TR 325: AIRPORT, HARBOUR, AND RAILWAY ENGINEERING

(12 credits)

CHAPTER 8
DESIGN OF FIXED STRUCTURES

8.1 STRUCTURE TYPES AND CONFIGURATIONS

8.1.1 Dock: The most general designation for a structure or place at

which a vessel can be moored
8.1.2 Pier: This is a dock structure that typically projects outward
nearly ┴ to the shoreline. It is also called a jetty. A pier may be
constructed in T, L or U configuration, the stem serving as an
access road.
8.1.3 Wharf: This is a dock structure built parallel to the shoreline.
It also performs as retaining structure. When a wharf is of solid fill
vertical wall construction, it is known as a quay.
Both piers and wharves may be open, pile or column supported
construction or closed, solid fill type (See Fig 7.1 Gaythwaite).
A typical quays
8.1.4 Dolphins

A dolphin is an isolated marine structure for berthing and

mooring of vessels.

Dolphins are generally divided into two types, namely breasting

dolphins and mooring dolphins.

Breasting dolphins serve the following purposes:

(i) Assist in berthing of vessels by taking up some berthing loads.

(ii) Keep the vessel from pressing against the pier structure.
(iii) Serve as mooring points to restrict the longitudinal movement of
the berthing vessel.

Mooring dolphins, as the name implies, are used for mooring only
and for securing the vessels by using ropes. They are also
commonly used near pier structures to control the transverse
movement of berthing vessels.
8.1.5 Pier construction:

This consists of pile foundation of timber, concrete or steel

piles supporting a timber or concrete deck.

The pile structure may be designed as batter (raked) piles to resist

lateral loads, cross-braced or cantilevered.

For offshore structures, piles may be driven through prefabricated

tubular steel jackets which are cross-braced and anchored by piles.

Closed pier construction: may be of filled sheet pile cells, diaphragm

cells, concrete caissons or timber/concrete cribs usually filled with
stones. Closed type is favoured in shallow water depth.
8.2 PIER AND WHARF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Preliminary design process is based on design vessel requirements

which in turn dictate water depth, site layout, general overall
dimensions, cargo handling and deck loads, berthing and mooring
loads requirements

8.2.1 Design criteria for deck equipment

 Backing and turning radii
 Operating tolerances, i.e. crane capacity
 Minimum storage deck area
 Space for handling vessel’s lines, shore connections, utilities,
lights, fire protection
 Proper and ample drainage
 Future expansion or upgrading

8.2.2 Pile foundation design

The structural design of a pile foundation system includes:
 Selection of pile type compatible with sub-surface soil
conditions
 Determination of axial and lateral loads and associated shears
and moments
 Pier deck systems: lateral and vertical load distribution to
individual to individual piles
 Attachment of pile head to the deck framing
 Determination of pile length and end of fixity conditions

The determination of pile-supported column length and its lateral

resisting capacity is rather complex. However, in the design of
near-shore and water front structures, a simpler approach is
usually taken. In this method, an equivalent pile embedment or
depth to fixity is assumed or calculated. The results are adequate
for structures in water depth of less than 75ft – 100ft (25-30)m.
The approach assumes that the piles are sufficiently in soils of
uniform characteristics.
 D

Loose silt
Firm bottom
begins
Assumed depth
of fixity

The depth of fixity is given by:

√
D=1.8 5
EJ
nh
… for granular soils, silts and normally loaded clays … (8.1)

√
D=1.4 4
EJ
ks
…… for preloaded clays ……………………………………….. (8.2)

where E , J are modulus of elasticity and moment of inertia of the pile

respectively.

nh = coeff. of the horizontal subgrade modulus of clay, ks subgrade

modulus of clay= 67 x undrained shear strength of the soil.

 For normally loaded clay: nh = ks/depth below the ground surface

or can be taken as the best triangular fit of the top 10 to 15 ft on ks
versus depth plot.
 For submerged sands: nh = 1.5 lb/cu. in for loose sands and 30 pci
for dense sands.
 For end bearing piles (on rock or another hard stratum above a level
of 3 D ): the pile should be considered as pin-ended.
 For sloping bottoms: D should be measured downward from a
virtual ground line defined by a line drawn halfway between the
soil surface at the given pile and the sea bottom or dredged depth.
 For batter or raked piles: D should be measured vertically
downward. Normally: D = (3.5 – 8.5) D, typically D = 5-15ft.
 In figuring the pile unsupported length (lu): consideration must be
given to future dredging or removal of material by scour or
propeller wash
 The axial capacity of a pile: is reduced as a function of its
slenderness ratio: Kc.lu/r, where Kc = effective column length factor,
r = least radius of gyration of the pile cross-section. Kc.lu/r is
preferred to be < 90 – 100.
 Kc = 0.5 both ends fully fixed
 Kc = 0.7 one end fixed, one end hinged
 Kc = 1.0 both ends hinged