is in the
rudest state of mankind, only, that a people can exist, without any
communication with other societies or commercial intercourse
among themselves, every one supporting himself by his own labour.
Indeed, so absolute a state of nature can only be conceived; but has
scarcely existed in reality. The wants, the fears, the weakness, nay
the very nature of man, constitute him a social animal: and, in the
very origin of society, their mutual necessities, with the various
talents, means, and opportunities of individuals for supporting them,
must have produced a reciprocity of services, and an occasional
interchange with one another of that property, which each had
acquired by his own exertions.”
316a. The true interest of the United States, and particularly of Pennsylvania,
considered: published in 1786.
317. See his Oration.
318. In the year 1756, he made an eight-day clock, for his brother-
in-law, Mr. Barton; over the dial-plate of which, was engraven this
mementory motto—Tempus fugit; and underneath, this blunt but too
often necessary precept—Go about your business.
On one description of the continental bills of credit, issued by

congress during the American war, were represented a sundial and a
meridian sun over it: above, the word “Fugio;” and beneath, these
words—“Mind your Business.” And on the reverse of a copper one
cent piece, struck in the year 1787, in pursuance of a resolve of
congress of the 6th of July in that year, are impressed the same
device and mottoes as those last mentioned; corresponding with
those adopted by our Philosopher, when only twenty-four years of
age: a circumstance that shews, how early in life he had formed a
just estimate of the value of time.
It may not be improper here to observe, that the various devices

affixed to the continental money, as it was called, were much
admired for their appropriate significancy; and that they were
generally supposed to be the production of the late ingenious Judge
Hopkinson, an intimate friend of Mr. Rittenhouse.
319. See Eulog. on Ritt.
320. An eulogy of this great astronomer, celebrated for his

discovery of the aberration and nutation, will be found in the History
of the French Academy, for the year 1762. He was born in 1692; and
died at Greenwich, in 1762, at the age of seventy years.
321. See the Memorial of the Society to the General Assembly,

dated the 6th of March, 1775; introduced in the foregoing pages.
322. Observatories are indispensably necessary to the cultivation

of astronomical science. There are many celebrated institutions of
this kind, in various parts of Europe; and of these, the British isles
may justly boast of possessing a large proportion in number,
admirably fitted up with all the necessary apparatus. Some account
of these will be found in other parts of this work.
Besides the liberal and honourable provision made for eminent

astronomers in Great-Britain, many of the most distinguished men of
the same class, on the continent of Europe, have experienced the
bounty of their respective princes and states. Such, among others,
were the celebrated C. Mayer, Astronomer to the Elector Palatine
and duke of Bavaria, at Manheim; Zach, Astronomer to the Duke of
Saxe-Gotha, at Gotha; and Lalande, Professor of Astronomy and
Inspector of the College of France, at Paris. These great
philosophers have had splendid astronomical establishments
provided for them, by their sovereigns; as is more particularly noticed
in other parts of these memoirs. And the extensive work of Mr. de
Zach, entitled, Tabulæ Motuum Solis novæ et correctæ, &c. (a large
quarto volume in the Latin language,) was printed under the
patronage and at the expense of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, in the
year 1792, and distributed gratis among many of the learned of the
old and new world; an example of munificence worthy of imitation by
all sovereign princes and states, who know how to estimate, as they
deserve, such importantly useful productions of men eminent in
science.
The time, in which the transcendent talents of such philosophers

as have been here named, was employed, together with the
products of their labours, were rightfully, under such patronage, the
property of the public; while the time of our astronomer was with
equal justice his own, and consequently the fruits of his time, genius,
and labour, were, at least primarily, due to himself and his family.
323. The famous English Observatory near Greenwich Hospital,

and in the immediate vicinity of the town of Greenwich in Kent,
(erected, on a commanding eminence one hundred and sixty feet
above the level of the river Thames, in the year 1676, by order of
King Charles II.) is still called Flamstead-House; Mr. Flamstead
having been the first person appointed Regius Professor there.
324. It is said of the celebrated Roger Cotes, by his friend and

patron, the learned Dr. Richard Bentley, in his inscription upon the
tomb of that great philosopher, at Cambridge, that—
“Pauca quidem Ingenii sui pignora reliquit,

Sed egregia, sed admiranda:”
In like manner, though the writings of Dr. Rittenhouse are neither

numerous nor extensive, some of his works are, nevertheless, so
excellent and admirable in their nature, they exhibit such proofs of
transcendent genius, that they will immortalize his name. And, as
Cotes was prematurely taken away by death, or, as expressed in his
epitaph,
“Immaturâ Morte præreptus;”—
so, the actual term of Rittenhouse’s life may be considered as having

been much shortened by sickness. Franklin, who lived twenty years
longer than our astronomer, published little in philosophy; yet this
circumstance does not derogate from his claims to the character of a
philosopher.
325. A second edition of the first volume was published in the year
1789, in consequence of the extraordinary demand for that book, by
reason of the very important papers respecting the Transit of Venus,
contained in it.
326. Some further remarks respecting this comet, than those
contained in Dr. Rittenhouse’s communication, here referred to, will
be found in an extract which has already been given, of his letter to
the Rev. Mr. Barton, under the date of July 30, 1770.
327. Mr. Francis de Zach (Astronomer to the duke of Saxe-Gotha,)

in the explanation and use of his table, No. 38, entitled, “Correctio
horæ meridianæ prodeuntis ex altitudinibus correspondentibus
Solis,” says—“Tradit Clarissimus Dav. Rittenhouse, in
Transactionibus Americanis (vol. 1. p. 155. edit. 2.), Methodum
novum correctionis horæ meridianæ, absque tabulis, ex solâ
observatione deducendæ; sed requiruntur, ad hoc, duorum dierum
subsequentium altitudines quatuor æquales: id est, sub eadem
altitudine manè et vesperi factæ, ad assequendam ex his,
correctiones meridiei, Regulæ Clariss. Authoris sunt sequentes:” Mr.
de Zach then lays down Dr. Rittenhouse’s Rules, which will be found
in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, already
referred to; and adds—“Exempla hoc perspicuum reddent:” he next
states two examples, from which he deduces proofs of the accuracy
of Dr. Rittenhouse’s method. See “Tabulæ Motuum Solis, novæ et
correctæ, ex Theoriâ Gravitatis et Observationibus recentissimis
erutæ, &c. auctore Francisco de Zach:” printed at Gotha, in 1792.
328. This Comet was observed by John Lukens, Esq. of

Philadelphia, on the 20th of January, 1784. This respectable
practical astronomer communicated his discovery of it to Dr.
Rittenhouse the next day, on the evening of which, (“assisted by Mr.
Lukens and Mr. Prior,”) he ascertained the then apparent place of
this comet. Dr. Rittenhouse’s communication to the society, on this
subject, gives also the apparent place of the comet on the 17th of
February, being the last time the weather permitted him to see it: the
result of his intermediate observations is also stated.
329. These observations were made in Philadelphia, by Dr.

Rittenhouse, at sundry times in the years 1784, 1785, and 1786, on
the new planet, or Georgium Sidus; and on the Transit of Mercury
over the Sun’s disk, on the 12th of November, 1782. The same
communication also states the geocentric places of the Georgium
Sidus, at several different dates between the 1st of April, 1762, and
the 14th of March, 1784, both included; as observed by Mr. James
Six, at the city of Canterbury in England.
330. This eclipse was observed by Andrew Ellicott, Esq. at the city
of Washington, as follows; viz.
6.h 39′. 1″,25 Annulus

completed
April 6. 43. 15,25 Do. broken M.
3d. Time.
7. 55. 37,75 End of Eclipse.
A letter from the celebrated French Astronomer, Lalande, to Dr.

Rittenhouse, on the same subject, has been already given.
331. In this letter, Dr. Rittenhouse merely informs Mr. Patterson, in

general terms, of the time when he first observed this comet, its then
place, and its course through several of the constellations, until the
8th of February; on the evening of which day, he saw it for the last
time. It is presumed that Dr. Rittenhouse’s state of health, at that
period, would not admit of his making more definite observations on
this comet.
332. This desideratum in astronomical science had long engaged

Dr. Rittenhouse’s attention; and it is confidently said by one of his
intimate friends, that, in the latter part of his life, he had actually
written much on the subject of Pendulums; intended, probably, for
publication. But, unfortunately, the manuscript-book, which contained
what he had thus written, can not now be found.
In the paper mentioned in the text, he remarks, that “the invention

and construction of time-keepers may be reckoned among the most
successful exertions of human genius. Pendulum-clocks especially,”
says he, “have been made to measure time with astonishing
accuracy; and, if there are still some causes of inequality in their
motions, the united efforts of mechanism, philosophy and
mathematics, will probably, in time, remove them.”
Indeed no man has done more, none perhaps so much, towards

removing the imperfections in chronometers, to which he alludes, as
this great mechanician himself. His admirable time-piece, now in the
possession of the Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, constructed
by him, on an improved plan of his own, affords ample proof of the
“astonishing accuracy” (as he expresses it) to which the pendulum-
chronometer may be brought. A description of the mechanism of this
extremely accurate time-piece, as well as of the principles on which
its superior correctness depends, is inserted in the Appendix.
333. The appropriate location of “The American Philosophical

Society” is the city of “Philadelphia,” where their meetings must be
held in conformity to their charter. Monticello, Mr. Jefferson’s
residence in Virginia, is situated at the distance of about two hundred
and seventy miles from the capital of Pennsylvania.
334. It is difficult for a sound and contemplative mind to form any

conception of the character of a philosopher, according to the true
meaning of the term, more especially of an astronomer, of a man
observant of the works of nature and acquainted with her laws; and
yet wanting in a due sense of religion. And hence Dr. Young has
declared, that—
“An undevout Philosopher is mad.”
Instances, however, of this kind of mania, are known to have existed;

produced by that presumptuous pride, which is too often engendered
by a sophistication of true philosophy with the wild fantasies of some
modern metaphysical sects, affecting extraordinary illumination. By
thus engrafting a bad scion upon a good stock, pernicious fruit is
propagated: or, to drop metaphorical allusions, by attempting to
blend into one system, principles so discordant in their nature, as
those of the experimental philosopher and the visionary theorist who
deals in abstract speculations and reasonings â priori, the

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Basic Electrical And Instrumentation

Engineering 1st Edition S. Salivahanan

Basic Electrical, Electronics and Measurement

Basic Electrical Engineering 3rd Edition Ravish R.

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering-II

Unifying Electrical Engineering and Electronics

Electrical Engineering for Non Electrical Engineers

Bird s basic engineering mathematics 8th Edition John O

Electrical Engineering: Principles and applications

Basic Theory and Laboratory Experiments in Measurement

R. Rengaraj is Associate Professor in the Department of Electrical and Electronics

G.R. Venkatakrishnan is Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education Ofﬁces

Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

Basic Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering

visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

1. AC Circuits and Power Systems 1

2.9 Effect of Winding Resistances 89

5. Measurement and Instrumentation 321

1.2 THREE-PHASE SUPPLY

120° 120° 120°

Figure 1.1 Three-phase Power System of an Electrical Quantity

1.2.1 Advantages of a Three-phase Power System

1.3 BASICS OF A THREE-PHASE POWER SYSTEM

connected together is known as neutral.

phase is called as phase voltage. It is represented as VRB = VRN - VBN or simply VR , VY , VB .

phase current. It is represented as I RY , IYB and I BR and is given by I RY = I R - IY , IYB = IY - I B and

it is said to be a three-phase source.

then it is said to be a three-phase load.

current of a three-phase source or a three-phase load is known as a phasor diagram. In a star-connected

Figure 1.2 Schematic Diagram of a Star-connected Three-phase System

Figure 1.3 Schematic Diagram of a Delta-connected Three-phase System

1.4 GENERATION OF THREE-PHASE VOLTAGES

Therefore, VRN + VYN + VBN = 0 (1.4)

1.5 ANALYSIS OF THE THREE-PHASE SYSTEM

1.5.1 Three-Phase Balanced Star-Connected Source [AU April/May, 2015]

The circuit diagram for a three-phase balanced star- R IR

|VRY | = |VRN |2 + |VYN |2 + 2 |VRN ||VYN | cos 60∞

|VRY | = 3 |Vph| (1.9)

|VYB| = 3 |Vph| and |VBR| = 3 |Vph| (1.10)

|VL| = 3 |Vph| (1.11)

S = 3 |VL|| I L| (VA) (1.15)

1.5.2 Three-Phase Balanced Delta-Connected Source [AU April/May, 2015]

VL3 IBR VL1

Figure 1.7 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Source

Relationship Among Line and Phase Quantities

| I R| = | I RY |2 + | I BR|2 + 2 | I RY || I RB| cos 60∞

| IY | = 3 | I ph| and | I B| = 3 | I ph| (1.17)

Using Eqns. (1.18) and (1.20), we get

Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f (VAR) (1.23)

S = 3 |VL|| I L| (VA) (1.24)

1.5.3 Three-Phase Balanced Star-Connected Load [AU April/May, 2015]

Figure 1.9 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Star-connected Load

Relationship Among Phase Current, Phase Voltage and Load Impedance

I ph = I L ; |VL| = 3 |Vph| ; P = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f ; Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f

VBR VBN –VYN

1.5.4 Three-Phase Balanced Delta-Connected Load

Figure 1.11 Circuit Diagram for a Three-phase Balanced Delta-connected Load

Relationship Among Phase Current, Phase Voltage and Load Impedance

Vph = VL ; | I L| = 3 | I ph| ; P = 3 |VL|| I L| cos f ; Q = 3 |VL|| I L| sin f

1.5.5 Three-Phase Unbalanced Delta-Connected Load [AU May/June, 2014]

Figure 1.13 Three-phase Unbalanced Delta-connected Load