Operational Amplifiers

Sherman Ip*
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London

Date submitted
1st April 2011

An operational amplifier in a closed loop was set up by feeding back a

fraction of the output signal into the inverting input using a potential divider.
The remaining output has been amplified depending on the gain, which is
determined by the resistors used in the potential divider; however the gain
decreases once the frequency of the input signal goes over the bandwidth.

The aims of this investigation are to produce a model and obtain evidence
that the gain can be modelled using the values of resistance, used in the
potential divider, and that the bandwidth can be modelled using the gain
set up in the potential divider.

PHAS 1241 -1- Sherman Ip

I. INTRODUCTION as shown in Fig. 3. This is known as a
closed loop operation.1
An operational amplifier is an electronic
component which amplifies the difference
between the two inputs. Fig. 1 shows the
symbol for an operational amplifier and its
inputs and output.1,2

Fig. 1. The symbol used for an operational amplifier

where the inverting input is V1 non-inverting input is
V2 and the output is Vout.2

The gain is defined in Eq. (1).1, 2 Fig. 2. Gain as a function of frequency for an
operational amplifier in an open loop operation.1
(1) (gain A, voltage
input Vin, voltage
output Vout)

The gain depends on the frequency of the

input signal. Because of this the inputs and
output of an operational amplifier and the
frequency of the input can be modelled
using Eq. (1) as shown in Eq. (2).1

( )( ) (2) (voltage output

Vout, inverting input Fig. 3. An operational amplifier in a closed loop
V1, non-inverting operation. A fraction of the output, β, is fed back into
input V2, gain as a the inverting input.1
function of frequency
A(f) ) Using Eq. (2), the output voltage in a
closed loop operation can be modelled by Eq.
The gain as a function of frequency is as (3) followed by Eq. (4).1
shown in Fig. 2.1,2
It is possible to earth V1 so that all the ( )( ) (3) (fraction of
operational amplifier does is amplifying the output fed
back β)
voltage of V2, this is known as an open loop
operation. However the disadvantage of this ( ) (4)
is that the gain drops logarithmic with higher
frequencies, as shown in Fig. 2. Hence an ( )
operational amplifier fails as an amplifier at
very high frequencies.1 By assuming Eq. (5), Eq. (6) is derived.1
What is needed is the gain to be constant
over a range of frequencies; this can be ( ) (5)

achieved by feeding back a fraction of the

(6) (Gain at low
output voltage back into the inverting input frequencies A0)

PHAS 1241 -2- Sherman Ip

 Eq. (5) breaks down for high frequency
and high gain therefore Eq. (6) only works
for low frequencies. Fig. 4 shows the gain
against frequency in a closed loop operation
with different values of β.1
Fig. 4. Log (gain) against log (frequency) in a closed
loop operation with different values of β.1
The range of frequencies which the gain
remains constant is known as the
bandwidth.1, 2
The aims of this experiment are to
provide evidence that Eq. (6) and Fig. 4 are
valid models for an operational amplifier in
a closed loop operation and to produce a
model for the bandwidth for different values
of gain.
II. METHOD
A fraction of the output voltage was fed
back using a potential divider made up of
resistors as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Schematic of an operational amplifier in a
closed loop using a potential divider.
PHAS 1241
If the operational amplifier was set up as
shown in Fig. 5, the initial gain at low
frequency can be calculated using Eq. (7).1
(7) (Gain at low
frequency A0, resistance
R1 & R2)
The µA741 Op-Amp was used in this
experiment; the schematic is as shown in Fig.
6.2
Fig. 6. Schematic of the µA741 Op-Amp.
The µA741 Op-Amp, resistors,
potentiometers and the oscilloscope was set
up using the following schematic as shown
in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Schematic used for setting up the experiment.
The experimental gain was obtained by
using the oscilloscope to get values for Vin
& Vout, these values are then used to work
out the experimental gain using Eq. (1). The
estimated error for Vin and Vout corresponds
to half an increment on the oscilloscope or
half the width of the noise in the signal.
The signals obtained in the oscilloscope
may displace or cut off when at high
frequency; the offset and the amplitude
-3- Sherman Ip
control are adjusted to make the signals
Graph 1 : Log (Gain) against Log (Frequency)
readable when this happens.
By using different values of R1 and R2, 3.5

different values of initial gain, as shown in

3.0
Eq. (7), can be obtained. These values were
then compared with the experimental values 2.5
of gains at low frequencies, by conducting a
population mean hypothesis test. The 2.0

experimental values and errors of gain at

Log (Gain)
1.5
low frequencies were obtained by taking the
weighted mean and weighted standard 1.0
deviation over a sample of values of gain at
low frequencies. The experimental values of 0.5

gain were determined to be at low frequency

0.0
if the expected value of gain is within one 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
estimated error from the actual value. -0.5
Once the frequency is over the bandwidth
for a certain gain, the gain will start to -1.0
Log (Frequency) / Hz
decrease. By plotting a graph of log (gain)
against log (frequency over bandwidth) A = 1001 A = 101 A = 11 A=2
using all values of initial gain, a straight line
should be obtained. The Pearson’s product-
moment correlation coefficient, r, was Evidence in Table 2 shows how the
calculated to see if this straight line is values of experimental gain at low
significantly straight, therefore a model can frequencies and initial gain compare with
be built from it. each other in the population mean
hypothesis test.
III. RESULTS (null hypothesis such that
evidence shows that initial
The resistors which were used in the
gain = experimental gain )
experiment are shown in Table 1. The error (alternative hypothesis such
in the values of resistance was assumed to that evidence shows that initial
be negligible. gain ≠ experimental gain )
(it is assumed the initial values
R1 /Ω R2 /Ω Gain A ( ) of gain has a Normal
distribution)
1M 1k 1001
100k 1k 101 | | Significant
level to
100k 10k 11 √ √ reject H1†
100k 100k 2 1001 1016±22 0.6748 49.972%
Table 1. Values of resistance used in the experiment 101 100.0±1.5 0.6734 50.056%
with the calculated initial gain. 11 10.840±0.045 3.5794 (<0.2)%
2 1.985±0.029 0.5190 60.380%
The experimental gain over a range of Table 2. Experimental evidence and population mean
frequencies using different values of initial hypothesis test on the experimental values of gain at
gain are shown in Graph 1. It was observed low frequency.3 (initial gain μ, weighted mean
for initial gain of 1001 at 1 MHz; the noise experimental gain A , standard error s/√n, standard
dominated the signal and became unreadable. error difference Z)

PHAS 1241 -4- Sherman Ip

 From Table 2, 3 out of 4 values of the IV. CONCLUSION
experimental gains do correspond to the
calculated initial gain. The majority of the evidence, from Table
Graph 2 shows all the gain when the 2, shows that the gain at low frequencies
frequencies goes over the bandwidth. Table does remain constant and corresponds to Eq.
3 shows statistical data of Graph 2. (7). Eq. (7) breaks down for high initial gain
which is shown well as the significant level
Graph 2 : Log (gain) against Log (frequency over increased for lower initial gain in Table 2.
bandwidth) However for initial gain of 11, there is
3.5 evidence that the experimental gain at low
frequencies does not correspond to the initial
3.0 gain at the 0.2% significant level.
2.5
It was suggested that the resistor which is
only used for initial gain of 11, 10 kΩ
2.0 resistor from Table 1, is not exactly 10 kΩ
which causes a systematic error for initial
Log (Gain)

1.5
gain of 11. Using evidence from Table 2 and
1.0 assuming only the 10 kΩ resistor has a
systematic error, the value of the 10 kΩ
0.5
resistor should have been (10.121 ± 0.042)
0.0 kΩ.
2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 The standard error in the experimental
-0.5 gain for initial gain of 11 corresponds to a
-1.0
percentage error of 0.42% which is excellent
Log (Frequency over bandwidth) / Hz but perhaps optimistic. The experiment for
initial gain of 11 should be repeated using a
Gradient, b (-0.96 ± 0.15) log(Hz)-1 different 10 kΩ resistor.
Intercept, a (5.63 ± 0.70) No units A linear model can be built for the
r -0.9931 ± 0.1589 logarithm of bandwidth for each logarithm
rcritical at the 0.5% -0.7348 of gain using the gradient and intercept of
significant level Graph 2. The model is as shown in Eq. (8);
Table 3. Statistical data for Graph 2.3 however from the assumption, it starts to
break down for very high gain.
The value of r is much bigger than the
critical value at the 0.5% significant level (8) (bandwidth
therefore there is evidence that there is a BW, gain A)
linear relationship between log (gain) and
α = (5.9 ± 1.2) log (Hz)
log (frequency over bandwidth) at the 0.5% β = (1.04 ± 0.16) log (Hz)
significant level.

* E-mail : sherman.ip.10@ucl.ac.uk
†
Significant level (x%) is such that the probability of obtaining the experimental value or further away from
expectation is : ( ), ie significant level corresponds to the accuracy of the value.
1
UCL Department of Physics and Astronomy, Experiment E741 Operational Amplifiers
2
Operational Amplifiers or Op-amps Tutorial, http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_1.html
3
OCR, Advanced General Certificate of Education, MEI Structured Mathematics, Examination Formulae and
Tables, (MF2, CST251, January 2007), http://www.mei.org.uk/files/pdf/formula_book_mf2.pdf

PHAS 1241 -5- Sherman Ip