801 Ba 123

Earth and Life Science
(Q2)
Alvin A. Pabores, LPT

Joshua Philip T. Pirante, LPT
1
Table of Contents
Module 8: Introduction to Life Science

Introduction 119
Learning Objectives 119
Lesson 1. Historical Development of the Concept of Life 120
Lesson 2. Unifying Themes of Life 123
Assessment Task 131
Summary 135
Reference 136
Module 9: Animal Reproduction

Introduction 138
Lesson 1. Types of Animal Reproduction 139
Lesson 2. Protein Synthesis 144
Lesson 3. Mutation 150
Lesson 4. Genetic Engineering 151
Assessment Task 154
Summary 161
Reference 162
Module 10: Metabolism and Survival in Animals

Introduction 164
Lesson 1. Nutrition for the Cells 165
Lesson 2. Gas Exchange 170
Lesson 3. Circulation: Internal Transport 173
Lesson 4. Homeostasis 177
Lesson 5. Salt and Water Balance and Waste Removal 180
Lesson 6. The Immune System: Defense Against Disease 185
Lesson 7. Hormones that Govern Body Activities 189
Lesson 8. Nervous System 192
Lesson 9. The Body in Motion 196
Assessment Task 200
Summary 210
Reference 210
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Module 11: Evolution
Introduction 212
Lesson 1. Evidences for Evolution 213
Lesson 2. Origin and Extinction of the Species 219
Assessment Task 224
Summary 228
Reference 228
Module 12: Interaction and Interdependence

Introduction 230
Lesson 1. Principles of an Ecosystem 230
Lesson 2. Biotic Potential and Environmental Resistance 234
Lesson 3. Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystem 244
Lesson 4. Human Activities that Affects the Natural Ecosystem 256
Assessment Task 257
Summary 266
Reference 267
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MODULE 8
INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE
Introduction
According to Collins Dictionary of Sociology (n.d.), the term science (Greek: scientia) is
commonly defined as a systemized body of knowledge. Through the works of different scientist,
the body of knowledge is enriched and defined. Science has two branch the social science and
natural science. Social science deals with the institutions and functioning of human society. On
the other hand, natural science deals with the physical or material word which composed of both
living and non-living things. In physical science that covers the study of matter and energy it
includes astronomy, chemistry, geology and physics while in biological science shows the study
of life forms covers botany and zoology. In history, Aristotle is considered as the father of Biology
while Jean Baptist Lamarck coined the term biology in 1805.
The following section discusses the historical development of the concept of life, origin of
the first life forms and the unifying themes in the study of life. You will also learn about the three
major fields in biology covering the unifying themes of life: genetics, evolution, and biochemistry.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. explain the evolving concept of life based on emerging pieces of evidence; and
2. describe how unifying themes (e.g., structure and function, evolution, and ecosystems) in
the study of life show the connections among living things and how they interact with each
other and with their environment.
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Lesson 1. Historical Development of the Concept of Life
Many scientists have dedicated themselves to finding out how life first appeared on
Earth.
1. Theory of Special Creation

A research study by Ragnunath (n.d.), the creationists believed that the existing forms of
living organisms were brought in their present forms by Divine command. One of the greatest
supporters of the special creation doctrine, Father Suarez (1548- 1617) advocated that in six days
the earth with animals and plants was brought into being. At the end of the period creation was
closed and the living things remained almost as such as they were originally created.
2. Cosmozoic Theory or Theory of Panspermia

As stated by Mondal (n.d.), this theory was proposed by Richter (1865). According to this
theory, ‘protoplasm’ reached the earth in the form of spores or germs or other simple particles
from some unknown part of the universe with the cosmic dust, and subsequently evolved into
various forms of life. Helmholz (1884) speculated that ‘protoplasm’ in some form reached the
earth with falling meteorites.
3. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis

This theory was proposed by Aristotle where life come from non-living thing and it explains the
origin of life. Spontaneous generation states that vital forces or organic matter can create organisms
from inanimate objects (Rogers, 2018).
Scientists who challenged the idea of spontaneous generation (Mangali, Oliva, Mulig & Estera, 2016):
a. Redi’s Experiment- Francesco Redi was able to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation
that maggots could be spontaneously generated from meat using a controlled experiment.
b. Needham’s Test- John Needham believed that life can arise spontaneously. He repeated after
Redi’s experiment but yielded different result because he was not successful in killing all
microbes while boiling broth.
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c. Spallanzani’s Experiments- Lazzaro Spallanzani disagreed to the theory of spontaneous
generation after observing absence of small organisms in some chicken broth placed in sealed
flask heated for 30 minutes.
d. Pasteur’s Test- Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation through an experiment,
where beef broth was sterilized through boiling in two flasks, one that was exposed to air and
another that was protected from it.
4. Biogenesis Theory
Proposed by Francisco Redi, in which life is derived from the reproduction of other life,
was presumably preceded by abiogenesis, which became impossible once
Earth’s atmosphere assumed its present composition (Higginbotham, 2016).
5. Oparin’s and Haldane Theory

As cited by Rogers (2018), in the 1920s British scientist J.B.S. Haldane and Russian
biochemist Aleksandr Oparin independently set forth similar ideas concerning the conditions
required for the origin of life on Earth. Both believed that organic molecules could be formed from
abiogenic materials in the presence of an external energy source (e.g., ultraviolet radiation) and
that the primitive atmosphere was reducing (having very low amounts of free oxygen) and
contained ammonia and water vapor, among other gases.
6. Urrey-Miller Hypothesis
Harold C. Urey (1953) and Stanley Miller tested the Oparin-Haldane theory and
successfully produced organic molecules from some of the inorganic components thought to have
been present on prebiotic Earth. They combined warm water with a mixture of four gases—water
vapor, methane, ammonia, and molecular hydrogen—and pulsed the “atmosphere” with electrical
discharges. The different components were meant to simulate the primitive ocean, the prebiotic
atmosphere, and heat (in the form of lightning), respectively. One week later Miller and Urey found
that simple organic molecules, including amino acids (the building blocks of proteins), had formed
under the simulated conditions of early Earth (Rogers, 2018).
7. Fossil
A remnant, impression, or trace of an animal or plant of a past geologic age that has been
preserved in Earth’s crust. The complex of data recorded in fossils worldwide-known as the
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fossil record- is the primary source of information about the history of life on Earth
(Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020).
8. Geologic time Scale

The extensive interval of time occupied by the geologic history of Earth. Formal geologic
time begins at the start of the Archean Eon (4.0 billion to 2.5 billion years ago) and continues to
the present day. Modern geologic time scales additionally often include the Hadean Eon, which
is an informal interval that extends from about 4.6 billion years ago (corresponding to Earth’s initial
formation) to 4.0 billion years ago (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2020).
Origin of the First Life Forms
As stated by Mangali et al. (2016), the paleontologists are scientist who collect, identify,
and study pieces of evidence about earlier life-forms and try to determine how these have evolved
into the organisms of today. A fossil is a remnant or trace of plant, an animal, or other sedimentary
rock deposited in riverbeds or on the ocean floor. Some fossils are very small and can be seen
only with the aid of a microscope. These are called microfossils. The fossils that are considered
the oldest on Earth are the stromatolites. These are layers of sheet like sedimentary rocks that
were created by layers upon layers of cyanobacteria, single-celled photosynthetic microbes.
Bacteria are considered to be the first life-forms that existed on Earth over two billion years ago.
They also added the evidence collected by paleontologists reveals the remarkable
relationship between the diversity of organisms from the earlier life-forms to the present. Scientific
research shows that earliest life-forms have gone through evolution, or the gradual change and
development of a species or a group of organisms that leads it to a more advanced form (Mangali
et al., 2016).
Lesson 2. Unifying Themes of Life
1. Cell Structure & Function

According to Douglas and Wilson (2014), the cell is the basic unit of structure & function.
All organisms are made of one or more cells; unicellular (one celled) or multicellular (composed
of more than one cell). The cells are small but highly organized; they contain specialized
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structures that carry out the jobs of a cell called organelles. There are many different kinds of
cells, but all cells have similarities. All cells are surrounded by a cell membrane, contain
cytoplasm, and have DNA (the genetic information for making new cells or cell structures). The
new cells made by unicellular organisms are identical (clones) to the parent cell that produced
them – asexual reproduction. The multicellular organisms begin life as one fertilized cell ( sexual
reproduction), but the cells multiplied and underwent differentiation (changed structure & function)
to become many different kinds of cells.
As cited by Rabago, Jaoquin, Lagunzad and Carvajal (2007), many other scientists
studied cells. In the late 1830’s two German scientists, Matthias J. Schleiden (1838), a plant
biologist, and Theodor Schwann (1839), an animal biologist, worked on various organisms. They
worked separately but came in the same conclusion, which is known as the cell theory. Based on
this theory, all organisms are made up of fundamental units called cells. Another German
physician, Rudolf Virchow (1855), discovered that new cells arise from pre-existing cells, this add
to the third statement of cell theory. Basically, the concepts may be summarized into three
statement as follows (Bailey, 2020):
1. All living things are structurally made up of cells.

2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life.
3. Cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.
Furthermore, other discoveries were made by scientists like Robert Brown that discovered
the presence of nucleus within cells and Camilo Golgi who discovered Golgi bodies (Rabago et
al., 2007).
Below are the different parts and functions of a cell (Biologydictionary, 2017):
A. Cell Wall- This is the rigid outermost layer of a plant cell. It makes the cell stiff -providing
the cell with mechanical support - and giving it protection. Animal cells do not have cell
walls.
B. Cell Membrane- This is a protective layer that surrounds every cell and separates it
from its external environment. It is found just inside the cell wall and is made up of
complex lipids (fats) and proteins.
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C. Cytoplasm- The cytoplasm is a thick, aqueous (water-based) solution in which the
organelles are found. Substances such as salts, nutrients, minerals and enzymes
(molecules involved in metabolism) are dissolved in the cytoplasm.
D. Nucleus- The nucleus is the ‘control center’ of the cell. It contains Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), the genetic material that directs all the activities of the cell. Only eukaryotic
cells have nuclei (plural for nucleus), prokaryotic cells do not.
E. Nuclear membrane- specialized membrane where the nucleus is separated from the
cytoplasm.
F. Ribosomes- These are little round structures that produce proteins. They are found in
the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
The ER is a membrane system of folded sacs and tunnels. The ER helps move
proteins within the cell as well as export them outside of the cell. There are two types
of endoplasmic reticulum.
G. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)- The smooth ER is without attached ribosomes

and usually site for fat metabolism, and
H. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)- The rough ER is covered with ribosomes.
I. Golgi body- The Golgi body is a stack of membrane-covered sacs that prepares
proteins for export from the cell.
J. Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria)- This is the ‘powerhouse’ of the cell. It converts

the energy stored in food (sugar and fat) into energy-rich molecules that the cell can
use (Adenosine triphosphate – ATP for short).
K. Lysosome- The lysosome is the digestive center of a cell that produces many different
types of enzymes which are able to break down food particles and recycle worn out
components of the cell.
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L. Vacuoles- These are large membrane-enclosed compartments that store toxic wastes
as well as useful products such as water. These are mainly found in plants.
M. Chloroplast- Chloroplasts contain a green pigment that traps sunlight and converts it
into sugars by a process called photosynthesis. The sugars are a source of energy for
the plants and the animals that eat them.
Figure 8.1. Parts of Plant Cell

Source: https://www.simply.science/index.php/organization-of-life (2018)
2. Stability and Homeostasis
According to Friedman (2017), all organisms maintain stable internal conditions such as
body temperature and water content. The stable level of internal conditions called homeostasis.
An organism reproduces new organisms like themselves by transmitting hereditary material to
their offspring.
3. Reproduction and Inheritance

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a large molecule containing the hereditary material of the
cell. In unicellular organisms like bacteria, DNA exists as a single loop or chromosome in the
cytoplasm. In multicellular organisms, DNA is enclosed in a membrane known as the nucleus.
Genes are short segments of DNA the carry the instructions for a single trait of an organism. DNA
of a cell contains all of the genes (instructions) it will ever need (Friedman, 2017).
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Figure 8.2 Illustration of a chromosome organized in a package of DNA found in the nucleus of the cell
Source: https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Chromosome (2019)
Additionally, Friedman (2017) states that all body cells have a complete set of DNA
(genome), but different types of cells use certain genes from the set; example: Muscle cells have
the genes to make thyroxine, but they don’t use these genes. In sexual reproduction, an egg
(ovum) is fertilized by a sperm to form a zygote so the new organism is made of cells with
hereditary information from both parents. In asexual reproduction, cells copy their DNA and split
so all new cells are identical.
4. Evolution
Natural selection or “survival of the fittest” is the process that drives evolution. Charles
Darwin who published the book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859
explained how evolution happens. Organisms with favorable traits are better able to survive and
reproduce. The survival of organisms with favorable traits causes a gradual change in populations
of organisms over many generations. Evolution by natural selection is driven by competition for
resources such as food, habitat, mates (Friedman, 2017). He also added the phenomenon of
evolution is supported by fossil record, variation within a species, similarities in structure
(comparative anatomy), similarities in developmental changes (comparative embryology,
mutation (natural or induced) and molecular biology.
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5. Interdependence of Organisms
Figure 8.3. The terrestrial food chain featuring producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/food-chain (2015)
Ecology is the study of the interaction of organisms with each other and their environment.
The sunlight is the ultimate energy for all organisms. The energy from the sun is passed from one
organism to another; producers (plants) to herbivore (plant eater) to carnivore (meat eater) to
decomposers (break down dead organisms) (Friedman, 2017).
Friedman (2017) also stated that in ecology, an organism needs abiotic (nonliving factors)
such as air, water, energy, soil, temperature, and minerals for survival. And the biotic factors that
include all living things on earth such as plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms. In totality,
biosphere supports life and includes the biotic (all organisms) and the abiotic (all nonliving factors)
on earth.
6. Matter, energy and organization

Additionally, Friedman (2017) states that organisms are highly organized, maintain
internal order, and require a constant energy supply. Plants and unicellular organisms with
chlorophyll capture sunlight through photosynthesis and store it in food to be used by other
organisms. Autotrophs or producers use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to make glucose
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(energy rich sugar) and oxygen – photosynthesis. Heterotrophs (consumers) feed on producers
or other consumers to get energy and release carbon dioxide.
Characteristics of Life
All forms of life share common characteristics. These characteristics of life include the
following (Mangali et al. 2016):
(1) Sensitivity- Living things are able to respond to the environment through a stimulus.
Irritability is an example. Another example is a living thing’s response to light by facing the
sun and sweating as our body response to heat which is also connected to excretion.
(2) Reproduction- Unicellular organisms reproduce by DNA replication and dividing equally
as the new cell prepares to form two new cells while multicellular organisms often
reproduce using its gametes in order to form new individuals. When there is reproduction,
genes with DNA will passed from generation to generation to ensure that the offspring
belong to the same species having similar characteristics.
(3) Growth and Development- Organisms grow and develop according to its genes that gives
instruction that will direct the cellular growth and development ensure that the offspring
will grow up and exhibit many of the same characteristics as its parents. Mitosis and
meiosis play an important role in this matter.
(4) Nutrition- Living things needs nutrients as parts of their daily activities. Macromolecules
and micro molecules as needed by living organisms helps them to have an energy.
(5) Respiration- Respiration is the process in which the energy from the food eaten is being
released in al living cells. Organisms break down the food within their cells with a specific
process to carry out the following processes.
(6) Movement- All living things move. Animals move from one place to another. Plants also
move but not as usually observable than animals. A makahiya leaf being touched is an
example of movement through thigmotrophism.
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(7) Excretion- All living things also excrete but in different ways. Excretion is the result of many
chemical reactions happening in cells which they have to remove the waste products
which might poison the cells. Excretion is the removal of toxic minerals in excess from the
organism.
Hierarchy of Organisms
Another study on the topic by Mangali et al. (2016), the life can be studies through the
organized hierarchy of organisms which reveals and emergent properties at each level of
organization. Biological organization starts with the atoms, the building blocks of matter. The
group of atoms held together by chemical bonds is called molecules. Group of molecules is called
organelles, a membrane-bound structures which perform specific functions. Cell which is the
fundamental unit of life composed of different organelles and group of similar cells makes a tissue.
Similar group of tissue that perform specific function is called organs. The group of organs is
called organ system. The organism has different organ and found in a population. The population
is the number of particular species living in a specific area. The group of organisms are called
community, that leaves in a particular ecosystem. The ecosystems consist of various groups or
organisms and the physical components in a particular environment. The biosphere is the highest
level of hierarchy. It supports all ecosystems that harbors organisms and the environment where
they live.
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Figure 8.4 Levels of biological organization
Source: https://www.simply.science/index.php/organization-of-life (2018)
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Assessment Task
Activity A.. Tell me who I am?
In the first column of this chart tells you the cell organelle. In the second column, write
the function of the cell organelle, and in the third column the place or person in the school.
Write your answer in the table below.
Cell organelle Function of the organelle Place or person in the School
Nucleus
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Vacuole
Golgi Body
Ribosome
Smooth ER
Rough ER
Lysosome
Cell Wall
Chloroplast
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Activity B. What an amazing life!
Think of the things that a living organism can do. Draw a living organism at the center
of the simple web concept map. Then write the characteristics of life on the circles on the side
(one each box). You may answer in phrase or word. Example: Movement, Reproduction
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Activity C. Case Analysis about Characteristics of Life
With the given concept about characteristic of life, answer the following situations with
the characteristics of life. Write your answer on the second table.
Statement Characteristic of Life

Jannine married Frank after dating for four
years. After 2 months, Jannine thought she
Reproduction
just had difficulty having menstruation then
she found out she was pregnant.
You throw a piece of seed into your
backyard. After a few weeks, there was a
seedling started to grow.
Stomata are small openings present on
plant leaves. On a hot dry day, the stomatal
openings remain closed to reduce the loss
of water. Which characteristic of living things
is described here?
Puppies have inherited genes from both
parents and share many of the same
characteristics.
eggs—tadpoles—adult frogs
Snakes shed their skin.
Mary was running fast because she was late

in her Biology class. When she entered the
classroom, she was sweating a lot.
Pollen carried from flower to flower
A triathlon ate plenty of fruits and vegetable

as a preparation for his competition next
week.
Guttation in plants gradually happen.
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Written Works
Direction: MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write it on
your answer sheet.
1. Which of the following is absent in prokaryotic cell?

a. cell wall c. nuclear membrane
b. DNA d. plasma membrane
2. A series of membrane-bound channels free of ribosomes is called
a. mitochondrion c. smooth-endoplasmic reticulum
b. plastid d. rough- endoplasmic reticulum
3. Discovered that new cells came from preexisting cells.
a. Matthias Schleiden c. Robert Brown
b. Theodor Schwann d. Rudolf Virchow
4. British botanist who discovered the nucleus as a constant part of the plant cells.
a. Matthias Schleiden c. Robert Brown
b. Theodor Schwann d. Rudolf Virchow
5. Who are these scientist who concluded that plants and animals are made up of
cells?
a. Matthias Schleiden & Robert Brown c. Robert Brown & Theodor Schwann
b. Theodor Schwann & Matthias Schleiden d. Rudolf Virchow & Robert Brown
6. The cells DNA is suspended in the cytoplasm. This is a characteristic of a
___________.
a. animal cell c. prokaryotic cell
b. eukaryotic cell d. plant cell
7. Organisms under Kingdom Protists and Fungi have these types of cells.
8. Which of the following pairs incorrectly matches a cell structure with its function?
a. nucleus: information (DNA) storage
b. cell membrane: protein synthesis
c. vacuole: storage
d. chloroplast: energy conversion
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e.
9. In many cells, the organelle that controls the cell’s activities is __________________.
a. nucleus c. nuclear envelope
b. nuclear pore d. nucleolus
10. Organisms under Kingdom Bacteria and Archaea have these types of cells.
11. It is considered as the second largest organelle and powerhouse of the cell.
a. cell wall c. mitochondria
b. chloroplast d. vacuole
12. ______________:Photosynthesis:: ______________: Cellular Respiration
a. cell wall: mitochondrion c. mitochondrion: chloroplast
b. chloroplast ; mitochondrion d. vacuole: ribosome
13. Which structure is not part of the endomembrane system?
a. nuclear envelope c. chloroplast
b. plasma membrane d. ER
14. Which structure is common to plant and animal cells?
a. chloroplast c. wall made of cellulose
b. Mitochondrion d. central vacuole
15. Which of the following is present in a prokaryotic cell?
a. mitochondrion c. ribosome
b. chloroplast d. ER
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Summary
 Different theory and hypothesis given in the development of theory of evolution;
a. Theory of special creation

b. Theory of panspermia
c. Theory of Spontaneous generation or Abiogenesis theory
d. Biogenesis Theory
e. Oparrin and Haldane theory
f. Urrey-Miller Hypothesis
g. Fossil
h. Geologic time scale
 All living organisms are made up of cells.

 The cell is the fundamental unit of function of living organisms.
 Cells come from preexisting cells.
 Cells vary in size, shape and function but there are parts and characteristics common to
all of them. The three major parts of the cells are cytoplasm, nucleus and cell membrane .
 Characteristics of life consist of the following; (a) respiration; (b) growth and development;
(c) reproduction; (d) excretion; (e)sensitivity; (f) nutrition; and (g) movement.
 The hierarchy of organisms starts with atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues,
organs, organ systems, organisms, population, community, ecosystem and biosphere.
References
 Bailey, R. (2020). Cell theory, a core principle of biology. https://www.thoughtco.com/cell-

theory-373300
 Biologydictionary. (2017, April 05). Plant Cell. https://biologydictionary.net/plant-cell/
 Biology. science and technology textbook for second year. (2006, 2009). Reprint Ed.
Book Media Press, Inc., Quezon City and Printwell Inc., Madaluyong City.
137
 Collins Dictionary of Sociology, 3 rd Ed. HarperCollins Publisher.
https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/scientific+knowledge
 Cosmozoic Theory. https://tinyurl.com/yy2kwwaf
 Douglas, W., Wilson, N. (2014). Introduces the Importance of cells in biology.
https://www.ck12.org/biology/cells/lesson/Cells-Advanced-BIO-ADV
 Encyclopedia Britannica. (2020, June 2). Geologic Time. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.
https://www.britannica.com/science/geologic-time
 Encyclopedia Britannica. (2020, March 26). Fossil. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.
https://www.britannica.com/science/fossil
 Friedman J. (2017, April 27). Introduction to Biology. Biology Junction.
https://tinyurl.com/y28njo9r
 Higginbotham, Thomas. “Francesco Redi: Biography, Experiments & Cell Theory - Video
& Lesson Transcript | Study.Com.” Study.Com, 2016,
study.com/academy/lesson/francesco-redi-biography-experiments-cell-theory.html.
 Mangali G.R., Oliva M. D.G., Mulig-Cruz C.I., Estira F.R. (2016). Earth and life science.
Diwa Senior High School Series. Makati City, Philippines
 Mondal, P. Origin of Life: 5 Ancient theories of origin of life . Your Article Library.
https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/biology/origin-of-life-5-ancient-theories-of-origin-of-
life/13248
 Rabago L.M., Joaquin. C. C., Lagunzad. G. B., Carvajal, J.C. (2007). Functional biology
modular approach. Vibal Publishing House Inc. Quezon City.
 Ragnunath M. (n.d.). Emergence of living forms. Biology discussion.
https://tinyurl.com/y4u3rxrd
 Reece, J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain, M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky P.V., Jackson R. B.
(2011). Campbell Biology Ninth Edition. USA
 Rogers, K. (2018, September 26). Abiogenesis. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.
https://www.britannica.com/science/abiogenesis
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MODULE 9
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Introduction
Like plants, animals need to reproduce in order to increase the chance of the perpetuation
of their species. But unlike plants, there is an assumption that animals reproduced only through
the process of fertilization, or the fusion of the sperm cell and egg cell. Actually, like plants, some
animals also used asexual or sexual or both methods of sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction
is the process of joining the haploid gametes (sex cells) to form a diploid cell called a zygote. A
zygote, eventually becomes an embryo and later on develop into an organism. The female
gamete is an egg cell, is usually non-motile, to ensure survival of the embryo by storing energy.
The male gamete is a sperm cell, which is motile to search for the egg cell for fertilization. In
asexual reproduction, fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell does not occur, reproduction is mainly
through mitosis which creates a clone of the parent (Kenyon College, 2003).
Learning Outcomes

1. describe the different ways of how representative animals reproduce;
2. describe the process of genetic engineering; and
3. evaluate the benefits and risk of using GMO’s.
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Lesson 1. Types of Animal Reproduction
According to Reece, Urry, Cain, Wasserman, Minorsky, and Jackson (2011), one unique
characteristics of organisms is the ability to increase in number and produce their own kind. This
process is called reproduction. Through this process, living things can perpetuate their species.
There are two basic types of reproduction; asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction
refers to the formation of new individuals without involving sex cells or gametes.
On the other hand, Robson (2019), said that sexual reproduction involves the union of
gametes; the sperm (or male gamete) fuses with the egg (or female gamete) to form a fertilized
egg, or zygote. A new individual, or offspring, develops from the zygote.
Additionally, they reported that in asexual reproduction, the offspring is not a product of
chance combination of genes derived from two different parent gametes. Rather, the offspring is
genetically identical with its single parent. In other words, asexual reproduction results in the
formation of clones. As stated by Mineli (2019), the asexual reproduction is common among plants
and protists and less so among animals. It allows formation of numerous offspring in a short time.
This is most advantageous for the perpetuation of the species in a stable, favorable environment.
The following are the different methods of asexual reproduction (Scoville, 2019):
1. Budding- occurs when individuals arise throughout the outgrowths from a parent. This can
create a colony of individuals attached to a parent, such as in corals.
2. Fission- is the separation/division of an organism to form individuals of approximately same

size. This is usually observed in animal-like protists.
3. Fragmentation and Regeneration- fragmentation is when an animal’s body breaks into

different parts, which later regenerate to form several individuals. Sponges, annelids,
cnidarians and tunicates are examples of this mode of reproduction.
4. Parthenogenesis- also known as “virgin beginning” is like apomixes in plants, where the
egg cell develops without fertilization. This is exhibited by bees, wasps, lizards, sharks.
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5. Hermaphrodism- having sexual organs of both sexes e.g. snail and earthworm.
Figure 9.1 Different methods of asexual reproduction (a) budding (b) fission (c) regeneration (d)
parthenogenesis
Source: Campbell Biology Ninth Edition (2011)
Just like in plant reproduction, sexual reproduction is disadvantageous in terms of energy

expenditure but is advantageous due to the genetic variation it creates. It allows organism to
perpetuate in an unstable environment where factors such as diseases can decrease the survival
rate of the population. Meanwhile, asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction which
lessens energy expenditure in animals, as fully formed individuals are produced, increasing the
chance of survival (Scoville, 2019).
Mechanism of fertilization
There are two types of fertilization – internal and external. Internal fertilization occurs when
the fusion of gametes is inside the female body, while an external fertilization is the opposite
where fusion of gametes is outside the female body. Below are the types of internal fertilization
(OpenStax Biology, 2020).
1. Oviparity – the female has fertilized eggs laid outside its body. The young will get
nourishment from its yolk and will be protected by the external covering of the egg. The
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types of eggs will vary in different animals. Chicken eggs will have high calcium carbonate
concentrations, while reptiles will produce leathery eggs (example chicken).
2. Viviparity – most common in mammals, the offspring develops within the female and is
nourished by the mother’s blood in the placenta. Ex. Bears.
3. Ovoviviparity – like oviparity, ovoviviparity has fertilized eggs that nourish the young from
its yolk. The key difference between them, is that ovoviviparous animals only lay the eggs
when they are ready to hatch. Ex. Great White Sharks ,
Figure 9.2 Types of internal fertilization (a) oviparity (b) viviparity (c) ovoviviparity
Source: https://pixabay.com/ (n.d.)
Sexual Reproduction in some Animals
Sexual reproduction produces new individuals through the union of sex cells--- the egg
cell and the sperm cell. In most animals, the egg is produced by the female and the sperm, by the
male (Prakashan, 2016).
In this part, we will discuss the two representative examples: the earthworm (invertebrate)
and the frog (vertebrate). They represent two different kinds of sexual reproduction because
earthworm, unlike the frog, possesses both male and female organs in the same body. The
earthworm is unique because it is produces both eggs and sperm. Animals with both male and
female organs are said to be hermaphroditic. Reproductive system of the earthworm consists of
the following (Prakashan, 2016):
a. To mate (or copulate), two worms join their anterior portions along their ventral
surfaces, with their anterior ends pointing to opposite directions. In the figure, each
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worm discharges sperm (from segment XV) into sperm-receiving sacs (segment
IX and X) of the other. Then the two worms separate.
b. Next, the clitellum (which extends from segment XXXI to XXXVII) of each worm
secretes a slime or mucous ring. By contrasting slowly, the worm gradually pushes
the clitellum toward its anterior end. When it passes over segment XIV, the worm
discharges eggs into it. Then when it passes over segments IX and X, the worm
discharges sperm into it.
c. Eventually, the clitellum is pushed over the anterior end of the worm and drops to
the ground. It is now called a cocoon, measuring around one centimeter long.
Fertilization takes place inside the cocoon. The embryos develop also inside the
cocoon. The young earthworms come out of the cocoon in about three months.
Thus, fertilization of the egg and development of the embryo in earthworms are
both external, that is, outside the body.
Table 9.1 The reproductive organs of an earthworm
Female organs Male organs

2 ovaries in segment XIII which produce 2 sperm- storage sacs or seminal vesicles
eggs which extend from segments IX and XIII
2 oviducts (these are short tubes, one 2 pairs of testes in segments X and XI, found
behind each ovary) which release the eggs inside the seminal vesicles, which release
from the body cavity to the outside at sperm into the seminal vesicles
segment XIV
2 pairs of sperm-receiving sacs or seminal 2 vas efferens, each leading to a large tube
receptacles in segments IX and X called a vas deferens; these are the two
sperm ducts which release the sperm from
the seminal vesicles to the outside at
segment XV
Source: Rabago. Joaquin, Lagunzad, Caraval, Functional Biology (2007)
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Figure 9.3 Reproductive system of the earthworm (A); copulating earthworms (B)
Source: topplerlearning.com (2012)
Reproduction in Frogs
According to Bradford (2015), the frog represents the majority of vertebrates, which are
either male or female. In the female frog, two ovaries (which lie close to kidneys) produce many
eggs. As in the earthworm, the frog has two oviducts with a ciliated, funnel opening. The
movement of the cilia creates a current in the fluid inside the body cavity; the current sweeps the
eggs into the oviducts. As they pass through the oviducts, the eggs become coated with jelly-like
material.
During the mating, the male frog clutches the female from the black. The pressure helps
the female expel the eggs into the water outside. The male frog discharges sperm over them. The
water causes the jellylike material surrounding the eggs to swell, becoming something like well-
beaten egg white where fertilization of the eggs as well as development of the embryos take
place. Soon tiny tadpoles emerge from this frothy nest (Bradford, 2015).
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Thus, as in earthworms, fertilization of the egg and development of the embryo in frogs
are both external, outside the body of the female.
Figure 9.4 Reproductive system of female and male frog (A); mating in frogs (B)
Source: socratic.org ( 2020) and theguardian.com (2020)
Reproduction and Genetic Makeup
Reproduction is the process that supports the

perpetuation of a species. Through it, the
characteristics of a parent plant or an animal are
passed on to its offspring (Gillaspy, 2020).
Recall how each organism is made up of

billions of cells. The nucleus of each cell contains
chromosomes, or long noodle like strands made up
of a material called DNA. Each chromosome is made
up of thousands of genes or small packets of DNA
(Gillaspy, 2020).
Figure 9.5 Structure of chromosome
Source: https://tinyurl.com/ybf54kx9 (2016)
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Each DNA, in turn, is made up of three parts: five carbon sugar, base with nitrogen, and
phosphate. A gene contains information about the traits that an organism has inherited from its
parents (Gillaspy, 2020).
Information Transfer
As stated by Gillaspy (2020), the genes also store instructions for cells to follows so they
can carry out protein synthesis, or the process by which cells create the proteins that an organism
needs to live and grow. Proteins are made up of amino acids, or special organic molecules that
consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The human body is able to produce most of
the amino acids it needs but sources the rest from the food it takes in. Food rich in protein includes
chicken, eggs, fish and nuts.
Lesson 2. Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis is the process in which cells make proteins. It occurs in two stages:
transcription and translation. In eukaryotic cells, transcription takes place in the nucleus. During
transcription, DNA is used as a template to make a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). The
molecule of mRNA then leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome in the cytoplasm, where
translation occurs. During translation, the genetic code in mRNA is read and used to make
a protein. These two processes are summed up by the central dogma of molecular
biology: DNA → RNA→ Protein (Khan Academy, 2018).
The Genetic Code
The first step in decoding genetic messages is transcription, during which a nucleotide
sequence is copied from DNA to RNA. The next step is to join amino acids together to form a
protein (Khan Academy, 2018).
The order in which amino acids are joined together determine the shape, properties, and
function of a protein (Khan Academy, 2018).
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The four bases of RNA form a language with just four nucleotide bases: adenine (A),
cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U). The genetic code is read in three-base words
called codons. Each codon corresponds to a single amino acid (or signals the starting and
stopping points of a sequence (Khan Academy, 2018).
How to read codon table?
The following are the steps on how to read codon table (Khan Academy, 2018).
1. First, we look at the left side of the table. The axis on the left side refers to the first letter
of the codon, so we find C along the left axis. This tells us the (broad) row of the table in
which our codon will be found.
2. Next, we look at the top of the table. The upper axis refers to the second letter of the
codon, so we find A along the upper axis. This tells us the column of the table in which
our codon will be found.
The row and column from steps 1 and 2 intersect in a single box in the codon table, one
containing four codons. It's often easiest to simply look at these four codons and see which one
is the one you're looking for.
Figure 9.6 The Codon table

Source: https://tinyurl.com/y3x526s4 (2018)
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If you want to use the structure of the table to the maximum, however, you can use the
third axis (on the right side of the table) corresponding to the intersect box. By finding the third
nucleotide of the codon on this axis, you can identify the exact row within the box where your
codon is found. For instance, if we look for G on this axis in our example above, we find that CAG
encodes the amino acid glutamine (Gln) (Khan Academy, 2018).
Transcription
Transcription is the first part of the central dogma of molecular biology: DNA → RNA. It is
the transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA. During transcription, a strand of mRNA is
made to complement a strand of DNA (Khan Academy, 2018).
Figure 9.7 Overview of Transcription. Transcription uses the sequence of bases in a strand of
DNA to make a complementary strand of mRNA. Triplets are groups of three successive
nucleotide bases in DNA. Codons are complementary groups of bases in mRNA.
Source: fhttps://tinyurl.com/y6yojsoa (2013)
Steps of Transcription
Transcription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. The steps
are illustrated in the figure below (Khan Academy, 2018):
1. Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase
binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. This signals the DNA to unwind so
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the enzyme can “read” the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is ready to
make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.
2. Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand.
3. Termination is the ending of transcription. The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches
from DNA.
Figure 9.8 Steps of Transcription. Transcription occurs in three steps: initiation, elongation,
and termination.
Source: https://tinyurl.com/y6yojsoa (2012)
Processing mRNA
In eukaryotes, the new mRNA is not yet ready for translation. At this stage, it is called pre-
mRNA, and it must go through more processing before it leaves the nucleus as mature mRNA.
The processing may include splicing, editing, and polyadenylation. These processes modify the
mRNA in various ways. Such modifications allow a single gene to be used to make more than
one protein (Khan Academy 2018).
 Splicing removes introns from mRNA, as shown in the diagram below. Introns are regions
that do not code for the protein. The remaining mRNA consists only of regions
called exons that do code for the protein. The ribonucleoproteins in the diagram are
small proteins in the nucleus that contain RNA and are needed for the splicing process.
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 Editing changes some of the nucleotides in mRNA. For example, a human protein called
APOB, which helps transport lipids in the blood, has two different forms because of
editing. One form is smaller than the other because editing adds an earlier stop signal in
mRNA.
 Polyadenylation adds a “tail” to the mRNA. The tail consists of a string of As (adenine
bases). It signals the end of mRNA. It is also involved in exporting mRNA from the
nucleus, and it protects mRNA from enzymes that might break it down.
Figure 9.9 Splicing removes introns from mRNA

Translation
The second part of the central dogma of molecular biology: RNA → Protein. It is the
process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to make a protein. After mRNA leaves the
nucleus, it moves to a ribosome, which consists of rRNA and proteins. The ribosome reads the
sequence of codons in mRNA, and molecules of tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome in the
correct sequence (Khan Academy, 2018).
Each tRNA molecule has an anticodon for the amino acid it carries. An anticodon is
complementary to the codon for an amino acid. For example, the amino acid lysine has the codon
AAG, so the anticodon is UUC. Therefore, lysine would be carried by a tRNA molecule with the
anticodon UUC. Wherever the codon AAG appears in mRNA, a UUC anticodon of tRNA
temporarily binds. While bound to mRNA, tRNA gives up its amino acid. With the help of rRNA,
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bonds form between the amino acids as they are brought one by one to the ribosome, creating a
polypeptide chain and chain of amino acids keeps growing until a stop codon is reached (Khan
Academy, 2018).
Figure 9.10 Translation of the codons in mRNA to a chain of amino acids occurs at a ribosome.
After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo additional processes. For

example, it may assume a folded shape due to interactions between its amino acids. It may also
bind with other polypeptides or with different types of molecules, such as lipids or carbohydrates.
Many proteins travel to the Golgi apparatus within the cytoplasm to be modified for the specific
job they will do (Khan Academy, 2018).
The genetic code stored in the DNA must be copied into RNA so that they can provide
instructions in the synthesis of particular proteins in the cytoplasm. Thus, the final products of the
DNA are proteins that allow us to express structural and functional characteristics. These proteins
may be used structurally as building blocks of the body, such as keratin in hair, nails and skin,
myosin and actin in muscles, and collagen in cartilages and bones. Some proteins synthesized
by cells may have specific functions to perform, such as hemoglobin in red blood cells to transport
oxygen or carbon dioxide in the body, or melanin that provides color to our skin or insulin that
regulates blood sugar level in our blood. Other proteins our cells produce may also serve as
functional enzymes to catalyze specific chemical reactions such as amylase for starch digestion
(Khan Academy, 2018).
Example:
First step
Old strand of DNA TAC CTG TAG AGG CTC TTC ATG CAG AAG ATC
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New strand of DNA ATG GAC ATC TCC GAG AAG GAC GTC TTC TAG
Second Step
One strand of DNA TAC CTG TAG AGG CTC TTC ATG CAG AAG ATC
mRNA AUG GAC AUC UCC GAG AAG UAC GUC UUC UAG
Third Step
tRNA UAC CUG UAG AGG CUC UUC AUG CAG AAG AUC
Protein met- asp- ile- ser- glu- lys- tyr- val- phe- stop
Code:
Phe- Phenylalanine Val- Valine Ala- Alanine Asn- Asparagine Cys- Cystine
Leu- Leucine Ser- Serine Tyr- Tyrosine Lys- Lysine Trp- Trypthophan
Ile- Isoleucine Pro- Proline His- Histidine Asp- Aspartic acid Arg- Arginine
Met- Methionine Thr- Threonine Gln- Glutamine Glu- Glutamic Acid Gly- Glycine
Lesson 3. Mutation
Any change in the sequence of nitrogen base in the DNA, any mistakes in the transcription
of genetic information from DNA to RNA or pairing of codon and anticodon can cause changes in
the kind, sequence and number of amino acids of proteins synthesized by cells. Changes in the
protein molecules may be reflected in changes in the structure and function of the cell, and
consequently of the organism. There are different types of mutations (Khan Academy, 2018).
There are three ways that DNA can be altered when a mutation (change in DNA sequence)
occurs (Khan Academy, 2018).
1. Substitution – one base-pairs is replaced by another:

Example: G to C or A to G C G T C
2. Insertion – one or more base pairs is added to a sequence:

Example: CGATGG –– CGAATGG GCTACC GCTTACC
3. Deletion – one or more base pairs is lost from a sequence:
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Example: CGATGG –– CATGG GCTACC GTACC
There are five possible results of a mutation.

1. Silent mutation: When a base pair is substituted but the change still codes for the same amino
acid in the sequence:
Example: TCT and TCC both code for the amino acid Serine
2. Substitution: When a base pair is substituted and the new codon codes for a different amino
acid:
Example: TCT codes for Serine and CCT codes for Proline
3. Premature Stop: When a substitution results in the formation of a STOP codon before all of the
codons have been read and translated by the ribosome.
Example: GTGGTCCGAAACACC –– GTGGTCTGAAACACC
Val-Val-Pro-Asn-Thr Val-Val-STOP
4. Codon Deletion or Insertion: A whole new amino acid is added, or one is missing from the
mutant proton:
Example: GTGGTCCGAAACACC –– GTGGTCTGCCGAAACACC
Val-Val-Pro-Asn-Thr Val-Val-Cys-Pro-Asn-Thr
5. Frame Shift: When a deletion or insertion results in a different base pair being the beginning of
the next codon, changing the whole sequence of amino acids
Example: GTGGTCCGAAACACCT –– GTGGTCGAAACACCT
Val-Val-Pro-Asn-Thr Val-Val-Glu-Thr-Pro
Lesson 4. Genetic Engineering
According to Melina (2010), the genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of genes
for practical purposes. It has been made possible with the discovery of the complex and
microscopic nature of DNA and its component nucleotides .
One study by Biology Online (n.d), the process of genetic engineering involves splicing an
area of a chromosome, a gene, that controls a certain characteristic of the body. The
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enzyme endonuclease is used to split a DNA sequence as well as split the gene from the rest of
the chromosome. For example, this gene may be programmed to produce an antiviral protein.
This gene is removed and can be placed into another organism. For example, it can be placed
into a bacterial cell where it can be sealed into the DNA chain using ligase. When the
chromosome is once again sealed the bacterial cell is now effectively re-programmed to replicate
this new antiviral protein. The bacterium can continue to live a healthy life while genetic
engineering by human intervention has manipulated it to produce the protein (Melina, 2010).
In research studies, animals that have been safely genetically engineered (GE) include
cattle, pigs, chickens, goats, sheep, dogs, cats, fish, rats, and mice. Genetic engineering or
genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) can be done with plants, animals, or bacteria and other
very small organisms. It allows scientists to move desired genes from one plant or animal into
another. Genes can also be moved from an animal to a plant or vice versa. The resulting is then
referred to as a genetically modified organisms, or GMOs (Melina, 2010).
As cited by Melina (2010) scientists have sequenced the genomes of domestic animals,
more is known about genes and the traits that they control. By finding genes that control beneficial
traits, we are able to precisely introduce those genes into another animal’s genome, so the GE
animal will possess that trait. One example is the Enviro-Pig. Through genetic engineering, this
animal emits 30 to 60 percent less phosphorus than traditional pigs fed the same conventional
diet. This lessens livestock’s impact in the environment.
Figure 9.11 Process in creating a transgenic animal

Source: https://tinyurl.com/y52vt4fq (2017)
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Figure 9.12 Gene-altered “enviro-pig” that are now domestically used for meat production
Source: nationalgeographic.com (n.d.)
A GE animal is not an animal clone, it has a deliberate modification made to its genome. In
genetic engineering, scientists can precisely transfer a beneficial gene (for disease resistance,
for example) from one animal species to another. Cloning technology is a type of breeding
technology to produce an exact genetic copy of an animal – usually a high-quality animal with
desirable breeding traits (Melina, 2010).
The main aim of genetic engineering is to improve agricultural productivity. Hence, GMO’s
are perceived to be beneficial to humans. Recently, however some people became worried of
potential problems or harmful side effects of GMO’s. Below are the benefits and risk of genetically
modified organisms (Boston University, 12014):
Benefits of Genetically Modified Organisms
 More nutritious food

 Tastier food
 Disease- and drought-resistant plants that require fewer environmental resources (such
as water and fertilizer)
 Less use of pesticides
 Increased supply of food with reduced cost and longer shelf life
 Faster growing plants and animals
 Food with more desirable traits, such as potatoes that produce less of a cancer-causing
substance when fried
 Medicinal foods that could be used as vaccines or other medicines
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Risk of Genetically Modified Organisms
 Creating foods that can cause an allergic reaction or that are toxic
 Unexpected or harmful genetic changes
 Genes moving from one GM plant or animal to another plant or animal that is not
genetically engineered
 Foods that are less nutritious
Assessment Task
Activity A. Identify the type of Reproduction.
Identify the type of reproduction described in the organisms in Column A.

Case Type of Reproduction
1. A single organism that functions as both the male
and female in reproduction.
2. An organism that requires both a male and a
female to reproduce.
3. This organism breaks a part of itself to reproduce.
4. A male and a female pig mate to reproduce
piglets
5. This organism’s embryo does not need
fertilization to develop into an offspring.
6. This organism divides itself into two equal parts to
reproduce
7. An organism that grows buds to reproduce.
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Activity B. Types of Fertilization
In your own words, describe the type of fertilization given below and give an example
of an animal that has that type of fertilization.
Description Animal
Viviparity
Internal Fertilization
External Fertilization
Oviparity
Ovoviviparity
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Activity C. Mutation
Direction: Fill the missing sequence to identify the type of mutation occurs in the
sequence.
Original DNA Sequence: T A C A C C T T G G C G A C G A C T
mRNA sequence: __________________________________
Amino Acid Sequence: ______________________________
Mutated DNA Sequence #1: T A C A T C T T G G C G A C G A C T
What’s the mRNA sequence? (Circle the change) ______________________________
What will be the amino acid sequence? _______________________________________
Will there likely be effects? __________________________________________________
What kind of mutation is this? ________________________________________________
Mutated DNA Sequence #2: T A C G A C C T T G G C G A C G A C T
Mutated DNA Sequence #3: T A C A C C T T A G C G A C G A C T
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Mutated DNA Sequence #4: T A C A C C T T G G C G A C T A C T
Mutated DNA Sequence #5: T A C A C C T T G G G A C G A C T
Activity D. Genetically Modified Organisms
You are a researcher at BFAD and your supervisor has asked you to identify five food,
pharmaceutical, and agricultural products with GMOs that are available in the market. Make a
list of the substances that were used to make products. Identify the GMOs that were used and
find out their uses. Evaluate the benefits and risks of GMOs in these products. Write in the list
the genetic disorders that can be triggered once exposed to the substances. If the GMOs pose
risks to the health of consumers, make a recommendation that must convince the BFAD
commissioner to ban the products or conduct a thorough study about the harmful effects of
these products to the consumers. You will present your work to your immediate supervisor.
Use a copy of the table on the next page for your research data.
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Product Name of product Substances Genetic disorders Recommendation
classification present in product that can be
acquired
Food
Pharmaceutical
Agricultural
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Written Works
Choose the letter of the correct answer.
Given a portion of a strand of a much longer molecule has a nucleotide sequence

AGCAGGCAGATC
1. The strand is chemically ___________.

a. A protein c. a DNA strand
b. An mRNA d. a segment of a eukaryotic chromosome
2. If this strand is replicated, the complementary strand produced is
a. AGCAGGCAGATC c. AGCAGGCAGAUC
b. TCGTCCGTCTAG d. UCGUCCGUCUAG
3. If transcribed into an mRNA, the resulting strand is _______________.
4. During translation, the tRNA sequence of nucleotides arranged linearly is ______.
5. The protein synthesized from the nucleotide sequence in No.4 will have an amino acid
sequence ________.
a. serine-serine-valine c. serine-serine-glutamine-phenylalanine
b. serine-serine-valine-tyrosine d. serine-arginine-glutamine-isoleucine
6. All of the following molecules are proteins EXCET:
a. DNA c. enzymes
b. Collagen d. hemoglobin
7. All of the following bases are found in DNA EXCEPT:
a. uracil c. guanine
b. adenine d. thymine
8. A specific protein synthesized is the translated message contained in the
a. DNA c. nucleus
b. ribosomes d. sugar and phosphate sequence
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9. One chain of a DNA molecule has the nucleotides sequence C, C, G, C, and T. What is
the sequence of the nucleotides on its partner chain?
a. CCGCU c. C C G C T
b. G G C G U d. G G C G A
10. Transcription involves the transfer of information from
a. DNA to mRNA c. tRNA to DNA
b. mRNA to tRNA d. DNA to protein
11. The chromosome mutation that occurs when a piece of one chromosome breaks off
and joins to a nonhomologous chromosome is known as which of the following
a. Deletion c. Translocation
b. Duplication d. Nondisjunction
12. A point mutation that occurs during the process of translation causes the incorrect
amino acid to be inserted into the growing polypeptide. This is an example of what type
of mutation.
a. base analogue c. missense mutation
b. frameshift mutation d. translocation
13. Type of breeding technology to produce an exact genetic copy of an animal.
a. Cloning technology c. genetic engineering
b. DNA fingerprinting d. hybridoma technology
14. Recombinant DNA contains DNA from two different sources. Organisms that have a
foreign gene inserted into them are called ________________.
a. gene pharming c. polymerase chain reaction
b. hybridomas d. transgenic organisms
15. When a deletion or insertion results in a different base pair being the beginning of the
next codon, changing the whole sequence of amino acids.
a. base analogue c. missense mutation
b. frameshift mutation d. translocation
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Summary
 Living things can perpetuate their species through reproduction.

 There are two main types of reproduction, asexual and sexual. Sex cells or gametes are
involved in sexual reproduction but not in asexual reproduction.
 Some methods of asexual reproduction are budding, fission, fragmentation or
regeneration and parthenogenesis. They are common among unicellular organisms and
in the lower groups of plants and animals.
 Sexual reproduction is common among vertebrates.
 Hormones play a big role in human and animal reproduction.
 A chromosome in eukaryotes is made up of a tremendously long DNA molecule tightly
coiled around a mass of proteins called histones.
 DNA and RNA are both nucleic acids chemically made up of a long chain of nucleotides,
each nucleotide consisting of a phosphate group, a sugar and nitrogenous base.
 The roles of DNA in the cell include: (a) the storage of genetic information; (b)
expression of genetic information through the synthesis of specific proteins; (c) self-
replication that provides the means by which genetic information can be transmitted from
the cell to cell; and (d) mutation that produces variations in characters.
 The updated Central Dogma involves the following:
a. The synthesis of a new complementary DNA strand using an old DNA strand or
RNA in some cells, as template is celled replication.
b. The production of a complementary RNA strand using DNA as a template is
accomplished through transcription.
c. The production of DNA using RNA as a template can be accomplished through
reverse transcription.
d. The coded genetic information carried by mRNA is translated through protein
synthesis using tRNA.
 The linear sequence of nucleotides in DNA is complemented by the linear sequence
of nucleotides in the RNA which in turn determines the linear sequence of amino
acids in the protein synthesis.
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 A permanent change in the DNA is called a mutation.
 Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes. It has
been made possible with the discovery of the complex and microscopic nature
of DNA and its component nucleotides.
References
 Boston Unversity. “Genetically Modified Organisms.” Sphweb.Bumc.Bu.Edu, 2014,

sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/PH/GMOs/GMOs_print.html.
 Bradford, Alina. “Facts About Frogs & Toads.” Live Science, Live Science, 1 May 2015,
www.livescience.com/50692-frog-facts.html.
 Gillaspy, Rebecca. “Sexual Reproduction: Inheriting Genes from Each Parent - Video &
Lesson Transcript | Study.Com.” Study.Com, 2020, study.com/academy/lesson/sexual-
reproduction-inheriting-genes-from-each-parent.html.
 Kenyon College. “Reproduction of Living Organisms.” Biology.Kenyon.Edu, 2003,
biology.kenyon.edu/slonc/bio3/biol3_guide.html.
 Khan Academy. “RNA and Protein Synthesis Review.” Khan Academy, 2018,
www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-molecular-genetics/hs-rna-and-
protein-synthesis/a/hs-rna-and-protein-synthesis-review.
 Melina, Remy. “What’s Genetic Engineering?” Live Science, Live Science, 15 June
2010, www.livescience.com/32648-whats-genetic-engineering.html.
 Minelli, Alessandro. “The Natural History of Reproduction.” Cambridge University Press,
2019, www.cambridge.org/core/books/biology-of-reproduction/natural-history-of-
reproduction/C5020BF6D3AA03099AAC6842AA1D6DF9.
 OpenStax, Biology. OpenStax CNX. (2020).
https://cnx.org/contents/GFy_h8cu@13.1:m2mqXRb6@5/43-2-Fertilization
 Prakashan, Jagran. “Sexual Reproduction in Animals.” Jagranjosh.Com, 14 Mar. 2016,
www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/sexual-reproduction-in-animals-1457941400-1.
Accessed 26 Sept. 2020.
162
 Robson, Kelly. “Gametes: Definition, Formation & Fusion - Video & Lesson Transcript |
Study.Com.” Study.Com, 2019, study.com/academy/lesson/gametes-definition-
formation-fusion.html.
 Scoville, Heather. “Types of Asexual Reproduction.” ThoughtCo, 2019,
www.thoughtco.com/types-of-asexual-reproduction-1224623.
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MODULE 10
METABOLISM AND SURVIVAL IN ANIMALS
Introduction
An animal’s different organs systems have to work together for the animal to survive and
perpetuate its species. These different organ systems have survival mechanisms for body. For
instance, the nervous system keeps the body temperature and blood pressure at a certain level,
while the endocrine system secretes hormones that regulate the activities of the cells and certain
organs of the body. The different organ systems that make up an animal’s body perform as a unit
to ensure survival (Rabago, Jaoquin, Lagunzad and Carvajal, (2007).
The set of life-sustaining chemical changes that occur within the cells of all organisms is
called metabolism. Metabolism allows organisms to survive and maintain the functioning of their
organ systems. It enables organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain structures, and respond to
their environment (Rabago et al., (2007).
Metabolism is divided into two categories: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks
down large molecules into smaller ones and releases energy in the process, while anabolism
uses energy to build up the chemical components of the cells (Rabago et al., (2007).
In this module, the student will understand and appreciate the general and unique
characteristics of the different organ systems in representative animals. We will discuss here the
following; nutrition: getting food to cells, gas exchange with the environment, circulation: the
internal transport system, the need for homeostasis, salt and water balance and waste removal,
the immune system: defense from disease, how hormones govern body activities, the nervous
system, and the body in motion.
Learning Outcomes

1. describe the general and unique characteristics of the different organ systems in
representative animals; and
2. analyze and appreciate the functional relationships of the different organ systems in
ensuring animal survival.
Lesson 1. Nutrition for the Cells
According to Mangali, Oliva, Mulig and Estera (2016), an animals such as giraffes and
hippopotamuses eat plants (herbivores), while snakes eat other animals such as rabbits and rats
(carnivores). Whales feed on food particles in the water. Spiders prey on flies and other insects.
These interactions will tell you that all organisms need food to survive.
They also stated that food serves as the nutrition and energy source of organisms
including animals. An animal’s body structure indicates how the animals obtains its food. For
example, the sharp and long break of a heron enables it to search for food in mudflats and to
spear its prey such as fish (Mangali et al., 2016).
The substance that the animal’s body uses for growth, maintenance, and repair are known
as nutrients. The major nutrients are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water.
As recommended, the human body needs 55 to 60 percent of carbohydrates, 15 to 20 percent of
proteins and 20 to 25 percent of fats. Most animals, especially mammals, have the same
nutritional requirements (Mangali et al., 2016).
The Role of the Digestive System
As cited by Mangali et al. (2016), the process by which an animal takes in food called
ingestions. However, the animal’s body cannot use the energy in food until this has gone through
digestion and absorption. Digestion is the process by which ingested food is broken down into
simple substances that can be absorbed by the body. It takes places in two phases: mechanical
and chemical.
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In mechanical digestion, the food that has been ingested is physically broken down into
smaller pieces. This starts in the mouth, when the organisms ingest the food. Chewing starts the
breaking down of food. Chewing is important in the digestive process because smaller pieces of
food can be processed much easily during chemical digestion. Digestion begins as the ingested
food mixes with the saliva, which contains an enzyme called ptyalin. This enzyme breaks down
the food as it acts on the carbohydrates in it (Mangali et al., 2016).
Additionally, Mangali et al. (2016), stated that mechanical digestion takes place in different
ways in different animals. Mammals tear and chew their food into pieces using their teeth in a
process called mastication. Humans have different kinds of teeth that enable them to tear, chew
and grind their food before it moves to their stomach. Birds do not have teeth and instead swallow
their food in one piece. The bird food travels to the gizzard, which helps break down the food
before it reaches the glandular stomach.
In chemical digestion, the body processes the food in such a way that the nutrients it
contains can be absorbed in the small intestines. Catalytic proteins called enzymes are the
chemicals in the animal’s body that break down the food into nutrients. The nutrients are then
distributed to the different parts of the body through the blood (Mangali et al., 2016).
How does digestion happen?
As cited by Mangali et al. (2016), the mouth or oral cavity- is responsible for ingestion. In
humans, the mouth have specialized dentition for mechanical digestion of food. Also, chemical
digestion of food occurs in the mouth, specifically, of carbohydrates. With the aid of the salivary
gland, food is softened and rolled by the tongue, which results in a round, semi-digested food
called the bolus. Some animals do not have teeth, such as birds and earthworms, they use a
structure called gizzard, a muscular organ which grinds food with the aid of ingested pebbles or
stones. The bolus enters the digestive tract, via a cross-road of food and air called the pharynx.
To prevent food from entering the respiratory system, the epiglottis covers the opening
(called the glottis) to the respiratory when swallowing. The esophagus. which has voluntary
muscles at the pharyngeal end, allows the movement of bolus to the stomach by lubricating its
walls with mucus produced by goblet cells. Movement of food, not only through the esophagus,
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but throughout the digestive tract is caused by peristalsis or the wavelike movement of the
muscles of the organs of digestion. Mucus not only allows easier movement of food, but it also
protects the lining of esophagus from acids of the stomach (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
Figure 10.1 Parts of human digestive system

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/c/c9/Digestive_tract_(upper).jpg (2013)
When the stomach is filled, the product of its digestion called chyme or acidic chyme (due
to its acidic nature) moves to the small intestines. In the small intestines, chemical digestion of
the four biomolecules occur. Different enzymes and hormones are activated/released to the small
intestine by the small intestine itself, the liver and the pancreas. These hormones, chemicals and
enzymes are responsible in turning complex biomolecules into simpler molecules. Bile for
example, is a substance produced by the liver and stored by the gall bladder which aids in the
digestion of fats by emulsification of fat molecules. Villus (plural- villi) and microvillus (plural-
microvilli) are structures responsible for the efficient absorption of the digested molecules. Thus,
the small intestine has the largest surface area among the organs in the digestive system (Earth
and Life Science, 2013).
The large intestine, termed for its larger diameter compared to the small intestine, is
responsible for water reabsorption and temporary storage of feces. Water from the process of
digestion, which comes from the surrounding tissues (mucus, saliva, chemicals), is recycled by
the large intestine by reabsorbing it. The rate of water reabsorption has implication on the
hardness/softness of the feces to be eliminated. In humans, the cecum is a structure called
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appendix, a vestigial organ. It does not have any known digestive function, but some argue that
it has immune functions. For herbivores, the cecum is a very long structure as they house
organisms which can aid in the digestion of cellulose just like in the four chambered stomach of
cows. The rectum is the structure of the large intestine which temporary store feces, the
movement of the feces is regulated by a voluntary muscle called the anus (Earth and Life Science,
2013).
According to Reece, Urry, Cain, Wasserman, Minorsky and Jackson (2011), other
animals, with complete digestive system, where entrance and exit of food and wastes are
different, there are different mechanisms of ingestion depending on their evolutionary adaptation
to their food. The four main feeding mechanisms are filter feeding, substrate feeding, fluid feeding
and bulk feeding.
1. Filter feeding- uses adaptation in feeding food particles from the environment, which is
usually aquatic. Examples of these are clams, mussels, whales, etc.
2. Substrate feeding- animals live in or on their food source. Examples of this are the leaf
miner, maggots and other parasites.
3. Fluid feeding- animals suck nutrient-rich fluid from a host or a source. They have different
adaptations in order to get food such as the proboscis of mosquitoes, the long tongue of
nectar feeding bats and long beaks of hummingbirds.
4. Bulk feeding- animals, such as us humans, take in large particle sized food. Different
animals have acquired different adaptations such as tentacles, claws, venomous fangs,
large mandible and teeth which aids in killing prey or tearing off pieces of meat or vegetation.
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Figure 10.2 Four main feeding mechanisms
Source: Pearson Education. Inc (2011)
Some Diseases Related to the Digestive System

Below are some related diseases to the digestive system (Mangali et al., 2016):
1. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)- This occurs when there is a weakness in the
valve between the esophagus and the stomach. The stomach acid makes a reflux (backup)
into the esophagus which may irritate and inflame its lining. The person experiences chest
pain which is similar to angina (chest pain or discomfort in the area of the heart).
2. Jaundice- This occurs when there is a blockage of the ducts that drain bile from the liver into
the intestines, or when there is excessive breakdown of red blood cells. Persons with jaundice
experience yellowing of the skin and of the white part of the eyes due to the presence of
metabolic by-products from the blood into the body tissues.
3. Portal hypertension- This occurs when the liver is damaged and venous blood through the
liver is obstructed. Obstruction of the venous blood allows the rising of blood pressure in the
veins between the gastrointestine and liver which resulted from inflamed veins around the
navel.
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Lesson 2. Gas exchange
As cited by Mangali et al. (2016), animals can survive by taking in oxygen and expeling
carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are just two of the many gases found in the
environment. The physical process of taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide is known as
breathing. An animal uses the oxygen that it has taken in while releasing the carbon dioxide that
it does not need. This exchange (inhalation and exhalation) of gases is called respiration.
Animals obtain oxygen in different ways (Mangali et al., 2016);

1. From the air or water through the moist surface directly into the body (e.g., amoeba,
flatworm)
2. From the air or water through a thin, moist body wall of blood vessels (e.g., earthworm)
3. From the air through spiracles (openings on the thorax) or a tracheal system to a system
of ducts to the tissues (e.g., insects)
4. From water through moist gill surfaces to blood vessels (e.g., fishes, amphibians)
5. From the air through moist lungs surface to blood vessels (e.g., land snail, land vertebrate)
Type of Gas Exchange Systems
The followings are the different type of gas exchange systems (Mangali et al., 2016).
Skin System
The skin or body surface system is also known as the integumentary system. Animals that
live in moist environments, such as amphibians and worms, breathe in oxygen through their
moist body surface. The skin of frogs, for instance, is made up of very thin tissues that allow for
the smooth exchange of gases. On the bottom layer of the skin of worms are capillaries, or tiny
blood vessels, that absorb the oxygen from their surroundings and release carbon dioxide.
Gills System
Aquatic animals use body parts called gills to promote the exchange of gases. These are
extensions of the outside membranes in most aquatic animals; although in some, these may also
be found inside the body. Because the gills of an aquatic animal have very thin membranes,
these are able to get oxygen that has been dissolved in the water into the animal’s bloodstream.
The carbon dioxide in the animal’s bloodstream also goes out through its gills.
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Tracheal System
Gas exchange in some animals like insects takes place in their tracheae, which are several
air tubes that form a network in their bodies. These tubes have holes called spiracles that open
to the outside surface of the animal’s bodies. Among the animals with this gas exchange system
are grasshoppers and spiders. Each side of the first and third segments of a grasshopper’s
thorax (middle body part) has a spiracle. Eight more spiracles are positioned on either side of
the abdomen.
With the tracheal system, oxygen enters the animal’s body through its tracheae, while
carbon dioxide leaves the body through the spiracles. The tracheal tubes delivers the oxygen
directly to the cells of the animal’s body and take away the carbon dioxide from the cells, so there
is no need for the bloodstream to circulate these gases throughout the body
Lungs System
Inside the body cavity of land animals including humans are the lungs, a pair of organs
divide into small chambers filled with capillaries. In humans, the chest cavity is bisected by the
trachea, a tube that connects the nose and mouth to the lungs. One lung lies to the right side of
the trachea while the other lies on the left side. The trachea divides into two main bronchi: left
and right: which in turn subdivide into the bronchioles. At the tip of each bronchiole is an alveolus,
or air sac. It is in the air sacs where actual gas exchange occurs. Under the lungs is a dome-
shaped muscle called the diaphragm. The lungs are enclosed in the rib cage, which serves to
protect the respiratory organs and the heart.
Gas exchange in the lung system begins when air enters the lungs, passes through the
bronchi, and moves to the alveoli. The oxygen in the air is dissolved by the water in the alveoli,
and then passes through the capillaries before it diffuses into the bloodstream. The oxygen then
moves to the different parts of the body.
When you inhale, your rib cage expands and moves your diaphragm downward. This
decreases the pressure around the lungs and draws air into your respiratory tract. This type of
ventilation is known as active breathing. When you exhale, your rib cage contracts and moves
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your diaphragm upward. This increase the pressure around your lungs and forces air out of your
respiratory tract. This type of ventilation is known as passive breathing.
Figure 10.3 Lung system of invertebrates and vertebrates animal including human
Source: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (2011)
During exhalation, not all the air in your chest cavity is totally expelled. The air that remains
in your trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli is called dead air. As you breath, this dead air
mixes with the fresh air. Other organisms like birds reduce the amount of dead air by using a one-
way flow of air in their lungs, which increases their ability to obtain oxygen (Mangali et al., 2016).
Some Diseases Related to Gas Exchange

The following are some diseases related to gas exchange (Mangali et al, 2016):
1. Emphysema- It is a progressive destruction of the air sacs in the lungs and loss of
membrane in the respiratory system responsible for oxygen exchange. This is known as
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
2. Cystic fibrosis- It occurs when where is increased scarring (fibrosis) of the lungs due to
hard-to-treat lung infections because of the presence of thick mucus. This inheritable
disease affects both the lungs and other body systems, including the digestive system.
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3. Pneumonia- It is an inflammation of the lung especially the alveoli or air sacs. It is
caused by bacterial and viral infections.
Lesson 3. Circulation: Internal Transport
In biology, an internal transport system is one that enables an organism to move particles
into its body and within its body. This system also enables the organisms to remove unwanted
particles from within its body. Without such as system, the organisms will not be able to breathe,
feed itself, bring nutrients to its different parts, and maintain homeostasis (stable state) of its
internal environment (Mangali et al., 2016).
In vertebrates, the main transport system is the circulatory system, which is made up of
the heart, blood, and blood vessels. Blood is a mixture of cells and gases, inorganic salts,
minerals, organic nutrients, and waste products. In invertebrates, the hemolymph, or a
combination of blood and lymph, is the transport system (Mangali et al., 2016).
The circulatory system transports materials throughout the body. Nutrients, water, and
oxygen are transported to the billions of body cells, and wastes such as carbon dioxide are carried
away or removed by the body. Most animals have a circulatory system that consists of circulatory
fluid (either blood or lymph fluid), a muscular pump (heart), and a set of tubes (blood vessels) to
carry the fluid (Mangali et al., 2016).
Types of Circulatory System
As stated by Mangali et al. (2016), there are two types of circulatory system based on the
flow of blood---the open system and the closed system.
1. Open Circulatory System

In an open system of circulation, the organism pumps blood or lymph from the heart
throughout the blood vessels to various organs, and returns the blood or lymph partly or entirely
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through the body spaces (hemocoel) to the heart. The open circulatory system is common in
invertebrates like mollusks, and arthropods like insects and crustaceans.
Arthropods and mollusks have a heart that is dorsal (toward or at the backside of the body)
to the digestive tract. Mollusks have a short heart that lies within a thin pericardial sac consisting
of one or two thin-walled atria. Arthropods, on the other hand, have a slender dorsal versal (heart)
with a pair of lateral openings (called ostia) that receives blood from the body spaces (hemocoel)
and then pumps through the median aorta.
2. Closed Circulatory System
In a closed circulatory system, blood is transported from the heart through various vessels
and capillary beds located among the tissues and back to the heart. Vertebrates such as
mammals (like humans) and fish, and annelids (worms) have closed circulatory systems.
A closed system consists of a heart, blood, and vessels where the blood is at all times
within the vessels of different sizes and thicknesses. In animals with a closed system of
circulation, blood is separated from the interstitial fluid (or fluid outside the cells). Their movement
affects the blood flow in their body. The front part of the earthworm, for example, carries blood
toward the tail, while the back part of its body carries blood toward the head. The lateral vessels
of the earthworm deliver blood to the body surface in order to be oxygenated.
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Figure 10.4 Different types of circulatory system
Source: http://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/nutrition-transport-and-homeostasis/animal-circulatory-
systems/ (2016)
Blood circulation in all vertebrates is mostly similar, only with few unique differences
depending on the organisms such as the complex structure of the heart (one or two atria) and the
type of respiration (gills or lungs) (Mangali et al., 2016).
Cardiovascular System
The circulatory system is also known as the cardiovascular system. The cardiovascular
system consists of three types of blood vessels, namely, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The
arteries carry blood away from the heart, while the veins carry blood from the tissues and cells
of body organs to the heart. Capillaries, on the other hand, transport blood from the arteries to
the veins (Mangali et al., 2016).
Additionally, they added that the cardiovascular system of vertebrates may differ. Notice
that fishes have two-chambered hearts. This two-chambered heart pumps blood in a single
circulation in which blood moves from gill capillaries to systemic capillaries and back to the heart.
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Compare that with the cardiovascular system of land vertebrates; land vertebrates including
humans have a double circulation pattern, which can be separated into pulmonary and systemic
circuits. Lizards, snakes, turtles, and other amphibians have a three-chambered heart which
consists of two atria and one undivided ventricle. This arrangement separates oxygen-poor blood
from oxygen-rich blood. Birds, crocodiles, and mammals have four-chambered heart which
consists of two atria and two ventricles. A four-chambered heart has two circuits which do not mix
oxygen-rich blood and oxygen-poor blood.
Some Diseases Related to the Circulatory System (Mangali et al., 2016):
1. Artherosclerosis- This is the leading cause of heart attack. It is the buildup of plaque or
a combination of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the artery walls. The
blood vessels become thick and stiff and may eventually restrict blood flow to the organs
and other parts of the body. The plaque can burst and may trigger a blood clot, cause
blood pressure to rise, and may also cause damage to the kidneys and the heart.
2. Myocardial infarction or MI- This term means damaged heart muscles. It is usually
caused by a blood clot which can block the flow of blood that may lead to the death of the
affected muscle. When a part of the heart muscle is damaged, it is said to be infracted.
3. Ischemia- This is the medical term used when the heart muscle does not get enough
oxygen because of a shortage of blood and oxygen to the heart muscle. The cause may
be the narrowing or blockage of one or more of the coronary arteries, which supply the
heart muscles with blood.
Lesson 4. Homeostasis
All the systems that make up an animal’s body have to work together to create a stable
internal environment for the body. The process by which the body achieves this environment is
known as homeostasis. The part of the body that helps maintain homeostasis is the nervous
system, specifically the hypothalamus, which is a part of the brain that regulates the body’s blood
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pressure, hunger, temperature, thirst, and other key functions. Homeostatic mechanism regulates
internal conditions that change due to external environmental conditions (Mangali et al., 2016).
Homeostasis depends on negative feedback. The body has the control system that
detects change and directs responses. Negative feedback mechanisms keeps internal variables
to become steady, and permits only small fluctuation around set points (Mangali et al., 2016).
Blood Sugar Levels

According to Mangali et al. (2016), during digestion, sugar is broken down into a simple
sugar like glucose. Glucose enters your bloodstream and causes the increase in blood glucose
levels. As the blood glucose level rises, the body works to return it to its normal level. This event
is also an example of homeostasis.
They as insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels. When there is an increase
in the glucose level, glucose molecules leave the blood and go to the beta cells of the pancreas.
The beta cells respond to the increase of glucose level by releasing insulin (Mangali et al., 2016).
As insulin is released, it enters the bloodstream so that it can be transported to the cells
of the entire body. Insulin binds to receptors on liver cells to take in more glucose. Glucose is
converted in glycogen inside the liver cells as stored molecules. The blood glucose level
decreases whenever glucose is taken up by the liver or cells in the body. Hence, less insulin is
produced by the pancreas, allowing stabilization of blood glucose levels. The action of insulin is
an example of negative feedback mechanism (Mangali et al., 2016).
When a person skips a meal, the glucose level gets low. As the glucose level decreases,
the pancreas allows the alpha cells to release the hormone glucagon. Glucagon the enters the
bloodstream and works on the target cell in the liver. The glucagon binds to the receptors of the
liver cells, which signal the liver cells to break down the glycogen to glucose. Glucose is then
released by the pancreas, allowing stabilization of blood glucose level at its set point (Mangali et
al., 2016).
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Temperature
As cited by Mangali et al. (2016), the process of maintaining an internal temperature within
tolerable range is called thermoregulation. Thermoregulation is a form of homeostasis. Animals
have ways to maintain their internal temperature in a tolerable range. Ectothermic animals like
lizards, fishes, most amphibians, and invertebrates maintain their internal temperature by gaining
heat from external sources. Mammals, birds, most insects and a few reptiles are referred to as
endothermic animals who obtain heat from their metabolism (Mangali et al., 2016).
Thermoregulation balances heat gain and loss through adaptation. There are common
categories in adaptation that help animals to thermoregulate: (1) increasing metabolic heat
production, (2) insulation, (3) circulatory adaptation, (4) evaporative cooling, and (5) behavioral
response (Mangali et al., 2016).
Some lizards like the Liolaemus expose their backs toward the sun to increase absorption
of the sun’s heat. Liolaemus lives in holes under the ground where the temperature is very cold.
It comes out during the day and basks on the grass or on a mat of plants. Lying on plants and
avoiding stone reduce its rate of heat loss. With its back to the sun, the lizard also presses itself
down against its plant “mat” which reduces its exposure to wind and from losing heat (Mangali et
al., 2016).
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Figure 10.5 Thermoregulation happened in Liolaemus lizard
Source: https://www.britannica.com/animal/lizard/Parthenogenesis (2013)
According to Mangali et al. (2016), the increase in metabolic heat production in animals
occurs when hormonal changes boost metabolic rates. Bird and mammals shiver when there is
an increase in metabolic rates. Organisms increase their metabolic heat production whenever
there is an increase in their physical activities too.
Insulation balances internal temperature. Hair, feathers, and fat layers provide insulation
for organisms. Animals have circulatory adaptations such as increasing or decreasing blood flow
to the skin and by counter current heat exchange wherein warm blood and cold blood flow in
opposite directions. Counter current heat exchange is common in dolphins (Mangali et al., 2016).
Organisms have different evaporative cooling mechanisms such as sweating, panting, or

spreading their saliva on body surfaces. Other organisms use behavioral responses such as
moving to the sun or shade, migrating, and bathing. Heat dissipation via ear flapping (convection)
and via water spray (evaporative cooling) are exhibited by elephants as their behavioral response
(Mangali et al., 2016).
According to Jing, Sanny, and Moebs (2020), the heat is gained or lost in four ways.
Conduction is the transfer of heat by direct contact. The transfer of heat by movement of air or
liquid part a surface is called convection. Radiation, on the other hand, is the emission of
electromagnetic waves. Lastly, evaporation is the loss of heat from the surface of a liquid in the
formation of water vapor (gas).
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Lesson 5. Salt and Water Balance and Waste Removal
According to Mangali et al. (2016), balancing the uptake and loss of salt and water, and
disposing of metabolic wastes are the key aspects of homeostasis. Both involve movement of
dissolved substances and water (osmosis) between an organism’s internal fluids and the external
environment.
Cnidarian, sponges, and other marine organisms do not need specialized excretory
structures due to the similarity of their body fluid to their external environment. Other marine
organisms remove excretory wastes through simple diffusion of wastes from their body cells into
their external environment (Mangali et al., 2016). Hence, they use only little energy during
excretion. Moreover, aquatic invertebrates are known as osmoconformers because they vary their
body fluid according to the changes that happen in the seawater.
As cited by Mangali et al. (2016), brackish water is less stable than seawater. Brackish
water frequently shifts salt concentration unlike other bodies of water. Organisms living here are
called osmoregulators. They adapt their body in regulating salt concentrations or in maintaining
the optimum salt concentrations inside their body. Freshwater organisms such as polychaete
worms and blue crabs have structures capable of removing wastes, and they can be either
osmoconformers or osmoregulators. To maintain the internal balance of salt and water, fishes
use osmoregulation. Maintaining the balance of salt and water inside their body is important for
body systems to function efficiently.
Additionally, freshwater fishes have a very high concentration of salt in their bodies than
their external environment, and they can also lose salt and absorb water. To maintain the
concentration of salt in their body, the kidney of freshwater fishes reabsorbs the salt from the urine
before it is excreted and take salt from the environment through specialized cells in the gills
(Mangali et al., 2016).
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Figure 10.6 Model of energy transfer between the body and the environment
Source: https://doctorlib.info/physiology/medical/336.html (2016)
Saltwater fishes have less salt inside their bodies than their external environment. There
is also the tendency to take in salt and lose water. To maintain homeostasis, saltwater fishes take
in large amounts of water and urinate less. The gills, through special cells, eliminate salt, and
saltwater fishes do not absorb salt from the water they take in (Mangali et al., 2016).
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Figure 10.7 Generalized osmotic regulation in freshwater and marine teleost fishes
Source: https://www.britannica.com/animal/fish/Excretory-organs (2014)
Unlike aquatic organisms, terrestrial animals are prone to dehydration. The air surrounding
land animals has less water than their body. Therefore, terrestrial animals exhibit water loss
through evaporation. The body structures of these animals have evolved to conserve water in
their body (Mangali et al., 2016).
Vertebrate excretory systems
As stated by Mangali et al. (2016), the kidney and its associated ducts are the excretory
system of the mammal, and, as already noted, most of the nitrogenous waste arising in the
mammalian body is excreted as urea. Other nitrogenous compounds regularly present in the
urine in smaller amounts are uric acid (or the closely related compound allantoin) and creatinine;
both of these arise mainly as by-products of the renewal and repair of tissues.
In birds, reptiles, and amphibians the kidneys are compact organs, as they are in
mammals, but in fishes they are narrow bands of tissue running the length of the body (see below
under Evolution of the vertebrate excretory system). In amphibians, as in mammals, the main
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excretory product is urea. In birds and reptiles, it is uric acid. In most fishes the main excretory
product is ammonia (Mangali et al., 2016).
Figure 10.8 Excretory system of a frog

Source: https://tinyurl.com/y4awg4ew (2017)
Mammals
As cited by Mangali et al. (2016), the mammalian kidney is a compact organ with two
distinct regions: cortex and medulla. The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Each
nephron is a tubular structure consisting of four regions. It arises in the cortex as a small vesicle
about one-fifth of a millimetre (0.008 inch) in diameter, known as Bowman’s capsule, into which
projects a tuft of capillary blood vessels, the glomerulus. Bowman’s capsule is continuous with
the proximal convoluted tubule, which also lies in the cortex. Following the
proximal convoluted tubule is the loop of Henle, which descends into the medulla and then runs
straight up again to the cortex where it continues as the distal convoluted tubule. A collecting
tubule, into which several nephrons open, courses through the medulla to open a wide cavity,
the pelvis of the kidney. From the pelvis the ureter leads to the bladder, and from the bladder
the urethra leads out of the body.
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The mechanism of urine formation involves three processes: filtration, reabsorption,
and secretion. Primary urine is formed by filtration from the blood. From this primary urine certain
substances are reabsorbed into the blood and other substances are secreted into the primary
urine from the blood. The word secretion is used by renal physiologists to imply transport, other
than by filtration, from the blood to urine. Filtration implies that all molecules below a certain size
are allowed to pass nonselectively into the primary urine; reabsorption and secretion imply the
existence of specific mechanisms for the transport of specific substances (Mangali et al., 2016).
Additionally, Mangali et al. (2016) stated that the membrane covering the glomerulus
allows the passage of water and all the constituents of the blood plasma except proteins. The
glomerular capillaries are intercalated in the course of an artery, with the consequence that the
pressure of the blood in these capillaries is higher than in the capillaries in other parts of the
kidney. Opposed to the blood pressure are the pressure of the fluid within Bowman’s capsule and
the osmotic pressure exerted by the proteins of the blood plasma; but the blood pressure is
sufficiently in excess of the sum of these to ensure a rapid flow of fluid, the glomerular filtrate or
primary urine, into Bowman’s capsule. The glomerular filtrate contains the
nitrogenous compounds ultimately to be excreted in the urine. As the glomerular filtrate passes
through the proximal tubule, 80 percent of the water, and many substances of value to the body
(e.g., glucose), is reabsorbed into the blood capillaries surrounding the tubule. This reabsorptive
process is accomplished without any change in the concentration of the tubular fluid, which
remains the same as that of the blood plasma.
Lastly, Mangali et al. (2016) states that after traversing the loop of Henle, the remaining
20 percent of the glomerular filtrate passes into the distal tubule, where further reabsorption,
notably of salts, takes place. If this is accompanied by a proportionate reabsorption of water, the
tubular fluid remains at the same concentration as the blood plasma, but if the reabsorption of
water is restricted, as it may be in certain circumstances (see below), the tubular fluid becomes
more dilute than the blood plasma. Under normal physiological conditions some 15 percent of the
glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in the distal tubule. Most of the remaining 5 percent is reabsorbed
in the collecting tubule. The amount of fluid, at this point called urine, that reaches the pelvis of
the kidney is only 1 percent of the volume originally filtered at the glomerulus; but it contains nearly
all the nitrogenous waste of the filtrate in concentrated solution. A few substances are also
secreted from the blood through the walls of the tubule into the tubular fluid.
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Figure 10.9 Excretory system of a mammal
Source: https://tinyurl.com/y4mnhtyg (2013)
Lesson 6. The Immune System: Defense Against Diseases
Infectious diseases are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, and other pathogens.
Pathogens are often spread through coughing, sneezing, and physical contact between people.
They can also be spread through contamination of water supply, or through the exchange of body
fluids, including sexual intercourse or blood transfusion (OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
Nonspecific defense: the innate immune system
The human body has a series of nonspecific defenses that make up the innate immune
system. These defenses are not directed against any one pathogen but instead, provide a guard
against all infection (OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
First line of defense
The body's most important nonspecific defense is the skin, which acts as a physical barrier
to keep pathogens out. Even openings in the skin (such as the mouth and eyes) are protected by
saliva, mucus, and tears, which contain an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls
(OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
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Second line of defense
If a pathogen does make it into the body, there are secondary nonspecific defenses that
take place (OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
An inflammatory response begins when a pathogen stimulates an increase in blood flow

to the infected area. Blood vessels in that area expand, and white blood cells leak from the vessels
to invade the infected tissue. These white blood cells, called phagocytes engulf and destroy
bacteria. The area often becomes red, swollen, and painful during an inflammatory response
(OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
When a pathogen has invaded, the immune system may also release chemicals that
increase body temperature, producing a fever. Increased body temperature may slow or stop
pathogens from growing and helps speed up the immune response (OpenStax College Biology,
2015).
Specific defense: the adaptive immune system
Pathogens are able to bypass innate immune defenses, the adaptive immune system is
activated. Cells that belong in the body carry specific markers that identify them as "self" and tell
the immune system not to attack them (OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
Figure 10.10 White blood cells releasing chemicals to induce inflammatory response
Source: https://tinyurl.com/yynq7wz5 (2020)
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They also stated that once the immune system recognizes a pathogen as "non-self," it
uses cellular and chemical defenses to attack it. After an encounter with a new pathogen, the
adaptive immune system often "remembers" the pathogen, allowing for a faster response if the
pathogen ever attacks again (OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
Specific immune responses are triggered by antigens. Antigens are usually found on the
surface of pathogens and are unique to that particular pathogen. The immune system responds
to antigens by producing cells that directly attack the pathogen, or by producing special proteins
called antibodies. Antibodies attach to an antigen and attract cells that will engulf and destroy the
pathogen (OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
The main cells of the immune system are lymphocytes known as B cells and T cells
(OpenStax College Biology, 2015). B cells are produced and mature in bone marrow. T cells are
also produced in bone marrow, but they mature in the thymus.
Figure 10.11 Image showing the B cell and antigen

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Humoral immunity
Humoral immunity relies on the actions of antibodies circulating through the body.
Humoral immunity begins when an antibody on a B cell binds to an antigen. The B cell then
internalizes the antigen and presents it to a specialized helper T cell, which in turn activates the
B cell (OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
Additionally, activated B cells grow rapidly, producing plasma cells, which release
antibodies into the bloodstream, and memory B cells, which store information about the pathogen
in order to provide future immunity (OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
Cell-mediated immunity
As cited by OpenStax College Biology (2015), antibodies alone are often not enough to
protect the body against pathogens. In these instances, the immune system uses cell-mediated
immunity to destroy infected body cells.
T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Killer T cells (cytotoxic T cells) assist
with the elimination of infected body cells by releasing toxins into them and
promoting apoptosis. Helper T cells act to activate other immune cells (OpenStax College
Biology, 2015).
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Figure 10.12 Showing T cells and how it works
Lesson 7. Hormones that Govern Body Activities
Hormones are chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands, which are carried by the blood
to the respective organs to regulate certain physiological processes. The organs on which the
hormones act is known as the target organs. The target cells have receptors on their surface that
recognize the respective hormones. Hormones in animals are messengers that help in regulating
body functions such as temperature, hunger, growth, development, reproduction, etc. (Byju’s The
Learning App, n.d.).
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Hormones in animals are secreted through two types of glands, namely (Reece et al.,
2015):
a. Endocrine Glands– These glands that do not have ducts and transport their secretions
directly to the site of action through the blood. For e.g., adrenal glands, pituitary glands,
etc.
e. Exocrine Glands– These glands have ducts to pass their secretions. For e.g., sweat, liver,
etc.
Table 10.1 shows the list of different hormones, along with their functions and their respective
glands.
Glands Hormones Functions
Hypothalamus gland Antidiuretic hormone Regulates fluid balance inside
kidneys
Pituitary gland Growth hormone Regulates body growth
Thyroid gland thyroxine Regulates body metabolism
Pancreas gland Insulin and glucagon Regulates blood sugar
Adrenal gland epinephrine Regulates heart rate and blood
pressure
Testes gland testosterone Development of sperm and male
characteristics
Ovaries gland Estrogen and progesterone Development of eggs and female
characteristics
Source: https://byjus.com/biology/hormones-in-animals/ (2020)
There are about 20 important hormones produced in animals that play a major role in the
different physiological processes occurring in the human body. Hormones control the functions of
all the organs. They affect the diverse processes of growth and development, reproduction and
sexual characteristics. Very small amounts of hormones can induce very prominent responses in
the body. Most of the hormones are derived from proteins (Rabago et al., 2007).
However, too much or too less of something is always dangerous. When a hormone
produces too much or too little hormones, it results in hormonal imbalance (Rabago et al., 2007).
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Figure 10.13 Location of different glands in human body
Source: https://tinyurl.com/yytyx7yy (2016)
As stated by Byju’s The Learning App (n.d.), the following are some types of hormonal
imbalances;
1. Adrenal Insufficiency– Addison’s disease is caused as a result of insufficient adrenalin

secretion. The symptoms like fatigue, dehydration and skin changes indicate Addison’s
disease.
2. Cushing’s Disease– Hypersecretion of pituitary gland hormone may result in an overactive

adrenal gland. This is a condition similar to Cushing’s syndrome which occurs in people with
high corticosteroid levels.
3. Acromegaly (Gigantism)– The hypersecretion of growth hormone from the pituitary gland in
kids results in the development of an abnormally large body.
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4. Hyperthyroidism– When the thyroid gland produces enough thyroxine hormone, it results in
hyperthyroidism. The symptoms include fast heart rate, sweating, etc.
5. Hypothyroidism– When the thyroid gland produces less amount of thyroxine, it results
in hypothyroidism. The symptoms include fatigue, constipation, dry skin, etc.
Lesson 8. The Nervous System
According to Reece et al. (2015), the nervous system is made up of neurons, specialized
cells that can receive and transmit chemical or electrical signals, and glia, cells that provide
support functions for the neurons by playing an information processing role that is complementary
to neurons. Nerves are bundles of nervous tissue, often containing hundreds to thousands of
axons wrapped in connective tissue. Nerves in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) carry
information to and from neurons in the central nervous system (CNS), where information is
integrated and processed.
There are three different classes of neurons that make up the nervous system (Reece et
al., 2015):
1. Afferent neurons (also called sensory neurons) get information about what’s going on inside
and outside of the body and bring that information into the CNS so it can be processed. For
instance, if you picked up a hot coal, sensory neurons with endings in your fingertips would
convey the information to your CNS that it was really hot.
2. Efferent neurons (also called motor neurons) get information from other neurons and convey
commands to your muscles, organs and glands. For instance, if you picked up a hot coal, its
motor neurons innervating the muscles in your fingers would cause your hand to let go.
3. Interneuons, which are found only in the CNS, connect one neuron to another. They receive
information from other neurons (either sensory neurons or interneurons) and transmit
information to other neurons (either motor neurons or interneurons).
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The material in the nervous system can also be classified based on whether it
contains white matter (myelinated axons) and gray matter (unmyelinated axons and cell bodies)
(Reece et al., 2015):
Diversity of Nervous Systems
Nervous systems throughout the animal kingdom vary in structure and complexity, as
illustrated by the variety of animals shown below (Reece et al., 2015):
Figure 10.14 Different nervous system of animals

Source: https://tinyurl.com/yxj924oe (2013)
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The nervous systems vary in structure and complexity (OpenStax College Biology, 2015).
a. cnidarians, nerve cells form a decentralized nerve net;

b. echinoderms, nerve cells are bundled into fibers called nerves;
c. planarians, neurons cluster into an anterior brain that processes information. In addition
to a brain;
d. arthropods have clusters of nerve cell bodies, called peripheral ganglia, located along the
ventral nerve cord;
e. mollusks such as squid and octopi, which must hunt to survive, have complex brains
containing millions of neurons; and
f. vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord comprise the central nervous system, while neurons
extending into the rest of the body comprise the peripheral nervous system.
All animals have a true nervous system except sea sponges (OpenStax College Biology,
2015).
a. Cnidarians, such as jellyfish, lack a true brain but have a system of separate but connected
neurons called a nerve net.
b. Echinoderms, such as sea stars, have neurons that are bundled into fibers called nerves.
c. Flatworms of the phylum Platyhelminthes have both a CNS made up of a small brain and
two nerve cords, and PNS containing a system of nerves that extend throughout the body.
d. Insect nervous system is more complex but also fairly decentralized, with a brain, ventral
nerve cord, and ganglia (clusters of connected neurons). These ganglia can control
movements and behaviors without input from the brain.
e. Cephalopods, such as octopi, may have the most complicated of invertebrate nervous
systems, with neurons that are organized in specialized lobes and eyes that are
structurally similar to vertebrate species.
f. Vertebrate nervous systems are more complex, centralized, and specialized. While there
is great diversity among different vertebrate nervous systems, they all share a basic
structure: a CNS that contains a brain and spinal cord and a PNS made up of peripheral
sensory and motor nerves.
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The Central Nervous System in Vertebrates
In vertebrates, the nervous system can be broadly divided into two sections (OpenStax
College Biology, 2015):
1. central nervous system (CNS) consisting of:

a. the brain, a structure that processes information, composed of inter-connected neurons
and glial cells
b. the spinal cord, a structure that transmits information, consisting of a thick bundle of
nerve tissue that carries information about the body to the brain and from the brain to
the body.
2. peripheral nervous system (PNS) that collects information and sends commands,
containing nerves that extend to and from the spinal cord and are divided into:
a. afferent nerves (or sensory nerves) that collect sensory information from the body and
transmit it to the CNS; and
b. efferent nerves (or motor nerves) that carry commands from the CNS to the body;
Figure 10.15 The vertebrate nervous system consists of a CNS and PNS
Source: https://tinyurl.com/y2pbhpea (2016)
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Lesson 9. The Body in Motion
According to Rabago et al. (2003), the muscular and skeletal system in an animal’s body
cooperate to allow animal to move. A muscle is a specialized tissue that is made up of thousands
of elastic and movable fibers.
Although all muscles share the same fundamental mechanism of contraction—actin and
myosin filaments sliding past each other—there are many different types of muscle. Vertebrates,
for example, have cardiac muscle and smooth muscle in addition to skeletal muscle. Below are
the different types of muscle (Reece et al. 2011).
The following are types of muscle (Reece et al. 2011).
a. Vertebrate cardiac muscle is found in only one part of the body: the heart. Like skeletal
muscle, cardiac muscle is striated. However, structural differences between skeletal and
cardiac muscle fibers result in differences in their electrical and membrane properties.
Whereas skeletal muscle fibers do not produce action potentials unless stimulated by a
motor neuron, cardiac muscle cells have ion channels in their plasma membrane that
cause rhythmic depolarizations, triggering action potentials without input from the
nervous system.
b. Smooth muscle in vertebrates is found mainly in the walls of hollow organs, such as
blood vessels and organs of the digestive tract. Smooth muscle cells lack striations
because their actin and myosin filaments are not regularly arrayed along the length of
the cell. Instead, the thick filaments are scattered throughout the cytoplasm, and the thin
filaments are attached to structures called dense bodies, some of which are tethered to
the plasma membrane. Smooth muscles contract and relax more slowly than striated
muscles.
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Figure 10.16 Types of muscle
Source: https://tinyurl.com/yxd66v8g (2017)
Types of Skeletal Systems
Although we tend to think of skeletons only as interconnected sets of bones, skeletons

come in many different forms. Hardened support structures can be external (as in exoskeletons),
internal (as in endoskeletons), or even absent (as in fluid-based, or hydrostatic, skeletons). Below
are the definition of different skeletal systems (Reece et al., 2011):
a. Hydrostatic Skeletons- A hydrostatic skeleton

consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed
body compartment. This is the main type of
skeleton in most cnidarians, flatworms,
nematodes, and annelids. These animals control
their form and movement by using muscles to
change the shape of fluid-filled compartments.
Figure 10.17 Planarian

Source: https://tinyurl.com/y3qwtq8c (2015)
b. Exoskeletons- The clam shell you find on a beach once served as an exoskeleton; a hard
encasement deposited on an animal’s surface. The shells of clams and most other
mollusks are made of calcium carbonate secreted by the mantle, a sheet-like extension of
the body wall. Clams and other bivalves close their hinged shell using muscles attached
to the inside of this exoskeleton. As the animal grows, it enlarges its shell by adding to the
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outer edge. Insects and other arthropods have a jointed exoskeleton called a cuticle, a
nonliving coat secreted by the epidermis.
Figure 10.18 Mollusk

Source: https://tinyurl.com/y36slmss (2017)
c. Endoskeletons- Animals ranging from sponges to mammals have a hardened internal

skeleton, or endoskeleton, buried within their soft tissues. In sponges, the endoskeleton
consists of hard needlelike structures of inorganic material or fibers made of protein.
Echinoderms’ bodies are reinforced by ossicles, hard plates composed of magnesium
carbonate and calcium carbonate crystals. Chordates have an endoskeleton consisting of
cartilage, bone, or some combination of these materials. The mammalian skeleton is built
from more than 200 bones, some fused together and others connected at joints by
ligaments that allow freedom of movement.
Meanwhile, a clam’s shell is an example of an exoskeleton and the bones and cartilage in
a human is an example of an endoskeleton. An endoskeleton should not be misconceived to be
only made up of bones, as even in humans, our skeletons are made up of cartilage and bones,
while, shark’s endoskeleton is made up of cartilage. We have different bones which our muscles
can pull to create movement, and the different types of joints are responsible for different
movement that our body can create (Reece et al., 2011).
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Figure 10.19 Types of joints
Source: http://anatomyofthefoot.com/types-ofjoints-in-human-body.html (2012)
Some Skeletal Injuries and Disorders
Below are some of the skeletal injuries and disorders (Mangali et al., 2016):
1. Fracture- This is a break in the bone and common skeletal injury. The bone heals itself
as soon as the fracture occurs.
2. Dislocation- This refers to the displacement of bones in the joint due to a hard blow.
Although considered as a serious bone problem, it can be corrected when an authorized
health professional aids the bone back to its right position.
3. Ankle ligament injury- This is known as sprained ankle. This happens when there is
overstretching or a torn ligament.
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4. Osteoporosis- This is characterized by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue.
In humans, it starts at age 50 or over. There is a decrease in bone strength and an
increase in the risk of broken bones.
Assessment Task
Activity A. Digestive System
Answer the following questions.
1. What are the different processes involved in the processing of food?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between intracellular and extracellular digestion? Give
representative organisms.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. How do animals in aquatic environment adapt on the low concentration of oxygen in their
environment? Explain.
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_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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4. How do animals in aquatic environment adapt on the low concentration of oxygen in
their environment? Explain.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. How does the respiratory system of birds allow them to fly? Explain.
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6. Sketch below the flow of gases along the respiratory system.
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Activity C. Waste removal
Direction: Label the missing parts and answer the questions below.
13. Why do kidney stones form if an individual does not excrete urine? Explain
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________
14. How does your knowledge of urine formation and nutrition/diet will prevent you from
forming kidney stones? Explain.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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Activity D. Homeostasis
1. What is the effect of homeostasis in the following:

a. sugar level
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____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b. temperature
____________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
c. salt and water balance
____________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between osmoregulator and osmoconformer? Explain.
____________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. How do amphibians produce urine?
____________________________________________________________________________
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Activity E. Defense against disease
1. How do invertebrates protect themselves from infections?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. In humans, how does the body protect itself from invasion of microbes due to
injury?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. What is a B cell? T cell? How is a B cell different from a T cell? Why are these cells
important?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. World Health Organization announced the restriction about using antibiotics in drug
store as primary medicine for flu and fever. What are the scientific basis why they
prohibited it?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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Activity F. Hormones that govern body activities
Using the table below, write in the second column the corresponding hormones that can
be found in the given glands in first column. Then write on the third column the disease that
may result if failure happen in glands listed below.
Glands Hormones Disease

Hypothalamus gland
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Islets of Langerhans
Adrenal gland
Testes gland
Ovaries gland
1. How are the endocrine glands of vertebrates different from invertebrates?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Why is homeostasis important in the function of hormones?

____________________________________________________________________________
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Activity G. Nervous system and Body in motion
Using the given graphic organizer below. Fill in the missing parts to complete the entire
concept of the structure of the nervous system.
1. Consider an individual who had been fluent in Filipino Sign Language before suffering
damage to the left cerebral hemisphere. After the injury, this person could still
understand signs, but could not readily generate signs that represented his thoughts.
What two hypotheses could explain this finding, and how might you distinguish between
them? Write your answer in the next page.
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____________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
2. Although skeletal muscles generally fatigue fairly rapidly, clam shell muscles have a protein
called paramyosin that allows them to sustain contraction for up to a month. From your
knowledge of the cellular mechanism of contraction, propose a hypothesis to explain how
paramyosin might work. How would you test your hypothesis experimentally?
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Written Works
Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. Which of the following is NOT a metabolic waste?
a. carbon dioxide c. uric acid
b. sucrose d. urea
2. Which of the following statement is FALSE?
a. The apparatus called ‘artificial kidney’ is a dialysis machine
b. Urea is found in man’s urine, sweat, blood and lymph
c. Blood in the renal vein contains plenty of metabolic waste
d. The sodium level in the blood is regulated by the hormone aldosterone.
3. The following structures provide a respiratory surface EXCEPT:
a. alveoli of a mammal c. gills of fish
b. body surface of an earthworm d. trachea of a man
4. Which of the following is an example of homeostasis?
a. We yawn when we see someone else yawn.
b. The epiglottis sometimes fails to close the glottis while drinking water.
c. We breathe faster and deeper during and after exercise.
d. During a very hot day, some prefer cold water to cold softdrink.
5. Which of these is an adaptation for absorbing digested food in man’s food tube?
a. cardiac sphincter c. hemoglobin
b. colon d. villus
6. Which of the following activities uses up the MOST energy?
a. swimming c. walking moderately
b. writing d. washing laundry
7. For large animals, which of the following explains why the closed type of circulatory
system is more efficient than the open type?
a. Blood travels faster when always inside a system of tubes.
b. There is faster exchange of materials when the blood is in direct contact with the
body cells, as in the open transport system.
c. Substances being transported to and from the cells diffuse easily through the thin
walls of the capillaries.
d. The open transport system works well with smaller organisms.
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8. What type of nerve cells are found only within the central nervous system?
a. associative neuron c. motor neuron
b. mixed nerve d. sensory neuron
9. Autonomic nerves connect the brain with the following EXCEPT:
a. leg muscles c. salivary glands
b. liver d. urinary bladder
10. Which of the following does NOT secrete hormones?
a. adrenal cortex c. pancreas
b. hypothalamus d. posterior pituitary
11. Which of these hormones controls formation of antibodies?
a. estrogen c. thyroxine
b. insulin d. thymosin
12. The following disorders are associated with undersecretion of certain hormones
EXCEPT:
a. exophthalmic goiter c. dwarfism
b. diabetes mellitus d. simple goiter
13. Which of the following technological advances would be most helpful to a person who
lost his lower limbs in an accident?
a. artificial legs
b. a robot that can-do household chores
c. a hang glider
d. a power-steering car
14. Which of the following structures are incorrectly matched?
a. shoulder girdle: arm c. ribs: lungs
b. skull: brain d. ribs: heart
15. What is the type of muscle found mainly in the walls of hollow organs?
a. cardiac muscle
b. skeletal muscle
c. smooth muscle
d. Both a and b
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Summary
 The structure of the body organs involved in food getting, digestion and absorption permits
them to perform the corresponding functions. This is an example of complementarity of
structure and function.
 Homeostasis is defined as the tendency of a biological system to maintain relatively
constant conditions in the internal environment while constantly interacting with and
adjusting to changes originating within or outside the system.
 The main functions of the circulatory system are: (a) to distribute nutrients and oxygen to
the body cells and (b) to collect carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes from the cells
and bring them to where the body can get rid of them.
 The main function of the excretory system is to expel from the body all metabolic wastes,
consisting of nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid and ammonia), excess salts, excess
water and carbon dioxide.
 The endocrine system assists the nervous system in regulating the body functions.
 Hormones secreted by ductless glands directly into the bloodstream.
 The nervous system is the main mechanism by which the body regulates its functions
(nervous control). The other way is by means of hormones (chemical control).
 The skeleton also supports an upright body and protects the internal organs.
 Bones, muscles, tendons and nerves are involved in making the body move.
References
 Biology. science and technology textbook for second year. (2006, 2009). Reprint Ed. Book
Media Press, Inc., Quezon City and Printwell Inc., Madaluyong City.
 Byju’s The Learning app. (n.d.). Hormones in animals.
https://byjus.com/biology/hormones-in- animals/
 Earth and Life Science. (2013). Commission on Higher Education
 Jing, S.J., Sanny, J., Moebs, B. (2020). Mechanism of Heat Transfer. OpenStax University
of Physics. Creative Commons Attribution License. https://tinyurl.com/yylssnob
 Mangali G.R., Oliva M. D.G., Mulig-Cruz C.I., Estira F.R. (2016). Earth and life science.
210
 OpenStax College, Biology 35.3 and Khan Academy. (2015, September 29). Neuron
structure and function. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-
biology/neuron-nervous-system/a/overview-of-neuron-structure-and-function
 OpenStax College, Biology. (2015, September 29). Neurons and glia. In OpenStax CNX.
http://cnx.org/contents/GFy_h8cu@9.87:c9j4p0aj@3/Neurons-and-Glial-Cells.
 Rabago L.M., Joaquin. C. C., Lagunzad. G. B., Carvajal. C.G.B. (2003). Functional biology
modular approach. Vibal Publishing House Inc. Quezon City.
(2011). Campbell Biology Ninth Edition. USA.
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MODULE 11
EVOLUTION
Introduction
This module discusses the prevailing opinion among scientists as to how life started on
this planet, and cites evidences of change in species through time.
It also included the different scientists who contributed in the development of the theory of
evolution. One of them are Jean Baptists Lamarck and Charles Darwin who give different
statement about evolution.
Let us start the module by stating what we mean when we use the term evolution. By this
we mean the change in a species through time. To discuss evolution based on this definition, we
have to assume the preexistence of living cells or organisms, since living species are the ones
presumed to undergo evolution.
Learning Outcomes

1. explain how populations of organisms have changed and continue to change over time
showing patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to produce the
organismal diversity observed today; and
2. describe how the present system of classification of organisms is based on evolutionary
relationship.
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Lesson 1. The Evidence for Evolution
Evolution is a biological phenomenon that involves changes in a species over time. What
is the nature of the changes that a species undergoes? Generally, they are changes in the
structure. In the case of the horse, for instance, the change was in body structure such as larger
molar and premolars, bigger and more powerful legs or bigger body size. The changes may be
small but continuous; they accumulate through many generations up to a point when the later
generation can no longer mate with the ancestral form. This is evolution. The main indicator,
therefor, of the appearance of a new species is the inability of the later generation and the original
species to mate and produce fertile offspring (Mangali et al., 2016).
Evidences for fossil record

Fossil constitute the strongest proof that species do change. Below are some observations
of fossil record and the possible interpretations (Rabago et al., 2007).
a. The remains of ancient life found in the oldest rocks are fewer and more primitive
than those found in younger rocks. The earliest fossils are those of prokaryotes
(blue-green bacteria, Class Cyanobacteriae) that appeared about 3.4 to 3.6 billion
years ago. Up to about 570 million years ago, life consisted only bacteria, single-
celled organisms and multicelled algae.
b. The remains of many ancient plants and animals show structural similarities to
certain organisms that live today, although none is exactly the same as the living
species. Also, fossils found in younger rocks are not found in much older rocks.
There are four classification of fossils (Sam Noble Museum, n.d.);
(a) true form fossils- are the entire animals or plants trapped and preserved in ice, tar, or
other material, such as remains of prehistoric elephants or mammoths that were frozen in the
Arctic tundra of Siberia and Alaska;
(b) mold fossils- are hollow impressions of a living thing in a rock. The mold reflects only
the shape and surface marking of the organisms;
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(c) cast fossils- are created when mold fossils get filled with mineral. The minerals harden
and form a replica of the original fossil; and
(d) trace fossils- are impressions on rocks that showed various activities. Fossils can be
footprints, eggs, droppings, or nests of animals.
Source: wikimedia.com
Figure 11.1 Type of fossils (a) true form fossil (b) mold fossil (c) cast fossil (d) trace
fossil
Figure 11.1 Type of fossils (a) true form fossil (b) mold fossil (c) cast fossil (d) trace fossil
Source: https://tinyurl.com/y5tbhr4b (2018)
Evidences from Variation

As cited by Rabago et al. (2007), variation refers to the existence of different varieties
within a species. For example, rice (Oryza sativa) has many varieties; examples are malagkit
(glutinous rice), dinorado, pinilik etc.
Evidences from Similarities in Developmental Changes (Comparative embryology)

By developmental change here is meant the series of changes in body structure that an
animal goes through from egg to adult. A lizard, chicken and man look very different in
appearance. However, their embryos as go through similar developmental changes. The three
organisms are all classified as chordates, specifically vertebrates. Their development is very
different from that of the fly and grasshopper which are classified as insects (Rabago et al., 2007).
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Scientists believe that organisms which undergo similar developmental changes have
close evolutionary ties. Furthermore, it is not farfetched to believe that probably an ancestral form
gradually evolved over millions of years into different vertebrate forms (Rabago et al., 2007).
Evidences from Similarities in Structure (Comparative Anatomy)

As stated by Rabago et al. (2007), whale, bat and man are all classified as mammals. The
flippers of the whale differ greatly from the forelimbs of a penguin. The wings of the bat differ from
those of a hawk. The forelimbs of man differ from those of an owl or any other nonmammal
chordate (Rabago et al., 2007).
Additionally, they stated that scientists believe that organisms which have very similar
structures have very close evolutionary ties. Structures that are similar because of common
ancestry are known as homologous structures. It also known that homologous structures are body
structures of different organism that have the same basic arrangement and pattern of embryonic
development. Analogous structures have similar function but differ in appearance (Rabago et al.,
2007).
Vestigial structures are parts of the body without particular functions. Vestigial organs are
body structures that do not serve any apparent function of some organisms but resemble
structures their presumed ancestors had. In humans, some vestigial organs are appendix, third
molars and complete set of muscles that wiggle the ears, just as the coyote does (Rabago et al.,
2007).
Evidences from Mutation

As cited by Rabago et al. (2007), mutation refers to the change in the hereditary material.
It may be change in the structure of a gene, that is, in the sequence of nitrogen bases of the
hereditary material, the DNA. Or it may be a change in the structure or number of chromosomes.
It is the ultimate source of new traits in a population (Rabago et al., 2007).
They also stated that mutations may be brought about by natural causes or by human
intervention. Those that take place in nature, called spontaneous mutations, are random and
occur at a low rate. On the other hand, those deliberately effected by people, called induced
mutations, occur at a higher rate, mostly in breeding stations and other research laboratories.
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Mutations may also take place accidentally as a result of activities of people such as exposure to
to high energy radiation in a nuclear accident (Rabago et al., 2007).
Evidences from Molecular Biology

Scientist discovered that organisms which have closer evolutionary ties have more DNA
and proteins in common than those that are more distantly related. We may now group these
proofs of evolution into two: indirect evidences and direct evidences (Rabago et al., 2007).
Indirect evidences
a. fossils and the order in which they appear in rocks of decreasing geologic age;
b. evidences from variations within each species;
c. evidences from comparative anatomy; and
d. evidences from comparative embryology.
Direct evidences
a. naturally occurring mutations;
b. products of induced mutations;
c. evidences from plant and animal breeding; and
d. evidences from molecular biology.
Some information about the scientist who contributed in the study about evolution (Earth
and Life Science, 2013):
1. Carolous Linnaeus
a. Father of taxonomy (differentiate classical taxonomy and modern taxonomy)
b. Started the binomial system of nomenclature
2. Thomas Malthus
a. Believed that populations grow geometrically while resources slowly increase or not at
all, leading to competition
3. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

a. First to propose about the theory of evolution: Theory of inheritance of acquired traits
and Theory of use and disuse.
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b. Physiological needs drive Lamarckian evolution
c. Defined evolution as process of increasing complexity
d. No extinction of species. Species disappeared because they just evolved into different
species.
e. Organisms adapt to evolve
4. Georges Cuvier
a. Established extinction through fossils
b. Believed that the earth was immensely old
c. Catastrophes caused that each one wiped out a number of species
d. Didn’t believe organic evolution because of the mummified cats and ibises
5. James Hutton
a. Proposed theory of gradualism (Slow subtle processes could cause substantial
change over time)
b. Great age of the earth
6. Charles Lyell
a. Proposed the theory of uniformitarianism (natural agents now at work on and within
the Earth have operated with general uniformity through immensely long periods of
time)
7. Gregor Mendel
a. Studied garden peas
b. Responsible for the: Law of segregation (two alleles for each gene separate during
gamete formation) and Law of Independent Assortment (alleles of genes on
nonhomologous chromosomes assort independently during gamete formation)
8. Charles Darwin
a. Explained evolution through: Natural Selection, Idea of Common Descent, Idea of
Gradualism, Idea of Multiplication of species
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b. Organisms evolve to adapt.
9. Alfred Russel Wallace

a. Had a correspondence with Darwin regarding the theory of evolution by mean of
Natural selection
b. Realized that species evolved because fittest individuals survived and reproduced
passing their advantageous characters.
10. Hugo de Vries

a. Rediscovered Mendel’s work
b. Thought of theory of mutation but his idea of mutation before has nothing to do with
the real mutations
11. Carl Correns
b. Worked on the Behavior of the Progeny of Racial Hybrids
12. Erich Von Tschermak

b. Applied mendial laws to artificial selection to improve crop yield
13. Rosalind Franklin

a. One of the few women during their time to be recognized for her contribution in the
scientific community.
b. Worked on the x-ray diffraction image of the DNA. X-ray crystallography picture of the
DNA that time were not pictures of molecules. The spots were produced by diffracted
x- rays from the fibers of a purified DNA.
c. She also concluded that the sugar-phosphate backbones were outside the DNA
molecule (contrary to Crick and Watson’s claim)
d. Died at the age of 38 (1958) so she was ineligible for the Nobel Prize.
14. James Watson and Francis Crick

a. Discovered that the DNA is a double stranded helix, from Rosalind Franklin’s works
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Lesson 2. Origin and Extinction of the Species
In this part, we will discuss the mostly accepted mechanism by which a species undergoes
change through time and ways by which technology has significantly altered the natural course
of evolution.
Biological population
The expression biological population refers to a group of individuals of the same species
that are actively interbreeding. To illustrate: one population (say Population Y) has been
separated from another (say Population X) of the same species by some geographical barriers
(say, body of water) that prevent the individuals of the two groups from interbreeding. The
biological population is important in the discussion if evolution because it is the functional unit of
a species that can evolve or give rise to a new species (Mangali et al., 2016).
Origin of new traits

According to Griffiths, Miller, and Suzuki (2000), the mutation which is a change either in
the structure or number or chromosomes is the ultimate source of new traits. Only mutations that
take place in gametes, or sex cells, are passed on to the next generation.
Additionally, they cited that gene control the manufacture of structural proteins and the
enzymes that regulate specific chemical reactions taking place in the cells. Hence, they control
both the reproduction and the physiological functions of the cells (Mangali et al., 2016).
As cited by Rabago et al., (2007), there are thousands of genes in the chromosomes of
each cell. Every individual is the recipient of a unique set of genes from both parents. Once a
gene in a gamete has mutated, the mutation now becomes part of a gene pool of all the
reproductive members of a population. Every person has unique set of genes and no two
individuals are genetically alike except identical twins (may physically differ to some extent as a
result of changes during development inside the mother’s womb).
Now, one of the significant contributions in the development of theory of evolution are the
theory from Jean Baptist Lamarck and Charles Darwin. Here is a table of the comparison of
Lamarckian and Darwinian evolution (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
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Table 11.1 Lamarckian and Darwinian evolution: Comparing theories on evolution
School of Thought Lamarckian Darwinian
Central idea Physiological needs drives organisms Natural Selection: nature selects which
to evolve; to become more complex organisms will survive and reproduce
Explanation on how Theory of inheritance of Acquired Descent with modification by natural
adaptations of organisms traits; and Theory of Use and Disuse selection; survival of the fittest
arise
Smallest unit that can Individual species Populations
evolve
Do variations initially exist No, variations are caused by Yes, important requirement for
in populations? inheriting acquired traits evolution
Common idea Environment as an important factor Environment as an important factor for
for evolution evolution
Does extinction happen? No, organisms just evolved into Yes, organisms that do not possess
another species adaptations (favorable traits) for a
specific environment go extinct.
Missing ingredient Variations in population, acquired Raw material for evolution- mutation
traits are not passed to the next and how traits are passed from parents
generation to offspring (genetics) since Darwin
observed offspring to be resembling
parents but not identical to them
Source: Earth and Life Science (2013)
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Figure 11.2 Representation of Lamarck’s and Darwin’s Theory
Source: Earth and Life Science, Commission on Higher Education (2013)
Artificial Selection vs. Natural Selection

Below are the comparison of artificial and natural selection (Earth and Life Science, 2013):
Artificial Selection
1. Artificial selection- process of selecting and breeding of animals and plants over many
generations to achieve the modifications desired by human beings.
2. Caused the production of individuals used for crops, livestock, pets that resemble wild
ancestors.
3. Instead of nature serving as the selecting factor, its humans that select which organisms
will be used for breeding depending on to the traits they want to improve.
4. Can take effect faster than natural selection, though follows the same principle as natural
selection where favorable traits will be more frequent in a population while less favorable
traits will diminish.
If domesticated dogs were discovered today, they would be classified as hundreds of

different species and considered quite distinct from wolves. Although it is probable that various
breeds of dogs were independently domesticated from distinct wild dog lineages, there are no
wolf relatives anywhere in the world that look much like dachshunds or collies (below)
(Understanding Evolution, n.d.).
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Figure 11.3 The artificial selection stated about the different breed of dogs
Source: https://tinyurl.com/y2m5dx8u (2017)
Natural Selection
1. Differential in rates of survival is dependent on individual’s heritable traits suited in the
environment.
2. An organism’s compatibility with its surrounding is increased by natural selection over
time.
3. A change in environment (or movement of individuals to new environment) may cause
a species to give rise to a new species depending on the traits that will be favored by
the new environment.
Figure 11.4 The artificial selection happened in the species of dogs

Source: https://tinyurl.com/yxf8boyl (2018)
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Darwin’s theory of evolution never claimed that we directly came from apes, instead we
share a common ancestor. That organism evolved because of natural selections (over many
generations; organisms, as population, evolved to adapt). Evolution explains the unity (common
ancestry) and diversity of life (descent with modification) not how life emerged on earth (Reece et
al., 2011).
According to Rabago et al. (2016), the adaptation is generally defined as that which fits
an organism to its environment or way of life. The powerful hind legs of a frog permit the animal
to swim and to effectively jump away from a predator and it illustrate structural adaptation. The
chameleon or ‘hunyango’ in Filipino has the ability to change color to green or brown, depending
on the color of its background. This color change, a physiological adaptation, allows the animal
to sit unnoticed on a branch and ambush an insect prey. Migration of birds during winter from
mainland China to the Philippines, New Zealand and Australia is an example of behavioral
adaptation.
Now, suppose a drastic change happens in environment for example, drying up of a wet
land for conversion to a subdivision, a forest fire, extensive spraying of insecticide, etc. What may
happen to the species in the area? Below are the possible cases (Rabago et al., 2007).
 Survival of species that already have adaptations to the new set of environmental
conditions.
 Outmigration of nonadopted species to another place with conditions they can tolerate.
 Extinction of nonadopted species that cannot emigrate, if their distribution is limited to that
area.
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Assessment Task
Activity A. Evolution
Animals and plants have been selectively bred for
generations to produce certain desired phenotypes. This
is an example of (1)________________
______________________. This supports the theory of
(2)___________________________ because it shows how
populations can change over time.
The diagram demonstrate the process of

(3)________________. The group of mice moved to new
area. Due to (4) _______________ some mice are black
and some are tan. After many generation, based on the
illustration the (5)_____________ have a higher chance of
leaving offspring than (6)_________ in the area.
The diagram below shows (7)__________________

structures, which may not have the same use, but do
have a common evolutionary origin, and thus structure.
These similarities in body parts suggest a
(8)____________ ancestor.
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Darwin cited evidence for the theory of
evolution. One of these is represented by this
diagram. It shows
(9)________________________- the study of
organisms at an early stage of development.
The similarities in the development of many
organisms suggest an evolutionary
relationship (common ancestor).
Bears hibernate in winter to escape the cold

temperatures and preserve energy. This type
of adaptation that enable them to survive is
called (10)___________________________.
(11)________________________ adaptation is
the internal and/or cellular features of
an organism that enable them to survive in
their environment.
1. Is artificial selection or selective breeding a good analogy for the selection that occurs
in nature? Give facts to support your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
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Activity B. Scientific Inquiry
1. Mosquitoes resistant to the pesticide DDT first appeared in India in 1959, but now
are found throughout the world. (a) Graph the data in the table below. (b)
Examining the graph, hypothesize why the percentage of mosquitoes resistant to
DDT rose rapidly. (c) Suggest an explanation for the global spread of DDT
resistance.
Month 0 8 12
Mosquitoes resistant 4% 45% 77%
to DDT
Source: C. F. Curtis et al., Selection for and against insecticide resistance and possible methods of inhibiting the
evolution of resistance in mosquitoes, Ecological Entomology 3:273–287 (1978). *Mosquitoes were considered
resistant if they were not killed within 1 hour of receiving a dose of 4% DDT.
A, Draw the graph here.
B. Hypothesis and explanation
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
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Written Works
Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. There are two forms of peppered moths; light and dark colored. In an urban area, over
90 percent of moths are dark-colored. Which of the following best explains the
difference?
a. Color is a heritable trait. The difference is due to the mother differing ability to
survive in its environment.
b. Color is an inherited trait. The offspring simply receive the same genetic material as
their parents.
c. Each moth changes color to match its background.
d. Color is an inherited trait. However, the moths are capable of showing either color.
2. Which is an example of a vestigial structure?
a. fins of fish c. pelvic bones of whales
b. vertebral column of snakes d. wings of bats
3. The human appendix which has no known function today is an example of
a. an analogous structure c. a vestigial structure
b. a homologous structure d. a mutated structure
4. The presence of different kinds of environment favors the appearance of new species
that are adapted to those environments. The following are examples of new
environment EXCEPT:
a. A new island formed by eruption of a volcano on the ocean floor
b. A delta at the mouth of a big river
c. A sugarcane field newly plowed after harvest
d. A crater lake formed after eruption of a volcano
5. In the theory of natural selection, what individuals are described as being more fit than
others?
a. those that are stronger and healthier
b. those that have better chances of surviving and producing more offspring
c. those that are adapted to their environment
d. those that can compete with other individuals which are also adapted to the
environment
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Summary
 Fossils are traces of ancient organisms from which we could infer the ancestry and
relationship of living forms.
 The phenomenon of evolution (change in a species through time) is supported by
evidences from:
a. fossil record
b. variation with species
c. similarities in structure (comparative anatomy)
d. similarities in developmental changes ( comparative embryology)
e. mutation: natural and induced
f. molecular biology
 The expression biological population refers to a group of individuals of the same species
that are actively interbreeding.
 Mutation refers to the change in the hereditary material. It may be change in the structure
of a gene, that is, in the sequence of nitrogen bases of the hereditary material, the DNA.
 The evidences of evolution can be grouped into two: indirect evidences or those from
which we can safely deduce the phenomenon of evolution; and direct evidences or those
that are directly observable or can be induced when desired.
 Lamarckian theory explains the physiological needs drives organisms to evolve; to
become more complex while the Darwinian theory explains the natural selection where
the nature selects which organisms will survive and reproduce
 Adaptation is a structural or behavioral change that an organisms undergoes in order to
successfully survive. Failure of an organism to cope with its environment could lead to
extinction.
 Artificial selection is the process of selecting and breeding of animals and plants over
many generations to achieve the modifications desired by human beings.
 Natural selection determines which new traits will survive and which will die out, the traits
that survive are those which give individuals that possess them both high survival and high
reproductive rates.
228
References
 Griffiths AJF, Miller JH, Suzuki DT. (2000). An Introduction to Genetic Analysis. 7th
edition. New York: W. H. Freeman; Sources of variation. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22012/
 Mangali G.R., Oliva M. D.G., Mulig-Cruz C.I., Estira F.R., (2016). Earth and life science.
Diwa Senior High School Series. Makati City, Philippines.
 Rabago L.M., Joaquin. C. C., Lagunzad. G. B. (2003). Functional biology modular
approach. Vibal Publishing House Inc. Quezon City.
(2011) Campbell Biology Ninth Edition. USA.
 Sam Noble Museum. Oklahomas Museum of Natural History.
https://samnoblemuseum.ou.edu/common-fossils-of-oklahoma/how-to-become-a-
fossil/different-kinds-of-fossils/
 Understanding evolution. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y2m5dx8u
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MODULE 12
INTERACTION AND INTERDEPENDENCE
Introduction
According to Agravante (2020), an ecosystem has components that interact with one
another in such a way that balance is created and maintained. It is composed of all living things
that interact with each other and with the physical and chemical factors that compose the nonliving
things in an area. An ecosystem may be a garden, a pond, a vacant lot with an overgrowth of
plants and wild animals, a forest, or an orchard on a hill.
Learning Outcomes

1. categorize the different biotic potential and environmental resistance (e.g., diseases,
availability of food, and predators) that affect population explosion.
Lesson 1. Principles of an Ecosystem
Living things are organisms; the examples most familiar to you are plants and animals. A
group of organisms of the same kind living in a particular area at a given time is called population.
All different kind of organisms that are interacting with one another in a given are constitute a
biotic community (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
An ecosystem can be classified into biotic and abiotic components. Biotic components
refer to the different kinds of organisms that interact with the environment. Abiotic components
include the soil, climate, topography or surface relief. Below are the comparison of biotic and
abiotic components (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
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The following are Biotic components (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
 Autotrophic organisms can make their own food, either with the use of light energy
(photosynthetic autotrophs) like the plants or with the use of chemical energy
(chemosynthetic autotrophs).
 Heterotrophic organisms consist of macroconsumers (i.e., the larger ones) and

microconsumers (generally the microbes). Heterotrophs that feed on plants are called
plant-eaters, or herbivores. Those that feed on flesh or meat are called flesh-eaters, or
carnivores. Heterotrophs that feed on both plants and animals are called variety-eaters or
omnivores. Lastly, the scavengers that eat only other animals after they are already killed.
 Decomposers – They 'recycle' dead organisms and waste (feces) into non-living elements
by reducing these feces into chemicals such as nitrogen and carbon. Those chemicals
become part of the soil and those nutrients can then be used by living plants and the
animals that consume them. Example of decomposers are the following;
1. Saprophytes - The main groups of decomposer organisms are bacteria and fungi that
cause decay at a microscopic level. Saprophytes cause decay by releasing enzymes
onto the dead animal or plant, breaking down complex compounds into simple soluble
ones that can be absorbed by decomposers.
2. Detritivores - Other larger organisms, called detritivores, help speed up decay by
feeding on detritus. Detritus is dead and decaying material and detritivores break it
down into smaller pieces, so increasing the surface area for the bacteria and fungi.
Detritivores include earthworms that help.
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Figure 11.1 Food web showing the relationship of different species in an ecosystem
Source: http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/esp/ 2001_gbio/folder_structure/ec/m3/s2/ (2012)
The following are Abiotic components (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
 Climate- the contrasting behaviors or characteristics of plants may affect because of the
climatic conditions. The climatic elements are the light, moisture, temperature and wind.
 Soil- The principal soil types are sand, loam and clay. They differ, not only in the kind of
substances they contain, but also in the size of the soil particles which determines the
amount of water with dissolved minerals that leaches out of the soil.
 Topography- It refers to the form of the landscape—its steepness, shape, and slope
aspect (the direction a slope faces). Even within a relatively small area, variations
in topography can create variations in temperature, moisture, and exposure to sun and
wind. Examples of topography include mountains, hills, valleys, lakes, oceans, rivers,
cities, dams, and roads. The elevation, or height, of mountains and other objects is
recorded as part of topography. It is usually recorded in reference to sea level (the surface
of the ocean).
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Special Nutritional Relationships - Symbiosis and Parasitism
Symbiosis - an interaction among different species in an ecosystem that where they live
in a close association with each other where at least one member of the association benefits
(gains) by the association (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
1. Mutualism - a symbiotic relationship in which

BOTH organisms benefit from the association.
Example: Termites and its intestinal parasite;
giant clams and its symbiotic algae; nitrogen
fixing bacteria that live in nodes on the roots of
legumes; shrimp and goby (fish).
Figure 11.2 Giant clam and algae

Source: https://tinyurl.com/y5h7mtss (2014)
2. Commensalism –a symbiotic relationship

where one organism benefits (+) and the
other organism is not harmed (0). Example, a
remora attaches itself to the underside of a
shark – The remora gets a free ride and free
food (from eating shark’s food scraps) while
the shark does not get any benefits and
Figure 11.3 Remora fish and shark
harmed.
Source: https://tinyurl.com/y3xqvxhr (2020)
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3. Parasitism – One organism, the parasite, benefits (+),
while the host is harmed (-). Example: tapeworm in the
intestine of pigs; ticks on dogs and others.
Figure 11.4 Tick on dog

Source: https://tinyurl.com/y4nlqkzo (2020)
Lesson 2. Biotic Potential and Environmental Resistance
The rate of population growth is dependent on biotic potential and environmental

resistance. Below are the definition of biotic potential and environmental resistance (Mangali et
al., 2016).
a. Biotic potential is the maximum reproductive capacity of an organism under optimum

environmental conditions. It is often expressed as a proportional or percentage increase
per year, as in the statement “The human population increased by 3 percent last year.” It
can also be expressed as the time it takes for a population to double in size (doubling time).
In disease-related studies it is comparable to the “force of infection,” the number of
susceptible individuals each infected individual further infects.
b. Environmental resistance factors are things that limit the growth of a population. They
include biotic factors - like predators, disease, competition, and lack of food - as well as
abiotic factors - like fire, flood, and drought. The biotic potential of a population is how well
a species is able to survive.
The combination of biotic and abiotic factors determines the carrying capacity of an
ecosystem. Carrying capacity is the number of individuals that can be supported with the natural
resource limit of a given area and without putting at risk the natural, social, cultural, and economic
environments for the present and future species that live in the same area or habitat.
234
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation is the gradual build up over time of a chemical in a living organism. This
occurs either because the chemical is taken up faster than it can be used, or because the chemical
cannot be broken down for use by the organism (that is, the chemical cannot be metabolized).
While the amount of pollutant might have been small enough not to cause any damage in the
lowest levels of the food web, the amount might cause serious damage to organisms higher in
the food web. This phenomenon is known as biomagnification (Mangali et al., 2016).
Distribution/Dispersal is the pattern of spacing among individuals of the population.

There are three types of dispersion (Reece et al., 2011):
a. CLUMPED dispersion - individuals aggregate in patches; may be influenced by resource

availability and behavior (efficiency in hunting, guarding the young).
b. UNIFORM dispersion - individuals are evenly distributed; May be influenced by social

interactions such as territoriality.
c. RANDOM dispersion - The location of one individual is independent of others members of

the population.
Figure 11.5 Three types of population dispersion (A) clumped dispersion (B) uniform dispersion
(C) random dispersion
Source: Campbell Biology 7th Edition (2011)
235
Population Size and Density
Population size is the number of individuals in a population. For example, a population of

insects might consist of 100 individual insects, or many more. Population size influences the
chances of a species surviving or going extinct. Generally, very small populations are at greatest
risk of extinction. Population density is the average number of individuals in a population per unit
of area or volume. For example, a population of 100 insects that live in an area of 100 square
meters has a density of 1 insect per square meter. If the same population lives in an area of only
1 square meter, what is its density? Which population is more crowded? How might crowding
affect the health of a population (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
Population density is not static. It is influenced by death, birth, and movement (immigration
and emigration) among populations (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
According to Reece et al. (2011), the population growth is due to a higher birth rate than
death rate. New individuals are recruited into the population through growth and immigration. The
maturation of newborn into the adult breeding population, is considered a more important basis
of the potential population growth.
Estimating Population Density through Growth Model

Carrying capacity, exponential vs logistic models population growth models discusses the
rate at which the density of a population increases through time. Below are the description and
sample of exponential and logistic growth curve (Reece et al., 2011).
The following are explanations of Exponential Growth Curve (Reece et al., 2011).
• Is population increase under idealized conditions. The rate of reproduction is at its
maximum, called the intrinsic rate of increase. Cannot be sustained for long in any
population
• The J-shaped curve of exponential growth is a characteristic of some populations that are
rebounding.
• A more realistic population model incorporates the carrying capacity (represented by k) of
the environment.
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Logistic Growth Curve
As populations grow, the resources become limited. When the increase in animal
population is plotted over a long period, the early increase is rapid, then gradually slows down as
the carrying capacity is reached. The pattern in which the growth of the population slows down
as it reaches k is called logistic growth curve (Reece et al., 2011).
Figure 11.6 Showing the exponential and logistic growth curve of population size
Source: https://tinyurl.com/y6xtnnsr (2016)
Populations are not only affected by the availability of resources but also the presence of
natural enemies/predators, parasites and competition with other species. These mortality factors
can be classified into (Reece et al, 2011):
1. Density-dependent–mortality factor whose influence varies with the density of the

population; may reduce population densities and stabilize them at equilibrium levels.
Examples: parasitism, predation, competition. More individuals of the population are killed
when densities are high and less when densities are low. Predators kill relatively few of
prey species that is rare; they kill relatively more of the common species.
2. Density-independent – mortality factor whose influence is not affected by changes in the

population size or density.
3. They are physical factors like storms, drought, fires, floods.
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Factors affecting population density
Number of Reproductive Events: Semelparity vs. Iteroparity (Reece et al., 2011):
A. Semelparity – (“Semel” - Latin “once”): Organisms can produce all their offspring in one
reproductive event. Common in insects and some invertebrates, salmon, bamboo
grasses and agave plants. They reproduce only once and die. Agaves lives to several
years before reproducing; Some are annual plants that develop from seed, flower and
drop their own seed within a year.
B. Iteroparity – (“itero” L = to repeat); Pattern of repeated reproduction at intervals; common

in most vertebrates and perennial plants such as trees; number of reproductive events
and number of offspring per event vary among species.
i. Seasonal Iteroparity – Have distinct breeding seasons such as temperate
animals and forest trees.
ii. Continuous Iteroparity – individuals reproduce repeatedly and at any time of
the year; found in tropical species, parasites and many mammals.
Number of offspring per reproductive event

Organisms that live in stable environments tend to make few, "expensive" offspring.
Organisms that live in unstable environments tend to make many, "cheap" offspring.
A. r – strategists
These animals live in unstable environments and the ability to reproduce rapidly
(exponentially) is important. Such organisms have high fecundity, give relatively little parental
care in any one offspring, and are vulnerable to predation and the “dictates” of their environment.
The “strategic intent” is to flood the habitat with progeny so that, regardless of predation or
mortality, at least some of the progeny will survive to reproduce. Organisms that are r-selected
have short life spans, are generally small, quick to mature and waste a lot of energy (Earth and
Life Science, 2013).
B. k – strategists
They are larger in size and have longer life expectancies. They are stronger or are better
protected and generally are more energy efficient. They produce, during their life spans, fewer
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progeny, but place a greater investment in each. The resulting offspring have higher chances of
survival. Their reproductive strategy is to grow slowly, live close to the carrying capacity of their
habitat and produce a few progeny each with a high probability of survival (Earth and Life
Science, 2013).
Figure 11.7 Population growth using k and r strategies

Source: https://tinyurl.com/y2dp37wm (2017)
Neither strategy is better than the other since both strategies are necessary for the
biosphere. K-strategists help maintain ecosystem constancy (climax / equilibrium species) while
r-strategists quickly cover disturbed areas and help decompose dead plants and animals
(pioneering/opportunistic species).
Figure 11.8 The r-k scale of reproductive strategy

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Populations are regulated by (Earth and Life Science, 2013):
(A) Density-Dependent Regulation

Population growth rates are regulated by the density of a population. Most density-
dependent factors are biological (biotic) in nature and includes predation, inter- and intraspecific
competition, accumulation of waste, and diseases such as those caused by parasites. Usually,
the denser a population is, the greater its mortality.
(B) Density-Independent Regulation

Factors that are typically physical or chemical (abiotic) in nature that influence the mortality
of a population regardless of its density. They include weather, natural disasters (storms, forest
fires, flooding, pollution and others). Example, a bird may be killed during an oil spill regardless
of how many birds were present in that area. Its chances of survival are the same whether the
population density is high or low.
Density-dependent regulation
Below are the different density-dependent limiting factors (Earth and Life Science, 2013):
a. Competition for Resources
Increasing population density intensifies competition for nutrients and other resources,
reducing reproductive rates.
b. Predation
Predation can be an important cause of density- dependent mortality if a predator captures
more food as the population density of the prey increases. As a prey population builds up,
predators may also feed preferentially on that species. Predator-prey relationship of some animals
like the snowshoe hare and the lynx demonstrate a cyclic pattern.
c. Territoriality
Territoriality can limit population density when space becomes the resource for which
individuals compete. Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) use a chemical marker in urine to warn other
cheetahs of their territorial boundaries. The presence of surplus, or nonbreeding, individuals is a
good indication that territoriality is restricting population growth.
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d. Disease
If the transmission rate of a disease increases as a population becomes more crowded,
then the disease’s impact is density dependent. In humans, the respiratory diseases influenza
(flu) and tuberculosis are spread through the air when an infected person sneezes or coughs.
Both diseases strike a greater percentage of people in densely populated cities than in rural areas.
Life table
Life history tables, or life tables, are a method of quantifying population structure that
addresses all of the above population traits. Life tables provide age- specific information on
survival and fecundity rates for a particular population. Information contained in a life table (Earth
and Life, 2013):
(A) Population age structure – number of individuals that are young, old and of reproductive
age;
(B) Population growth rate – Is the population size growing (or shrinking)?
(C) Population survivorship patterns – At what stage does most mortality occur? Does most
mortality occur in the very young? The very old? Or equally across all ages?
1. Population Age Structure - also called population pyramid. It is a visualization of the number
of individuals in different age classes and incorporates the male to female sex ratio in that
population. Can describe the population as increasing (rapidly or slowly), stable and
decreasing.
2. Population Growth – previously discussed (see Population Growth Models)
3. Population Survivorship patterns
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Figure 11.9 A graph showing the number or proportion of individuals surviving to each age
A survivorship curve is a graph showing the number or proportion of individuals surviving

to each age for a given species or group (e.g. males or females). Survivorship curves can be
constructed for a given cohort (a group of individuals of roughly the same age) based on a life
table (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
Survivorship curve (Earth and Life Science, 2013).

1. Graphic representation of the number of individuals in a population that can be expected to
survive to any specific age.
2. There are three general types of curves (Earth and Life Science, 2013):
A. Type I - has a high death rate (or low survivorship rate) immediately following birth. (ex.
small mammals, fishes, and invertebrates)
B. Type II - The organism tends to live a long life (low death rate and a high survivorship rate);
toward the end of its life expectancy, however, there is a dramatic increase in the death rate.
Example: large mammals
C. Type III - The mortality or survivorship rate is relatively constant during the organism’s
entire life. Example: birds and mice.
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Major types of ecological pyramids
A pyramid-shaped diagram representing quantitatively the numbers of organisms, energy
relationships, and biomass of an ecosystem. It depicts the number of individual organisms at
different trophic levels of food chain. This pyramid was advanced by Charles Elton (1927), who
pointed out the great difference in the number of the organisms involved in each step of the food
chain. Successive links of trophic structure decrease rapidly in number until there are very few
carnivores at the top. The pyramid of number ignores the biomass of organisms and it also does
not indicate the energy transferred or the use of energy by the groups involved. The lake
ecosystem provides a typical example for pyramid of number (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
Figure 11.10 Energy pyramid

Source:https://tinyurl.com/y3bhvmz2(2013)
The pyramid is constructed according to the rate at which food material (in the form of
energy) passes through the food chain. Some organisms may have a small biomass, but the total
energy they assimilate and pass on, may be considerably greater than that of organisms with a
much larger biomass. Energy pyramids are always slopping because less energy is transferred
from each level than was paid into it. In cases such as in open water communities the producers
have less bulk than consumers but the energy they store and pass on must be greater than that
of the next level (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
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Lesson 3. Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic biomes
Below are the different aquatic biomes (Mangali et al., 2016).
Aquatic biomes
Below are the different aquatic biomes (Mangali et al., 2016).
1. Ecologists distinguish between freshwater biomes and marine biomes on the basis
of physical and chemical differences.
2. Since oceans comprise about 75% of the Earth’s surface, oceans have an
enormous impact on the biosphere.
3. Aquatic Biomes:
a. The evaporation of seawater provides most of the Earth’s rainfall;
b. Ocean temperatures have a major effect on world climate and wind
patterns;
c. Marine plants and algae, and photosynthetic bacteria supply a significant
portion of the world’s oxygen and consume large amounts of carbon dioxide;
and
d. Freshwater biomes are closely linked to the soils and biotic components of
terrestrial biomes.
4. Characteristics of aquatic biomes is based on the vertical stratification of physical and

chemical variables:
a. Photic vs Aphotic zone
i. Photic zone – Sufficient sunlight is available for photosynthesis and is
the basis of the food chain; and
ii. Aphotic zone – Sunlight cannot penetrate and food chain is based on
non-photosynthetic activities.
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b. Temperature
i. Surface waters are usually distinctly warmer than deeper waters.
Between these layers, is a layer wherein water temperature rapidly
changes (called THERMOCLINE).
5. At the bottom of all aquatic biomes is the benthic zone that can be made up of the
sediment that can be composed of sand/silt/clay and organic/inorganic materials.
Animals living in the benthic zone are called benthos.
Freshwater biomes
Particular characteristics of a freshwater biomes are influenced by the patterns and speed
of water floor, and the climate to which the biome is exposed.
There are three general categories (Earth and Life Science, 2013):
a. Standing bodies of water (Example: lakes and ponds)
b. Moving bodies of water (Example: rivers and streams)
c. Wetlands
Lakes
1. Zonation
a. Littoral zone – Shallow, well-lit waters close to the shore
b. Limnetic zone – Well-lit, open surface waters farther from the shore
c. Profundal zone – Aphotic region of the water column.
2. Classification according to production of organic matter

a. Eutrophic - Having waters rich in phosphates, nitrates, and organic nutrients that
promote a proliferation of plant life, especially algae. Some lakes and bodies of water
can become eutrophic through high nutrient input from domestic and agricultural
sources.
b. Oligotrophic - has low nutrient concentrations and low plant growth.
Rivers and streams

1. These are bodies of flowing water moving in one direction.
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2. They get their starts at headwaters, which may be springs, snowmelt or even lakes, and
then travel all the way to their mouths, usually another water channel or the ocean.
3. The characteristics of a river or stream change during the journey from the source to the
mouth.
a. Source: Water is clearer with high oxygen levels and its temperature is cooler
b. Towards the middle part, the width increases, as does species diversity
numerous aquatic green plants and algae can be found.
c. Toward the mouth, the water becomes murky from all the sediments that it
has picked up upstream, decreasing the amount of light that can penetrate
through the water. Since there is less light, there is less diversity of flora, and
oxygen levels are lower.
Wetlands
1. Defined – an area with water that supports aquatic plants; range from periodically
flooded regions to soil that is permanently saturated during the growing season.
2. Wetlands range from marshes to swamps to bog that develop in:
a. Basin wetlands – develop in shallow basins, ranging from upland depressions

to filled- in lakes and ponds;
b. Riverine wetlands – develop along shallow and periodically flooded banks of
rivers and streams; and
c. Fringe wetlands - occur along coasts of large lakes and seas, where water
flows back and forth because of rising lake levels or tidal action.
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Figure 11.11 The different zonation in lakes
Marine biomes
Marine regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth’s surface and include deep
sea/oceanic communities, nearshore communities (coral reefs, seagrass beds, algal
[kelp/Sargassum] beds, mangrove forests) and estuaries. Produces in marine biomes contribute
to the supply of the world’s oxygen supply and like terrestrial vegetation, take in a huge amount
of atmospheric carbon dioxide. As a huge water reservoir, evaporation of the seawater provides
rainwater for the terrestrial biomes (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
Zonation of marine biome

Below are the list of different zonation of marine biome (Earth and Life Science, 2013):
1. Horizontal Division - zonation extending from land to sea

A. Coastal / Nearshore Zone
i. Intertidal (Littoral) Zone – The region between the high and low tidal marks. The
hallmark of the intertidal is the constant motion of water in the form of waves, tides
and currents.
ii. Supratidal (Supralittoral) Zone – This is the region of the coast that is permanently
exposed to air but occasionally becomes wet by large waves and sea spray.
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iii. Subtidal/sublittoral/Infralittoral Zone – This region is always submerged in
seawater although water depth changes with the tides.
B. Pelagic Zone – This can be divided into

i. Neritic Zone –is the shallow water zone (200 m).
ii. Oceanic Zone – compose waters beyond the continental shelf (>200 m).
2. Vertical Division – based on depth; similar to vertical division of lake

A. Photic/Euphotic Zone
i. Sunlight only penetrates the sea surface to a depth of about 200 m, creating the
photic zone. Organisms that photosynthesize depend on sunlight for food and
so are restricted to this zone. Depending on water clarity, the bottom of this
zone is about 500 ft below sea level. It is also known as the epipelagic zone.
B. Aphotic Zone
i.Comprises of the reminder of the water column below the photic zone. Food
chains usually begin with detritus, living algae and bacteria that sink from
the above layers. It can be further subdivided to:
a. Mesopelagic Zone – 500-3,280 ft below sea surface

b. Bathypelagic Zone – 3,280-13,000 ft below sea surface
c. Abyssopelagic Zone – 13,00-20,000 ft below sea level
d. Hadal Zone – 20,000-35,000 ft below sea water
ii. Depending on water clarity, the bottom of this zone is about 500 ft below sea level. It is
also known as the epipelagic zone.
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Figure 11.12 The different zonation in marine biomes
Marine Communities
(1) Nearshore Communities
Below are the list of different nearshore communities (Earth and Life Science, 2013):
A. Estuaries, Mangrove Forests and Salt Marshes

Salt Marshes, estuaries, and mangrove forests are unique ecosystems in semi-
sheltered areas near the ocean coastline. These areas often serve as nursing grounds
where young marine life is protected during development.
A salt marsh is a marshy area found near estuaries and sounds. The water in salt
marshes varies from completely saturated with salt to freshwater. Estuaries are partly
sheltered areas found near river mouths where freshwater mixes with seawater. Both salt
marshes and estuaries are affected by high and low tides. Mangrove forests are found in
the intertidal zone of tropical coastlines and estuaries, commonly in the tropical coastal
areas. The mangrove tree is a tree with roots and leaves that filter salt and other materials.
Different mangrove species are adapted to serve different functions depending on their
location.
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B. Algal Beds (Kelp Forests and Sargassum Beds) – These algal beds/forests are formed
by large brown algae. In the temperate regions, kelp forests (mainly Fucus) form a distinct
major marine community that supports a distinct population of marine organisms and its
own food chain.
C. Seagrass Beds – Seagrasses are flowering plants that are capable of binding
sediments with their complex root systems. They form beds that can extend from the
intertidal to subtidal areas. Like mangroves and salt marshes, they are important in carbon
sequestration and as nurseries and habitats for fish and invertebrates.
D. Coral Reefs – are tropical marine communities that are built mainly by scleractinian
(hermatypic) that possess symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae. The development of reefs
is slow and is aided by other organisms like coralline algae and sponges. Reefs form
complex structures that serve as habitats and nurseries for marine organisms.
E. Rocky Intertidal Communities - sits at the juncture of crashing ocean waves and rocky
shorelines. It can take the form of exposed rocky cliffs, boulder rubble, wave-pounded
rocky shelves, and sheltered rocky shores. Organisms living in this ecosystem are faced
with extreme levels of disturbance inherent in this environment, including submersion,
exposure to air, and being pounded by surf.
F. Sandy Beach Communities – These benthic marine communities are often thought of
as barren since they are flat and seemingly uninhabited by organisms. Organisms that
inhabit these communities usually burrow underneath the sand and are seldom. Examples
of animals in sandy communities: Crustaceans like the sand hopper (left) usually found
underneath decaying beach vegetation), mole crab (middle, “bakuku” in Cebuano) which
burrows at the surf zone and ghost crab (right) that constructs deep burrows in the
exposed sand.
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Figure 11.13 Marine communities (a) mangroves (b) algal bed (c) seagrass bed (d) coral reefs
(e) rocky intertidal communities (f) sandy beach communities
Source: https://tinyurl.com/y3bg77sw (2016)
(2) Oceanic Communities (Earth and Life Science, 2013).

A. Hydrothermal Vents – Oceanic “hot springs” that are produced in the ocean due to
underwater volcanoes at spreading ridges and tectonic plate boundaries. These
communities do not rely on photosynthesis as the base of the food web but rather
chemosynthesis.
B. A whale fall is the carcass of a cetacean that has fallen into the Bathyal or Abyssal zone
on the ocean floor. As they are found at depths of 2,000 m or 6,600 ft, they create complex
localized ecosystems that supply sustenance to deep-sea organisms for decades.
C. Cold seeps are shallow areas on the ocean floor where gases percolate through
underlying rock and sediment layers and emerge on the ocean bottom. The gases found
in the seep are methane and sulfur-rich gases and sediments releasing petroleum.
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Figure 11.14 Oceanic communities (a) hydrothermal vents (b) Abyssal zone (c) cold seeps
Source: https://tinyurl.com/y3bg77sw (2016)
Terrestrial Biomes
Most of the classified biomes are identified by the dominant plants found in their
communities. The diversity of animal life and subdominant plant forms characteristic of each
biome is generally controlled by abiotic environmental conditions and the productivity of the
dominant vegetation. Below are the different terrestrial biomes (Earth and Life Science, 2013).
A. Arctic and Alpine Tundra - The geographical distribution of the tundra biome is largely
poleward of 60° North latitude. The tundra biome is characterized by an absence of trees,
the presence of dwarf plants, and a ground surface that is wet, spongy, and hummocky.
Soils of this biome are usually permanently frozen (permafrost) starting at a depth of a few
centimeters to >1m. The permafrost line is a physical barrier to plant root growth.
B. Boreal Coniferous Forest- this moist-cool, transcontinental coniferous forest, or taiga lies
largely between the 45o and 57o North latitudes. Its climate is cool to cold with more
precipitation than the tundra, occurring mainly in the summer because of mid-latitude
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cyclones. The predominant vegetation of boreal biome are needle-leaf evergreen variety
tree species. The understory is relatively limited as a result of the low light penetration
even during the spring and fall months.
C. Temperate Deciduous Forest - As its name indicates, this biome is characterized by a

moderate climate and deciduous trees. It once occupied much of the eastern half of the
United States, central Europe, Korea, and China. This biome has been very extensively
affected by human activity, and much of it has been converted into agricultural fields or
urban developments. The understory of shrubs and herbs in a mature deciduous forest is
typically well developed and richly diversified. The deciduous forest has four distinct
seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. In the autumn the leaves change color.
During the winter months the trees lose their leaves.
D. Grassland - In central North America are the grasslands, the tall grass prairie toward the
east and the short grass prairie westward. In Europe and Asia some grasslands are called
steppes. In South America, grasslands are known as pampas.
E. Desert - In its most typical form, the desert consists of shrub-covered land where the plants
are spatially quite dispersed. In general, the major desert biomes of the Earth are
geographically found at between 25 to 40° North and South latitude, in the interiors of
continents. Climatically, deserts are influenced by descending air currents which limit the
formation of precipitation. Many desert areas have less than 250 millimeters of
precipitation annually.
F. Chaparral - Chaparral has a very specific spatial distribution. It is found in a narrow zone
between 32 and 40° latitude North and South on the west coasts of the continents. This
area has a dry climate because of the dominance of the subtropical high pressure zone
during the fall, summer, and spring months. Precipitation falls mainly in the winter months.
Annual averages range from about 300-750 mm and most of this rain falls in a period
between 2-4 months. As a result of the climate, the vegetation that inhabits this biome
exhibits a number of adaptations to withstand drought and fire.
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G. Tropical savanna - Tropical savannas are grasslands with scattered drought- resistant
trees that generally do not exceed 10 m in height. Tree and shrub species in the savanna
usually shed their leaves during the dry season. The savanna biome constitutes extensive
areas in eastern Africa, South America, and Australia. Savannas also support the richest
diversity of grazing mammals in the world.
H. Tropical rainforest - Tropical rainforests occur in a broad zone outside the equator. Annual
rainfall, which exceeds 2000-2250 mm, is generally evenly distributed throughout the year.
Temperature and humidity are relatively high through the year. Flora is highly diverse: a
square kilometer may contain as many as 100 different tree species as compared to 3-4
in the temperate zone. The various trees of the tropical rain forests are closely spaced
together and form a thick continuous canopy some 25-35 m tall. Every so often this canopy
is interrupted by the presence of very tall trees (up to 40 m) that have wide buttressed
bases for support.
Figure 11.15 Terrestrial biomes (a) arctic and alpine tundra (b) taiga (c) temperate deciduous forest (d)
Tropical rainforest is divided
grassland into four
(e) desert layers (Mangali
(f) chaparral etsavanna
(g) tropical al., 2016):
(h) tropical rainforest
Source: https://tinyurl.com/yxvdukmk (2010)
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a. Emergent layer- this layer consists of the tallest trees that tower to as much as 60 m above
the forest floor. Tall trees absorb more sunlight than small trees. The trees are hardwood
and have broad leaves and are supported by big trunks and by buttress roots.
b. Canopy layer- It is the primary layer of the forest, and the trees may grow up to more than
30 m. This leafy layer is abundant with fruits. It is the habitat of most wildlife such as
monkeys, snakes, lizards, sloths, birds, and tree frogs.
c. Understory layers- Below the canopy but over the ground (forest floor). Only a small
amount of sunshine reaches this layer. It is shady and cooler than the canopy. Plants
seldom grow to more than 4m. Small shrubs and vines abound in this layer. The
understory is home to some birds and insects.
d. Forest floor- This is the bottom layer of the rainforest. The trees block out most of the
sunlight which makes this layer very dark in some areas. It is covered in humus, a thick
layer of decaying leaves and roots. This layer is teaming with many insects and spiders
and large animals like jaguars, boa and pumas.
Figure 11.16 The layers of a tropical rainforest

Source: https://science4fun.info/rainforest/ (2020)
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Lesson 4. Human Activities that Affects the Natural Ecosystem
Threats to freshwater biomes (Rivers) (Earth and Life Science, 2013):

1. Re-channeling of natural freshwater ways or rivers for fishponds, rice paddy irrigation
and human use;
2. Sand Quarrying – deepens rivers and prevents river water from exiting and allows
seawater intrusion, and prevents oxygenation of water
3. Stone quarrying – removes defense of organisms against being swept away by water
current;
4. Dams – prevents migration of fish; use as receiving bodies for pollutants
5. Pollution
6. Eutrophication
7. Introduction of exotic species by aquaculture
Threats to Marine biomes (Ocean and Seas) (Raunek, 2019):

1. Ocean dumping
2. Land runoff
3. Dredging
4. Nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides
5. Ocean acidification
6. Sea water level rising
7. Ozone depleting substance
8. Waste and Noise pollution from ships
9. Oil spills
10. Plastic pollution
Threats to terrestrial biomes (land) (Rabago et al., 2007):

1. Deforestation 7. Introduction of invasive alien species
2. Improper waste segregation 8. Erosion
3. Excessive use of chemicals 9. Human settlements
4. Land Conversion
5. Wildlife trafficking
6. Mining
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Assessment Task
Activity A. Exponential and Logistic Growth
Look at the graph below and answer the following questions.
1. Which of the two curves exhibits exponential growth?

______________________________________________________________
2. Which of the two curves exhibits carrying capacity?
______________________________________________________________
3. What is the carrying capacity of this graph?
______________________________________________________________
4. In what generation does this population reached its carrying capacity?
______________________________________________________________
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Activity B. Survivorship curve
Look at the graph below and answer the following questions.
Curve A shows a white woman’s life expectancy in the USA.

Curve B shows an Indian woman’s life expectancy in India.
Curve C shows a fish’s life which has an equal chance of dying at any age.
Curve D shows an oyster’s life in which there are many young but few survive to adulthood.
1. Who has the better chances of surviving infancy- women in India or USA?
_______________________________________________
2. At what age are most oyster dead?
_______________________________________________
3. At what age are most fish dead?
_______________________________________________
4. Look at Curve A. Notice that it levels off between the ages of 20-40. What does this
mean?
_______________________________________________
5. Which has a longer life expectancy- fish or oysters? Explain.
_________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________ 258
Activity C. Food chain and Food web
1. Look at this food chain and answer the following questions.
a. What does the arrow mean in a food chain? _________________________
b. Name the producer in the food chain. _______________________________
c. Name the third trophic level in the food chain. ________________________
d. Name the tertiary consumer in the food chain. _______________________
e. What is the ultimate source of energy that drives the food chain? ________________
2. Look at this food web and answer the following questions.
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a. Name two producers in the food web.
______________________________________________________________________________
b. Name three consumers in the food web.
______________________________________________________________________________
c. Write a food chain from this food web with six trophic levels.
______________________________________________________________________________
d. Name the animals that the small fish eats.
______________________________________________________________________________
e. What does a fox eat?
______________________________________________________________________________
f. Name the animals that eat the small fish.
______________________________________________________________________________
g. Explain what could happen to the community if all the frogs suddenly died.
______________________________________________________________________________
h. How are food webs different to food chains? Explain why food webs are more useful.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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Activity D. Scientific Inquiry
1. Write a paragraph contrasting the conditions that favor the evolution of semelparous
(one-time) reproduction versus iteroparous (repeated) reproduction.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Some biologists have suggested that ecosystems are emergent, “living” systems capable
of evolving. One manifestation of this idea is environmentalist James Lovelock’s Gaia
hypothesis, which views Earth itself as a living, homeostatic entity—a kind of
superorganism. If ecosystems are capable of evolving, would this be a form of Darwinian
evolution? Why or why not? Explain.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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Activity E. Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystem
Below are the different pictures showing terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem. Write in the second
column the type of ecosystem and its description. In the third column, write where it can found
here in the Philippines.
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1. Why do you think tropical rainforest have high level of biodiversity?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between a freshwater ecosystem and a marine ecosystem?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
 _____________________________________________________________________________
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Written Works
Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. What factor in a tropical rainforest would be the understory trees and shrubs be most
deprived of?
B. light c. soil
a. salts d. water
2. How can we classify the relationship that exists between termites and Trichonympha
(protist) living in their gut?
a. commensalism c. mutualism
b. competition d. parasitism
3. What will happen to the organisms of the second trophic level if the third trophic level is
eliminated?
a. die c. increase in number
b. diminish in number d. occupy the second trophic level
4. Why does shedding of leaves occur in deciduous trees before winter?
a. In preparation for the new leaves that will grow in spring
b. Leaves are old and nonfunctional
c. To conserve energy that will be used for the maintenance of parts
d. To prevent the leaves from freezing
5. What good does a predator bring to a community?
a. Regulate the energy transfer
b. Maintains the diversity of the community
c. Keeps the members of the community fit
d. Reduce the waste produced by other species
6. What biome is found on mountaintops?
a. desert c. temperate deciduous trees
b. taiga d. tundra
7. Alellopathy is the inhibition of plant growth due to the release of biochemicals by
another plant. Which of the following does allelopathy falls under?
 a. Amensalism c. Mutualism
b. Commensalism d. Parasitism
264
8. Which conservation method aims to increase the amount of available water?
a. Declaration of zone reserves c. reforestation
b. desalination d. strip mining
9. Contest competition results to unequal distribution of resources, wherein the weak are
usually deprived of the materials that they need. Which of the following exemplifies
contest competition?
a. decomposition c. coevolution
b. dispersion d. territoriality
10. Where can you find the final consumer in the energy pyramid?
a. Apex c. Middle portion
b. Base d. they are not classified under energy pyramid
11. Which feature is true for deserts?
a. always dry c. always hot and windy
b. always hot and dry d. always hot, sometimes dry
12. Which of the following would have the least amount of energy received based on its
trophic position?
a. eagle c. rice
b. louse d. snail
13. Which of the following is a natural ecosystem?
a. Fish pond c. Mangrove forest
b. Lawn d. Rice paddy
14. What is another name for primary consumer?
a. autotroph c. detritivore
b. carnivore d. herbivore
15. When does zero population growth occur?
a. All members are sterile
b. Mortality and natality is equal
c. No birth is added to the population
d. No death occurred in the population
265
Summary
 In studying a biotic community, the focus is on the relationship or interactions among the
different species in the community.
 In studying an ecosystem, the focus is on the relationship between the biotic community
and the physical environment, i.e., between the biotic and abiotic components of the
ecosystem.
 Autotrophic organisms can make their own food, either with the use of light energy (i.e.,
the photosynthetic autotrophs) or with the use of chemical energy (i.e., the chemosynthetic
autotrophs).
 Heterotrophic organisms consist of macroconsumers (i.e., the larger ones) and
microconsumers (generally the microbes).
 Heterotrophs that feed on plants are called plant-eaters, or herbivores. Those that feed on
flesh or meat are called flesh-eaters, or carnivores. Heterotrophs that feed on both plants
and animals are called variety-eaters or omnivores.
 Saprophytic organisms form a special group; they simply absorb dissolved organic
materials, usually the products of decay.
 The abiotic components of the ecosystem include: climate, soil and topography.
 Population change in size and density
 The maximum capacity of a species to increase in number by reproduction under ideal
condition is called its biotic potential.
 Factors that limit the growth of a population in a given environment constitute
environmental resistance.
 Factors affecting population density is the semelparity where an organisms can produce
all their offspring in one reproductive event and iteroparity is the pattern of repeated
reproduction at intervals.
 Life history tables, or life tables, are a method of quantifying population structure that
addresses all of the above population traits.
 Survivorship curve is a graph showing the number or proportion of individuals surviving to
each age for a given species or group (e.g. males or females).
 Ecosystem are generally grouped into terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem.
266
 Terrestrial ecosystem consists of different biomes placed in land while the aquatic
ecosystem consists of marine and freshwater biomes.
 Human is one of the major threats in ecosystem because of the different activities that
causes land and water pollution.
References
 Agravante, M. (2020). Living and Nonliving Things in the Ecosystem. sciencing.com.
Retrieved from https://sciencing.com/living-nonliving-things-ecosystem-8202196.html
 Environmental resistance: definition, factors and examples. Retrieved from
https://tinyurl.com/yxd8pvmd
 Mangali G.R., Oliva M. D.G., Mulig-Cruz C.I., Estira F.R., (2016). Earth and life science.
 Rabago L.M., Joaquin. C. C., Lagunzad. G. B. (2003). Functional biology modular
approach. Vibal Publishing House Inc. Quezon City.
 Raunek, K. (2019). 11 Threats to Marine Environment
https://www.marineinsight.com/environment/11-threats-to-marine-environment-you-
must-know/
(2011) Campbell Biology Ninth Edition. USA.
267

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Earth and Life Science

Alvin A. Pabores, LPT

Module 8: Introduction to Life Science

Module 9: Animal Reproduction

Module 10: Metabolism and Survival in Animals

Module 12: Interaction and Interdependence

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Theory of Special Creation

2. Cosmozoic Theory or Theory of Panspermia

3. Theory of Spontaneous Generation or Abiogenesis

5. Oparin’s and Haldane Theory

8. Geologic time Scale

Origin of the First Life Forms

Lesson 2. Unifying Themes of Life

1. Cell Structure & Function

1. All living things are structurally made up of cells.

G. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)- The smooth ER is without attached ribosomes

J. Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria)- This is the ‘powerhouse’ of the cell. It converts

Figure 8.1. Parts of Plant Cell

3. Reproduction and Inheritance

6. Matter, energy and organization

Activity A.. Tell me who I am?

Cell organelle Function of the organelle Place or person in the School

Statement Characteristic of Life

Snakes shed their skin.

Mary was running fast because she was late

A triathlon ate plenty of fruits and vegetable

1. Which of the following is absent in prokaryotic cell?

 Different theory and hypothesis given in the development of theory of evolution;

a. Theory of special creation

 All living organisms are made up of cells.

 Bailey, R. (2020). Cell theory, a core principle of biology. https://www.thoughtco.com/cell-

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

2. Fission- is the separation/division of an organism to form individuals of approximately same

3. Fragmentation and Regeneration- fragmentation is when an animal’s body breaks into

Just like in plant reproduction, sexual reproduction is disadvantageous in terms of energy

Sexual Reproduction in some Animals

Table 9.1 The reproductive organs of an earthworm

Female organs Male organs

Reproduction and Genetic Makeup

Reproduction is the process that supports the

Recall how each organism is made up of

Lesson 2. Protein Synthesis

The Genetic Code

How to read codon table?

Figure 9.6 The Codon table

2. Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand.

Figure 9.9 Splicing removes introns from mRNA

After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo additional processes. For

1. Substitution – one base-pairs is replaced by another:

2. Insertion – one or more base pairs is added to a sequence:

3. Deletion – one or more base pairs is lost from a sequence:

There are five possible results of a mutation.

Lesson 4. Genetic Engineering

Figure 9.11 Process in creating a transgenic animal

Benefits of Genetically Modified Organisms

 More nutritious food

Activity A. Identify the type of Reproduction.

Identify the type of reproduction described in the organisms in Column A.

Original DNA Sequence: T A C A C C T T G G C G A C G A C T

mRNA sequence: __________________________________

Amino Acid Sequence: ______________________________

Mutated DNA Sequence #1: T A C A T C T T G G C G A C G A C T