1.

Introduction:
1.1 General Introduction:

The ability of multi storied buildings to resist wind and other lateral forces depends
upon the rigidity of the connections between the beams and the columns. When the
connections of beams and columns are fully rigid, that is, the angles between them do not
change; then the structure as whole is capable of resisting lateral forces acting on the structure.
When the connections of beams and columns are simple and flexible, the multistoried
building would have little resistance to the lateral forces. The flexible joints act as frictionless
hinges. The lateral deflections of structure are resisted by providing full diagonal bracings.
This type of diagonal bracing is provided at isolated joints as the walls of elevated shafts, stair
walls and all other permanent partition wall at the points where there are no doors or windows
or other openings.
In 1883, II storey home insurance building in Chicago was built by William Jenny,
who carried the frame system further. It was the first example of high rise building. It was
totally supported by steel framework. The masonry facade walls were only self supporting. In
the upper portion of the building, the beams were first used. In 1889, Leiter building was built.
It was the true steel frame. It was built without using any self supporting walls.
In 1889, a nine storey building was constructed in Chicago by Barnham and Root. He
used complete steel frame for the first time. In 1891, the same architect developed the concept
of vertical shear wall and a 20 storey Masonic temple was built in Chicago. The wind forces
remained important consideration at that height. The architects introduced diagonal bracing in
the facade frame. The lateral stiffness of the steel frame was introduced. It created a vertical
truss or the shear wall principle. The methods of steel design improved. The growth of
building continued steadily upward.

1.2 Benefits of Structural Steel:

Some benefits associated with use of structural steel for owners are as –
1. Steel allows for reduced frame construction time and the ability to construct in all
seasons.
2. Steel makes large spans and bay sizes possible, providing more flexibility for owners.

1
 3. Steel is easier to modify and reinforce if architectural changes are made to a facility
over its life.
4. Steel is lightweight and can reduce foundation cost.
5. Steel is durable, long-lasting and recyclable.

1.3 Types of Structural Framing systems:

1. Bare Frame (Moment Resistant / Rigid jointed frame)
2. In-Filled frame
3. Equivalent bracing system
4. Braced frame (Pin Jointed / Truss)

1.4 Unique Aspects of Steel Construction:

Procurement and management of structural steel is similar to other materials, but there
are some unique aspects to steel construction:
1. Steel is fabricated off-site.
2. On-site erection is a rapid process.
3. This gives use of structural steel some scheduling advantages.
4. Co-ordination of all parties is essential for achieving potential advantages.

1.5 Types of loads:

1. Vertical / Gravity Loads –

a) Self-weight
b) Live loads
c) Snow load

2. Lateral Loads –
a) Wind
b) Earthquake
c) Wave / Current forces
d) Friction

2
3. Special Loads –
a) Lack of fit
b) Sinking supports
c) Tsunami
d) Blast Load / Vibrations / Dynamic Loads
e) Fatigue
f) Shrinkage / Creep

1.6 Types of Braced Frames:

1. Single Diagonal Brace (Tension / Compression Both)

2. X – Cross Brace (Tension / compression only)
3. Chevron Brace (K-brace)
4. A – Chevron brace
5. Inverted chevron
6. Braced Chevron Brace
7. Knee brace

3
2.1 Types of Structural Framing Systems:

1. Bare Frame (Moment Resistant / Rigid jointed frame)

2. In-Filled frame
3. Braced frame (Pin Jointed / Truss)

2.1.1 Bare Frame (Moment Resistant / Rigid jointed frame) –

Rigid frames resist lateral loads by bending in the beams, columns and connections.
Rigid frames resist lateral forces through the stiffness provided by rigid joints between the
horizontal floor components and vertical columns. The need to resist bending moments from
wind loads increases the size of the column members and the complexity of the framing
connections. For these reasons, rigid frames are only used when there is a particular functional
reason for their use, such as the need to provide unobstructed interior space with total
adaptability.
Rigid frames, utilizing moment connections, are well suited for specific types of
buildings where diagonal bracing is not feasible or does not fit the architectural design. Rigid
frames generally cost more than braced frames.

2.1.2 In-Filled frame –

In-Filled frame resist lateral loads by bending in the beams, columns and connections.
The frames resist lateral forces through the stiffness provided by rigid joints between the
horizontal floor components and vertical columns. The walls are also provided in this system.
These walls help to resist the lateral loads.

2.1.3 Braced Frames –

Diagonal bracing creates stable triangular configurations within the steel building
frame. Braced frames are often the most economical method of resisting wind loads in multi-
story buildings. Some structures, like the one pictured above, are designed with a combination
braced and rigid frame to take advantage of the benefits of both.

4
 Here, we are going to discuss about Bracing Systems, details about this system is
described further.

2.2 Behavior of Structural Framing Systems under various types of loads:

Fig. No. 2.1 Behavior of Structural Framing Systems under various types of loads

5
2.3 Comparison of Rigid Jointed / Pin Jointed Framing System:

Table No. 2.1 Comparison of Rigid Jointed / Pin Jointed Framing System –

RIGID JOINTED FRAME BRACED FRAME

Advantages

1. More free space (allows openings). 1. Full cross sectional area is utilized as
members are mainly axially loaded.
2. Simple connections, simple behaviors
2. Less numbers of Members.
(direct load transfer).
3. Lesser sway.
3. More sway as compared to braced
frame.
4. Easy to analyze.
5. Capable of resisting accidental loads,
twisting etc.
6. Easy to modify.
7. Aesthetically appealing.
8. Economical.

Disadvantages

1. The flanges only resist the moment. 1. More number of members.

Stress diagram is triangular (less
2. Difficult to provided openings.
utilization of area).
2. Connections are difficult to
3. Heavy bracings are required for long
fabricate Bulky sections are require.
spans.
4. Loads need to act essentially on joints.
5. Design load for the Bracing design is
always debatable.

6
Fig. No. 2.2 Braced Frame

7
Fig. No. 2.3 Rigid Frame

8
3.1 Forces on Structures:

Loading on tall buildings is different from low-rise buildings in many ways such as
large accumulation of gravity loads on the floors from top to bottom, increased significance of
wind loading and greater importance of dynamic effects. Thus, multi-storeyed structures need
correct assessment of loads for safe and economical design. Excepting dead loads, the
assessment of loads can not be done accurately. Live loads can be anticipated approximately
from a combination of experience and the previous field observations. But, wind and
earthquake loads are random in nature. It is difficult to predict them exactly. These are
estimated based on probabilistic approach. The following discussion describes the influence of
the most common kinds of loads on multi-storeyed structures.

Forces acting on Structure are as –

1. Vertical / Gravity Loads –

a) Self-weight
b) Live loads
c) Snow load

2. Lateral Loads –
a) Wind
b) Earthquake
c) Wave / Current forces
d) Friction

3. Special Loads –
a) Lack of fit
b) Sinking supports
c) Tsunami
d) Blast Load / Vibrations / Dynamic Loads
e) Fatigue
f) Shrinkage / Creep

9
3.1.1 Gravity load:

a) Self-weight / Dead load –

Dead loads due the weight of every element within the structure and live loads that are
acting on the structure when in service constitute gravity loads. The dead loads are calculated
from the member sizes and estimated material densities.

b) Live loads –
Live loads prescribed by codes are empirical and conservative based on experience
and accepted practice. The equivalent minimum loads for office and residential buildings are
specified in Table No. – 3.1.

Table No.3.1 - Live load magnitudes [IS: 875 - 1987 Part – II ]

Occupancy classification Uniformly distributed Concentrated load (kN)
load (kN/m2)
Office buildings
· Offices and Staff rooms 2.5 2.7
· Class rooms 3.0 2.7
· Corridors, Store rooms 4.0 4.5
and Reading rooms
Residential buildings
· Apartments 2.0 1.8
· Restaurants 4.0 2.7
· Corridors 3.0 4.5

A floor should be designed for the most adverse effect of uniformly distributed load
and concentrated load over 0.3 m by 0.3 m, but they should not be considered to act
simultaneously. All other structural elements such as beams and columns are designed for the
corresponding uniformly distributed loads on floors. Reduction in imposed load may be made
in designing columns, load bearing walls etc., if there is no specific load like plant or
machinery on the floor. This is allowed to account for improbability of total loading being
applied over larger areas. The supporting members of the roof of the multi-storeyed building is
designed for 100% of uniformly distributed load; further reductions of 10% for each
successive floor down to a minimum of 50% of uniformly distributed load is done. The live
load at floor level can be reduced in the design of beams, girders or trusses by 5% for each

10
50m2 area supported, subject to a maximum reduction of 25%. In case the reduced load of a
lower floor is less than the reduced load of an upper floor, then the reduced load of the upper
floor should be adopted in the lower floor also.

3.1.2 Lateral load:

Wind load –
The wind loading is the most important factor that determines the design of tall
buildings over 10 storeys, where storey height approximately lies between 2.7 – 3.0 m.
Buildings of up to 10 storeys, designed for gravity loading can accommodate wind loading
without any additional steel for lateral system. Usually, buildings taller than 10 storeys would
generally require additional steel for lateral system. This is due to the fact that wind loading on
a tall building acts over a very large building surface, with greater intensity at the greater
heights and with a larger moment arm about the base. So, the additional steel required for wind
resistance increases non-linearly with height as shown in Fig. 3.1. As shown in Fig. 3.1 the
lateral stiffness of the building is a more important consideration than its strength for multi-
storeyed structures. Wind has become a major load for the designer of multi-storeyed
buildings. Prediction of wind loading in precise scientific terms may not be possible, as it is
influenced by many factors such as the form of terrain, the shape, slenderness, the solidarity
ratio of building and the arrangement of adjacent buildings. The appropriate design wind loads
are estimated based on two approaches. Static approach is one, which assumes the building to
be a fixed rigid body in the wind. This method is suitable for buildings of normal height,
slenderness, or susceptible to vibration in the wind. The other approach is the dynamic
approach. This is adopted for exceptionally tall, slender, or vibration prone buildings.
Sometimes wind sensitive tall buildings will have to be designed for interference effects
caused by the environment in which the building stands. The loading due to these interference
effects is best ascertained using wind tunnel modelled structures in the laboratory. However, in
the Indian context, where the tallest multi-storeyed building is only 35 storey high, multi-
storied buildings do not suffer wind-induced oscillation and generally do not require to be
examined for the dynamic effects. For detailed information on evaluating wind load, the reader
is referred to IS: 875 - 1987 (Part - III).

11
 Fig. No. 3.1 Lateral Drift

4.3 Earthquake load

Seismic motion consists of horizontal and vertical ground motions, with the vertical
motion usually having a much smaller magnitude. Further, factor of safety provided against
gravity loads usually can accommodate additional forces due to vertical acceleration due to
earthquakes. So, the horizontal motion of the ground causes the most significant effect on the
structure by shaking the foundation back and forth. The mass of building resists this motion by
setting up inertia forces throughout the structure. The magnitude of the horizontal shear force
F shown in Fig. 3.2 depends on the mass of the building M, the acceleration of the ground a,
and the nature of the structure. If a building and the foundation were rigid, it would have the
same acceleration as the ground as given by Newton’s second law of motion, i.e. F = Ma.
However, in practice all buildings are flexible to some degree. For a structure that deforms
slightly, thereby absorbing some energy, the force will be less than the product of mass and
acceleration [Fig. 3.2(b)]. But, a very flexible structure will be subject to a much larger force
under repetitive ground motion [Fig. 3.2(c)]. This shows the magnitude of the lateral force on
a building is not only dependent on acceleration of the ground but it will also depend on the
type of the structure. As an inertia problem, the dynamic response of the building plays a large
part in influencing and in estimating the effective loading on the structure. The earthquake
load is estimated by Seismic co-efficient method or Response spectrum method. The later

12
takes account of dynamic characteristics of structure along with ground motion. For detailed
information on evaluating earthquake load, reader is referred to IS: 1893 - 1984 and the
chapter on Earth quake resistant design.

Fig. No.3.2 - Force developed by earthquake

13
Fig. No. 3.3 Forces Acting on Frame

14
4. Types Of Bracing Systems:

4.1 Few Facts Regarding Bracings:

1. Force in Bracings –
a) Compression only Bracings – Concrete
b) Tension only Bracings – Steel
c) Pre-stressed bracings are also used for industrial structures (wire-ropes)
d) Vertical Load carried by braces
e) Horizontal Load carried by braces
i. Seismic bracing
ii. Wind bracing
2. Torsion Control with bracings is effective.
3. 2D-Plane - Portal frames when connected with braces demand wind braces.
4. Design loads on braces are usually 2.5% to 3% Lateral loads of the respective vertical
loads.
5. Bracings are effective in resisting Seismic forces than bare frame. Plays major role in
seismic retrofitting.
6. It is difficult to provide opening at the location of bracing.
7. In case of In-filled frame, the stiffness of Infill walls can be simulated in the structural
model by means of equivalent brace. This philosophy was proposed by Mr. V. V. Bertero.

4.2 Types Of Bracing

1. Temporary Bracing
2. Concentric Braced Frames
3. X Bracing
4. Chevron Bracing
5. Eccentrically Braced Frames
6. Combination Frames

15
4.2.1 Temporary Bracing

Fig. No. 4.1 Temporary Bracing

Fig. No. 4.2 Temporary Bracing

• Structural steel frames require temporary bracing during construction

• Temporary bracing is placed before plumbing up the structural frame
• This gives the structure temporary lateral stability
• Temporary bracing is removed by the erector
• In a braced frame, temporary bracing is removed after final bolt-up is complete and the
permanent bracing system is in place
• In a rigid frame, temporary bracing is removed after final bolt-up is complete

16
 Fig. No. 4.3 Temporary Bracing

4.2.2 Concentric Braced Frames

Fig. No. 4.4 Concentric Braced Frames

• Bracing is concentric when the center lines of the bracing members intersect
• Common concentric braced frames used in buildings today in
a. X brace (cross bracing)
b. Chevron (A-type)
c. Single diagonals (Inclined type)
d. Two story X’s

17
4.2.3 X Bracing

Fig. No. 4.5 Typical floor plan with X bracing

Fig. No. 4.6 Elevation with X bracing

• X bracing is possibly the most common type of bracing

• Bracing can allow a building to have access through the brace line depending on
configuration
• The diagonal members of X bracing go into tension and compression similar to a truss
• The multi-floor building frame elevation shown above has just one braced bay, but it
may be necessary to brace many bays along a column line

18
 • With this in mind it is important to determine the locations of the braced bays in a
structure early in a project

Fig. No. 4.7 Connections for X bracing

• Connections for X bracing are located at beam to column joints

• Bracing connections may require relatively large gusset plates at the beam to column
joint
• The restriction of space in these areas may have an impact on the mechanical and
plumbing systems as well as some architectural features

4.2.4 Chevron Bracing

Fig. No. 4.8 Typical floor plan with Chevron bracing

19
 Fig. No. 4.9 Elevation with several bracing configurations

• The members used in Chevron bracing are designed for both tension and compression
forces
• Chevron bracing allows for doorways or corridors through the bracing lines in a
structure
• A multi-floor frame elevation using Chevron bracing is shown above

Fig. No. 4.10 Chevron bracing

• Chevron bracing members use two types of connections

20
 • The floor level connection may use a gusset plate much like the connection on X
braced frames
• The bracing members are connected to the beam/girder at the top and converge to a
common point
• If gusset plates are used, it is important to consider their size when laying-out
mechanical and plumbing systems that pass through braced bays

4.2.5 Eccentrically Braced Frames

• Eccentric bracing is commonly used in seismic regions and allows for doorways and
corridors in the braced bays
• The difference between Chevron bracing and eccentric bracing is the space between the
bracing members at the top gusset connection
a) In an eccentrically braced frame bracing members connect to separate points on the
beam/girder
b) The beam/girder segment or “link” between the bracing members absorbs energy from
seismic activity through plastic deformation

Fig. No. 4.11 Eccentrically Braced Frames

• Eccentrically braced frames look similar to frames with Chevron bracing

• A similar V shaped bracing configuration is used

21
 • Eccentric single diagonals may also be used to brace a frame

4.2.6 Combination Frames

Fig. No. 4.12 Chevron Bracing Fig. No. 4.13 Moment frame

22
 Chevron braced Moment resisting

Fig. No. 4.14 Combination Frame

• As shown above (left) a braced frame deflects like a cantilever beam while a moment
resisting frame deflects more or less consistently from top to bottom
• By combining the two systems, reduced deflections can be realized

23
 • The combination frame is shown above

Fig. No. 4.15

O = Combined Frames X = Chevron Bracing n = Moment Resisting

• The plot shows the moment resisting frame alone, the braced frame alone, and the
combined frame
• The same wind load was used for each frame model
4.3 Connections:

24
 The most important aspect of structural steel work for buildings is the design of
connections between individual frame components. Depending upon the structural behaviour,
the connections can be classified as following:

4.3.1 Simple connections –

The connection is detailed to allow the beam end to rotate freely and the beam
behaves as a simply supported beam. Such a connection transfers shear and axial forces
between the connecting members but does not transfer bending moment.

4.3.2 Rigid connections –

The connection is detailed to ensure a monolithic joint such that the angle between
beam and column before deformation remains the same even after deformation. Such a
connection transfers shear, axial force and bending moment from the beam to the column.

4.3.3 Semi-rigid connections –

Due to flexibility of the joint some relative rotation between the beam and column
occurs. When this is substantial, the joints are designed as semi-rigid. These connections are
designed to transmit the full shear force and a fraction of the rigid joint bending moment
across the joint. The analysis of frames with such joints is complex and their application is
dependent on development of joint characteristics based on experimental evidence. The
procedures for analysis and design should be simple so that they can be easily adopted for
manual computation in design offices. With the advent of computers, it is possible to account
for flexibility of joints in the frame analysis by adopting suitable computer packages. Recent
advances in research on the topic have led to results that can be used in practical analysis and
design of semi-rigid connections.

5.0 ADVANCED STRUCTURAL FORMS

25
 The bracing systems discussed so far are not efficient for buildings taller than 60
stories. This section introduces more advanced types of structural forms that are adopted in
steel framed multi-storeyed buildings larger than 60 storey high. Common types of advanced
structural forms are:

5.1 Framed -Tube Structures

The framed tube is one of the most significant modern developments in high-rise
structural form. The frames consist of closely spaced columns, 2 - 4 m between centres, joined
by deep girders. The idea is to create a tube that will act like a continuous perforated chimney
or stack. The lateral resistance of framed tube structures is provided by very stiff moment
resisting frames that form a tube around the perimeter of the building. The gravity loading is
shared between the tube and interior columns. This structural form offers an efficient, easily
constructed structure appropriate for buildings having 40 to100 storeys.
When lateral loads act, the perimeter frames aligned in the direction of loads act as
the webs of the massive tube cantilever and those normal to the direction of the loading act as
the flanges. Even though framed tube is a structurally efficient form, flange frames tend to
suffer from shear lag. This results in the mid face flange columns being less stressed than the
corner columns and therefore not contributing to their full potential lateral strength.
Aesthetically, the tube looks like the grid-like façade as small windowed and is repetitious and
hence use of prefabrication in steel makes the construction faster. A typical framed tube is
shown in Fig. 5.1.

5.2 Braced tube structures

Further improvements of the tubular system can be made by cross bracing the frame
with X-bracing over many stories, as illustrated in Fig. 5.2.This arrangement was first used in a
steel structure, in Chicago's John Hancock Building, in 1969. As the diagonals of a braced tube
are connected to the columns at each intersection, they virtually eliminate the effects of shear
lag in both the flange and web frames. As a result the structure behaves under lateral loads
more like a braced frame reducing bending in the members of the frames. Hence, the spacing
of the columns can be increased and the depth of the girders will be less, thereby allowing
large size windows than in the conventional framed tube structures.

26
 In the braced tube structure, the braces transfer axial load from the more highly
stressed columns to the less highly stressed columns and eliminates differences between load
stresses in the columns.

5.3 Tube-in-Tube Structures

This is a type of framed tube consisting of an outer-framed tube together with an
internal elevator and service core. The inner tube may consist of braced frames. The outer and
inner tubes act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading in steel-framed buildings.
However, the outer tube usually plays a dominant role because of its much greater structural
depth. This type of structures is also called as Hull (Outer tube) and Core (Inner tube)
structures. A typical Tube-in-Tube structure is shown in fig.5.3

5.4 Bundled Tube

The bundled tube system can be visualised as an assemblage of individual tubes resulting
in multiple cell tube. The increase in stiffness is apparent. The system allows for the
greatest height and the most floor area. This structural form was used in the Sears Tower
in Chicago. Fig. 1(d) shows bundled tubes in the Sears Tower. In this system,
introduction of the internal webs greatly reduces the shear lag in the flanges. Hence, their
columns are more evenly stressed than in the single tube structure and their contribution
to the lateral stiffness is greater.

27
Fig. No.5.1 Framed -Tube Structures Fig. No.5.2 Braced tube structures

Fig. No.5.3 Tube-in-Tube Structures

28
6.0 Case study :-

6.1 Abstract
Tall building structures should be able to tolerate different types of forces such as
lateral forces like wind or earthquakes so bracing methods are normally used for steel
structures. In this study, steel structures with 20, 30 and 40 floors using cross bracing method
with different length and configurations were studied by ABAQUS software in order to find
the best suited configuration of bracing. For this purpose various forms of bracing system with
equal amount of steel consumption were studied under earthquake loads both in static and
dynamic analysis and best array and also type in mega bracing of such structures are then
reviewed and selected.
6.2 Keywords: Mega-brace, tall steel structures, shear-lag, ABAQUS

6.3 Introduction
With increasing of experiences from the events of the last earthquakes and reviewing
the behavior of the structures, more and more innovative topics in new buildings has been
considered. This paper investigates the application of seismic systems using braces as one of
the most effective methods in steel structures. The most important issues in the study of this
kind of systems are to determine the appropriate arrangement of bracing. In this study, also the
concept of mega bracing and their properties as a new approach of bracing method is
investigated. Lateral resistance in braced frames is provided by diagonal members which
forms the vertical truss structure together with the main beams. Columns in this structure are
basic members. Since the shear forces are supported by horizontal components of tensile or
compressive axial forces, bracing systems are very efficient. The desired behavior of bracing
system in generation of lateral stiffness with minimum amount of materials, reveal it as an
economic solution for a variety of buildings with arbitrary height. Another advantage of
diagonal bracings is that the main beams have minimum participation in resisting of lateral
loads and therefore of deck systems in different stories can be designed in a repetitive manner
that is more desirable in economical point of view. The essential issue of these systems in non-
uniform distribution of forces and decreasing total resistant moment of structure lead to
reduced economic efficiency.
The major weakness of this phenomenon is called shear lag that causes perpendicular
axial load distribution to the columns which is different from the ideal uniform distribution for

29
lateral forces. The main origin of this phenomenon is in the behavior of shear deformations in
peripheral beams of the structure and also doesn’t remain plane after bending in this system
which increase tension in the corner columns and decrease in tension in the middle columns
[1].
Recently, new type of bracing systems called mega bracings has been introduced as
shown in figure 1. According to the geometrical shape of these bracings, it is expected that
they present different seismic behavior in stiffness, efficiency and ductility compared to
current bracing systems. Therefore, detailed study of seismic behavior in these structures is
quite considerable.
Adding these bracings to the structural system is associated with increasing lateral
stiffness and decreasing shear lag. Bracings in these structures cover several stories and spans
as a single bracing. Hence, several structural arrangements of a dedicated bracing type are
possible for any structure. Therefore, several structural arrangements for the braces a particular
category (such as X) is probable [2]. Therefore, we will investigate the behavior of these types
of structures versus alternate with current type of bracings, in medium and high height and the
results will be presented.

Fig.No.6.1: John Hancock tower

30
 First, the effects of adding mega bracing systems on the structures are carried out by
considering three structures with 20, 30 and 40 stories that have 30X30 plan and height of 60,
90 and 120m, respectively. Main parameters of interests in the study of bracings effects are
storey drift and capacity diagram of structure. Each of the above mentioned parameters for
braced structures is calculated by different types of bracings, and will be refereed later in the
parts.
2. Modeling Assumptions
All of studied samples are residential with each storey of up to3m height. The plan of
structure in two directions consists of six spans with equal length of 5m in both sides. The
mentioned plan and different types of bracings are shown in figure 6.3 . It should be noted that
limiting the number of bracings arrays, is due to restrictions in fabrication and erection of the
bracings members and also their connection so that can support columns in the successive
floors.

Fig.No.6.2: Structural plan

31
 Fig.No.6.3: Different kind of bracing system

Structure is located in an area with high risk of earthquake. The type of local soil is II
and structure importance factor is 1. Since the height of all structures over 50m, nonlinear
dynamic analysis is used for analyzing the structures [3]. Deck system is joist block and has
sufficient rigidity for distributing lateral forces between vertical elements. The beams types are
I and both of bracings and columns are box sections. The steel yield and ultimate stresses are
Fy=2400 kg/cm², Fu=3600 kg/cm², respectively and also the compressive strength of concrete
is fc=240 kg/cm².
3. Numerical Modeling
Computer modeling is performed using ABAQUS version 6.9.3.which is a collection
of effective engineering simulation programs that is based on a finite element method. It can
solve a widespread range of problems from simple linear to complicated nonlinear analysis.
On nonlinear analysis ABAQUS software automatically selects the appropriate force-
displacement graphs and set these parameters continuously during the analysis in order to
obtain the results accuracy [4].

32
3.1. Materials Properties
Due to the plastic and elastic of materials, it is essential to consider plastic and elastic
behavior of them. Therefore, the stress-strain relationship of material derived from direct
tensile test will be defined. The diagram of stress-strain is shown (fig. 4): Study the Effect of
using Different Kind of Bracing System in Tall Steel Structures 27

Fig.No.6.4: Stress-Strain diagram

3.2. Features of Elements Modeled in ABAQUS

Wire elements are used to model the frames and bracings. Beams and columns are
modeled by beam elements using B31 that is two nodal element and also bracings modeled by
truss elements using T2D2. Connections of the beams to columns are completely clamped and
bracings connection to frame is completely pinned. Columns bases connected to the
foundation by clamped form.
3.3. Nonlinear Dynamical Analysis
The response of structure in the nonlinear dynamic analysis is calculated by
considering the nonlinearbehavior of materials and geometric nonlinearity. In this method,
stiffness matrix and damping can be updated from one step to another one. However, they are

33
constant during each step and numerical methods are used to calculate the response of
structure under earthquake excitation for each step [5].

4. Comparison on Various Arrays of Bracing

In this part, the effects of adding different kinds of bracings are investigated on lateral
drift of components. As already mentioned, differences between mega and current bracings in
distribution of axial forces was turned mega bracings to an ideal choice. Hence, the
displacement of each structure in four various arrays of bracings are shown in the subsequent
figures.
As shown in figure 6.4, results show that using of mega bracings reduce significantly
displacements and the reduction depends on selected bracing model. Because of their stiffness,
third and forth kinds of bracings are caused a maximum reduction in lateral displacement.
Clearly, it is seen that the drift of 23cm on the 30th storey in the first array reduced to 14cm in
the third. The results of displacements in various arrays for 30 storey structure are given in
table1.
The Most Important Reasons for using Mega Bracings are
• The maximum efficiency in structural systems is achieved in the bending mode and it can be
provided by mega systems.
• Bracing members are caused more balanced distribution of columns load under gravity
and lateral loads.
• Due to shear lag reduction in mega systems, columns distances can be increased.

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Fig.No.6.5: Displacements

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Table No.6. 1: Displacements for 30-floor building

Floors Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

30 22.91786 16.25286 13.5781 12.0878
29 22.00318 15.66318 12.9687 11.5622
28 21.073 15.02178 12.5834 10.9372
27 20.12618 14.3766 12.2734 10.5797
26 19.1645 13.70946 11.8391 10.1837
25 18.18903 13.03386 11.1247 9.872
24 17.21091 12.3406 10.3846 9.5608
23 16.20606 11.6397 9.8978 9.2187
22 15.20563 10.93098 9.5 8.7437
21 14.21805 10.24548 9.0551 8.1383
20 13.24071 9.54582 8.3474 7.3955
19 12.30736 8.9193 7.6524 6.6834
18 11.3788 8.2647 7.1855 6.0037
17 10.45684 7.6137 6.8041 5.6463
16 9.546576 6.97296 6.3427 5.1591
15 8.663408 6.3498 5.7018 4.8507
14 7.799116 5.74314 5.0414 4.5598
13 6.957236 5.14554 4.6097 4.2493
12 6.142344 4.56948 4.2657 3.8823
11 5.358496 4.00764 3.8646 3.3968
10 4.611984 3.46824 3.308 2.8436
9 3.924544 2.98458 2.7777 2.282
8 3.272776 2.51784 2.4144 1.7813
7 2.660528 2.07312 2.1251 1.4417
6 2.093676 1.66092 1.8082 1.179
5 1.57768 1.27644 1.4078 0.9464
4 1.011842 0.93192 0.987 0.7266
3 0.722072 0.6216 0.6776 0.5121
2 0.395772 0.35568 0.477 0.3024
1 0.145704 0.12252 0.1732 0.1051

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5. The Effect of Different Cases of Braces on Shear-Lag
Regards to the differences between the structures with and without braces, axial force
distribution in the central columns is different. The difference in the distribution of forces due
to the flexibility of the circumferential beams and all the columns do not corporate in
absorbing the energy. Because of the importance of shear deformation, it will not remain plane
after bending. Distribution of forces perfectly matches the ideal distribution will not be based
on common strength materials Formulas (fig 6.6).
One way to reduce the effects is decreasing the distance between the columns and
increasing the stiffness of surrounding beams in the structures without bracing system which
limit the dimension of windows in buildings. The most effective method to solve the problem
is just to add bracing system to the structures.
In this paper, shear-lag on the flange of the columns which is perpendicular to the
lateral forces was studied. To calculate the shear-lag effects in the structure, the proportion of
the highest to the lowest of axial forces which was approached by analyzing the structures
under lateral forces was studied (Fig 6.7).

Fig.No.6.6: Axial stress distribution in the columns of frames under lateral load

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 Fig.No.6.7: Diagrams of shear-lag

As it is shown in figure 6.7 in all the structures studied, case 2 and 3 have the most
effective on decreasing the shear-lag at the lowest floors. As it is clear by diagram, case 4
shows good behavior at the lowest floors but this trend did not continue to decrease the shear
lag at the upper floors and also greatly weakened. In case 1, it shows that this trend continue
to decrease the shear-lag. Regards to the Behavior mode of frames and braces, absorbing the
forces in mega braces is larger than the common braces at the lowest floors of the building
but it’s vice versa at the upper floors. So the braces systems which have the most stiffness
absorb maximum forces compare to the other cases of bracing system, and the more reduction
of the force in the frame cause to more reduces the amount of shear-lag but also it is vice
versa at the upper floors.

It is necessary to note that Interaction of frame and braces are not the only factor in
increasing the shear-lag at the upper floors of the building but the effect of higher modes is
also effective in the behavior of the structure. The results of shear-lag for different kind of
cases for 30-floor building are illustrated in table 6.2.

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Table 6.2: Shear-Lag for 30-floor building

Floors Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

1 4.67 3.27 1.65 1.87
2 4.36 3.18 1.65 1.65
3 4.14 1.48 2.13 2.01
4 3.79 1.36 2.45 2.24
5 3.78 1.37 2.67 2.13
6 3.54 1.81 2.77 1.05
7 3.32 1.72 2.76 0.96
8 2.98 1.75 2.65 0.86
9 2.57 1.3 2.02 1.2
10 2.36 0.96 1.78 2.2
11 2.25 0.8 1.56 2.6
12 2 1.02 1.4 2.9
13 1.88 1.32 1.46 3.2
14 1.75 1.22 1.75 3.5
15 1.7 1.42 1.67 3.7
16 1.75 1.56 1.77 3.8
17 1.87 1.66 1.87 3.89
18 1.77 1.76 1.77 4.01
19 1.63 1.87 1.67 4.1
20 1.56 1.96 1.65 4.2
21 1.55 2.12 1.76 4.32
22 1.81 2.2 1.88 4.2
23 1.93 2.3 1.99 4
24 1.99 2.5 2.12 3.9
25 2.03 2.7 2.2 3.7
26 2.14 3 2 3.6
27 2.18 2.9 1.97 3.5
28 2.45 2.8 1.9 3.4
29 2.55 2.6 2 3.5
30 2.87 2.7 2.2 4

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Study Elastic Strain Energy
Considering that much of the damage caused by earthquake especially under the large
earthquake occurs in the reciprocating cycle of non-elastic. Parameters, the most associated
with the cyclical behavior of structures and results earthquake damage, are structural energy.
In other words, Energy absorption capacity of the structure should be more than the energy is
required on structures during an earthquake event [6].
EI = EE + ED (1)
In which:
I E : Energy applied
E E : Stored elastic energy
D E : Wasted energy
The equation 1 can also be written as follows:
E =( Ek + Es )+( Ef + Eh )
Where:
Ek : Kinetic energy of the structure
Es: Elastic strain energy
Ef: Viscous damping energy
Eh: Hysteresis energy (Residual energy)
EI and E E + ED show the needs and Inventories, respectively. At the first step, effective choice
of structure design and estimates of EI is for severe earthquakes. According to this, design
should retain the behavior of the structure around the safety range. The ability of the structure
in order to dissipate the energy under the elastic limit of earthquake through damping and
elastic deformation and for the Earthquake near collapse through the damping and deformation
of plasticity (plastic) should be investigated. The most important part is how to distribute
dissipation energy in the entire structural system. In recent years, increasing the amount of D E
with active and inactive damping system has been significantly possible. Although technical
and economical satisfy the equation of inventories with increased inventories by increasing E
E is considered [7]. In this study, to better understand the different cases of bracing system in
terms of strain energy, the total amount of energy analyzed for the entire of the structure and
bracing system, the results are illustrated in figure (8) to (10). Also the results of different
cases of bracing are shown in table 6.3.

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Table 6. 3: Maximum energy absorbed by the entire structural system and bracing systems

Floors Entire structural system Bracing system

Case 1
20 2.14E+06 3.44E+05
30 5.37E+06 5.80E+05
40 1.03E+07 7.47E+05
Case 2
20 1.39E+06 3.86E+05
30 3.31E+06 7.18E+05
40 6.25E+06 9.72E+05
Case 3
20 7.21E+05 4.87E+05
30 1.59E+06 9.81E+05
40 2.79E+06 1.44E+06
Case 4
20 6.08E+05 4.02E+05
30 1.93E+06 8.19E+05
40 2.747+06 1.16E+06

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Fig.No. 6. 8: Energy absorbed by the entire structural system and bracing system in 20-floor buildings

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Fig.No.6. 9: Energy absorbed by the entire structural system and bracing system in 30-floor buildings

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Figure 10: Energy absorbed by the entire structural system and bracing system in 40-floor buildings

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 Regards to the illustrations, the rate of Participation of bracing system for energy
absorption in the entire structural system, cases 3 and 4 compare to cases 1 and 2 were
significantly increased. The difference in energy absorption is due to the specific form of mega
bracing system which all columns are in contact unlike common bracing system which is
continually in contact with several columns.

Table 6. 4: Percentage of energy absorbed by bracing system

Floors Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

20 16% 28% 67% 66%
30 11% 22% 62% 60%
40 7.30% 16% 52% 50%

With increasing height of the building percent of participation in the energy

absorption of the bracing system reduces. Case (3 and 4) in terms of energy absorption, have
close behavior and also by increasing the height of the building differences are not significant.

Conclusions
1. Using mega braces instead of common braces cause to decrease lateral displacement and
shear lag which improve structural behavior and increase efficiency of the buildings.
2. If purpose of using braces in order to decrease displacement and shear lag, using the cases 2
and 3 will be the most effective in reducing these parameters.
3. Regards to the mega braces system which are also form as an architectural, so the
arrangement of bracing system in the buildings is not only based on structural criteria.
4. With the results of cases 2, 3 and 4 can be seen that the results are very close. To better
understand the differences in their functional cases should consider the higher elevations.

5.At all using mega bracing system due to decrease the cross section and the length of
braces and also reduce the number of connection plates (between brace and column) And
the increased energy absorption compared to other cases of bracing system, The structure
is more economically justifiable.

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