Biología de la conservación

Amenazas de la Biodiversidad:
Extinción II

Björn Reu
Escuela de Biología
Universidad Industrial de Santander
segundo semestre de 2023
Extinction is a problem for small populations
The down-ward spiral to extinction
The problem of small, fragmented and isolated
populations:

Small populations are more likely to go extinct than large population

• because of loss in genetic diversity

• because of demographic fluctuations (birth and death rates)
• because of environmental fluctuations and habitat fragmentation
• natural catastrophes, habitat degradation and invasive species
 Minimum viable population (MVP)

MVP is defined as the number of individuals necessary to ensure long-term

survival of a species. A MVP for any given species is in any given habitat is:

• the smallest isolated population

• having a 99% chance of remaining extant for 1000 years
• despite foreseeable effects of demographic, environmental and genetic
stochasticity and natural catastrophes.
Shaffer 1981
Minimum viable population size

chance and
persistence
can be
redefined /
are variable
Which variables determine MVP?
 Minimum viable population (MVP)
Factors affecting MVP:
• environmental stochasticity and catastrophes
Minimum viable population size

• effective population size

• sex ratio
• birth and death rates
• population density and
allele effects

Primack (2012)
 Population Viability Analysis
Prediction whether a population can persist in an environment (i.e. risk
assessment)
Objectives of PVA
• identify the relative importance of factors reducing population size
• studying the effect of habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation
• studying the effect of augmenting populations with individuals captured elsewhere in
the wild or raised in captivity
• evaluate the effectiveness of management strategies (i.e. hunting)
• model assumption and parameter quality are essential
• generally it is said 10 years of data are necessary for good models
 Population Viability Analysis
= projection of population dynamics using a diverse set of underlying processes

• time series PVA: based on number of individuals over time single parameter
population growth
(growth trend and its variance, constant over time)

• demographic PVA: includes survival and reproduction rates

as well as sex ratio (also helps identifying vulnerable live
history stages, but requires much more data)

• PVA simulations using individual-based models (e.g. RAMAS,

VORTEX, NEMESIS, ALEX) incorporate important processes:
density dependence, stochasticity, spatial structure complex simulation
http://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/population-viability-analysis-origins-and-contributions-16091427
model
Which parameters are important

for PVA?
 • rate of population growth based on birth and death (vital rates),
immigrants, emigrants
• initial population size
• carrying capacity and density dependence in vital rates
• life stage (vital rates depending on age)
• temporal variation in vital rates and carrying capacity due to
environmental and demographic stochasticity
• genetic variation (depending on availability of genetic data)
• immigration and emigration rates (dispersal dynamics)
• metapopulation and landscape characteristics

http://qaeco.com/2013/04/22/principles-of-population-viability-analysis-pva-a-checklist-of-the-basics/
 Population Viability Analysis
"Uncertainty is just about the only certainty in PVA."

Pro’s Con’s
• cornerstone in conservation • complex model para-metrisation
• useful quantitative tool to (generally 10 years of data necessary)
understand the relative risks of • single species technique
extinction • sufficient information for only few
• compare alternative species
management strategies • may omit additional /
• interface between science and non-demographic risks
practice • long-term projections

R packages: PVAClone, popbio

The down-ward spiral to extinction
 Biodiversity conservation targets three interdependent levels:
ecosystems, species and genes.

Conservation genetics targets the species level and aims for

conserving genetic diversity within a species

Genetic diversity = population viability

Conservation of genetic diversity is important to the overall health of populations because

decreased genetic diversity leads to increased levels of inbreeding, and reduced fitness
What is genetic diversity?
 What is genetic diversity?
Genetic diversity is the number of genetic characteristics in the genetic
makeup of a species.Genetic variability is the variability of genes in a
species or in a population.

Measures of genetic diversity:

• Gene diversity: is the proportion of polymorphic loci across the
genome.
• Heterozygosity: is the fraction of individuals in a population that are
heterozygous for a particular locus.
• Allele diversity: the mean number of alleles per locus
How does human action reduce genetic
diversity?

• in agriculture?
• in forestry?
• in restauration / conservation?

How can humans preserve or even

generate genetic diversity?
 What is Conservation genetics?
Conservation genetics is the use of genetics to preserve species as dynamic entities
that can evolve to cope with environmental change and thus minimize their risk of
extinction. It …
• studies the effects of inbreeding on reproduction and survival (inbreeding depression)
• studies the loss of genetic diversity and it effect on evolution
• studies the fragmentation of populations and reduction in gene flow
• studies the genetic adaptation to captivity and its adverse effects on reintroduction
success
• resolves taxonomic uncertainties and population structure
• uses molecular genetic analyses to understand aspects of species biology important to
conservation
 Loss of genetic diversity
• genetic diversity is important because it allows populations to adapt to a
changing environment (i.e. adaption to specific factors = natural selection)
• natural variation of genetic diversity because of genetic drift (e.g. from one
generation to the next)
• if a allele occurs in low frequent in small populations: high probability of loss
• maintenance of genetic diversity depends on the effective population size Ne
(= number of breeding individuals)
Again, extinction a problem for small
populations
 Effective population size Ne
(tamaño poblacional efectiva)
• In simple cases: Ne = number of breeding individuals
• Definition: the number of breeding individuals in an idealised population that
would show the same amount of dispersion of allele frequencies under random
genetic drift or the same amount of inbreeding as the population under
consideration

• Ne determines:
• evolutionary stable strategy
• variation in reproductive output
• population fluctuations and bottlenecks
• founder effects
 Loss of genetic variation in small and
isolated populations
Proportion of heterozygosity remaining
after one generation
H (% genetic variability

H = 1- 1/ (2 Ne)
remaining)

Proportion of heterozygosity remaining

after t generation

Ht = H t
Note: This model does neither
consider migration between
t (Generations) populations nor mutation

• in small populations mutation is insufficient to maintain genetic diversity

• however, a few immigrants may greatly reduce loss of genetic diversity
Inbreeding depression (Depresión endogámica)
Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness in a given population as a result of
inbreeding (i.e. breeding of related individuals). Inbreeding depression is often the result of a
population bottleneck. In general, the higher the genetic variation or gene pool within a breeding
population, the less likely it is to suffer from inbreeding depression.
Consequences:
• reduced offspring fitness
• higher mortality offspring
• fewer offspring
• sterile of weak offspring
• reduced population size in the next
generation may result in more inbreeding
depression
Outbreeding depression

Primack (2012)
Which biological mechanisms
exist to avoid inbreeding
depression?
 Mechanisms avoiding inbreeding
depression
• kin recognition
• dispersal (male or female dispersal )
• delayed maturation
• extra-pair copulation (difficult conservation of lifetime
bonded species)
• plants avoiding self pollination (e.g. dichogamy, dioecism,
self incompatibility)
 Solution: Genetic rescue
Genetic rescue is the process, either natural or facilitated, where inbred (= small) populations receive genes
from another population such that their overall genetic diversity increases. (= facilitate gene flow among
populations such that those with inbreeding depression can be ‘rescued’)

Some problems associated with genetic rescue:

• Outbreeding depression: upsetting local genetic adaptation / local purity and provenance
• Limited quantitative information on the expected consequences of outcrossing
• Lack of clear guidelines and high costs
• Risks of disease, pest and parasite spread
• Disrupting social systems in some animals
• Moving biological material across political jurisdictions
Johnson et al. 2010, Science
Metapopulation
Concept

• A metapopulation is a
population of
populations

• Metapopulations are
spatially isolated
populations that are
linked by the dispersal of
individuals
Primack (2012)
 Metapopulation concept
• Metapopulations are characterized by repeated extinctions and colonization
• Metapopulations allow species to persist; while some populations may go extinct
others are established by colonization (i.e. source and sink populations)
• High rates of immigration to protect a population from extinction is known as
rescue effect
• shifting mosaic of metapopulations
• metapopulations models consider founder effects, genetic drift and gene flow
• So, a bit of habitat fragmentation is good? Depends on migration and dispersal
abilities of the species.
https://www.ted.com/playlists/426/is_it_time_for_de_extinction

What is DeExtinction?
• Bringing extinct species back to life
• using cloning: DNA extraction + surrogate parents
• Possible candidates: passenger pigeon, woolly mammoth

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EVzhs1WjzGg
http://longnow.org/revive/events/tedxdeextinction/the-program/