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Temple of Apollo Palatinus

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Coordinates: 41°53′20″N 12°29′09″E

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Temple of Apollo Palatinus

The surviving remains of the temple's podium, photographed in 1994

 Temple of Apollo Palatinus

Location of the temple within ancient Rome

Coordinates 41°53′20″N 12°29′09″E

History

Builder Octavian

Founded 28 BCE

Events Destroyed on the night of 18–19 March 363

Site notes

 1863–1870
Excavation dates
 1937

 1958–1984

 2005–2013

Archaeologists  Pietro Rosa

 Alfonso Bartoli

 Gianfilippo Carettoni

 Stephan Zink

Condition Ruined

Management Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma

 Public access Yes

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Designated 1980

Part of Historic Centre of Rome

Reference no. 91ter

The Temple of Apollo Palatinus ('Palatine Apollo'), sometimes called the Temple of
Actian Apollo, was a temple to the god Apollo in Rome, constructed on the Palatine
Hill on the initiative of Augustus (known as "Octavian" until 27 BCE) between 36 and
28 BCE. It was the first temple to Apollo within the city's ceremonial boundaries and the
second of four temples constructed by Augustus. According to tradition, the site for the
temple was chosen when it was struck by lightning, which was interpreted as a
divine portent. Augustan writers situated the temple next to Augustus's personal
residence, which has been controversially identified as the structure known as
the domus Augusti.

The temple was closely associated with the victories of Augustus's forces at the battles
of Naulochus and Actium, the latter of which was extensively memorialised through its
decoration. The temple played an important role in Augustan propaganda and political
ideology, in which it represented the restoration of Rome's 'golden age' and served as a
signifier of Augustus's pietas (devotion to religious and political duty). It was used for the
worship of Apollo and his sister Diana, as well as to store the prophetic Sibylline Books.
Its precinct was used for diplomatic functions as well as for meetings of the Roman
Senate, and contained the Portico of the Danaids, which included libraries of Greek and
Latin literature considered among the most important in Rome.

Augustan poets frequently mentioned and praised the temple in their works, often
commenting on its lavish artistic decoration and statuary, which included three cult
statues and other works by noted Greek artists of the archaic period and the fourth
century BCE. These poets included Tibullus, Virgil and Horace, whose Carmen
Saeculare was first performed at the temple on 3 June 17 BCE during the Secular
Games.

The Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE damaged the temple, but it was restored under the
emperor Domitian (r. 81 – 96 CE). It was finally destroyed by another fire in 363 CE,
which was rumoured to be an act of arson committed by Christians. The temple has
been excavated and partially restored in various phases since the 1860s, though only
partial remains survive and their documentation is incomplete. Modern assessments of
the temple have variously treated it as an extravagant, Hellenising break with Roman
tradition and as a conservative attempt to reassert the architectural and political values
of the Roman Republic. It has been described by the archaeologist John Ward-
Perkins as "one of the earliest and finest of the Augustan temples". [1]
History
Background
The worship of Apollo in Rome began in the fifth century BCE. According to Roman
tradition, the first temple to Apollo was promised to the god in 433 BCE in return for his
intercession during a plague. This temple was originally known as the Temple of Apollo
Medicus and later as the Temple of Apollo Sosianus, after Gaius Sosius, who restored it
around 32 BCE. It was situated in the Campus Martius, outside the ceremonial
boundary (pomerium) of Rome, since Apollo, whose worship originated in the Greek
world, was considered a 'foreign' deity and so unsuitable for a temple within the
city.[2] According to the classicist Paul Zanker, Apollo was held in Roman culture to
represent discipline, morality, purification and the punishment of excess. [3]

After securing control over the Roman state through victory in his civil war against Mark
Antony, Octavian (known as "Augustus" from 27 BCE) made a political and ideological
priority of the embellishment and restoration of Rome's built space. According to his
biographer Suetonius, he claimed to have found Rome built of brick, and to have left it
built of marble.[4] The construction and restoration of temples was a major part of this
programme: Augustus claimed to have restored eighty-two of them in 28 BCE
alone.[5] The archaeologist Susan Walker has described Rome under Augustus as a
"moral museum", by which public architecture and artwork, particularly the display of
Greek sculpture,[a] was used as part of Augustus's ideological project.[7] Augustus's
developments on the Palatine Hill included the construction and restoration of several of
its temples and the intensification of cult activity around it,[8] making the Palatine,
previously most significant as an elite residential area,[9] Rome's "new seat of political
and religious power", in the words of the classicist Ulrich Schmitzer.[10]

The Temple of Apollo Palatinus was among the earliest of a series of monuments
constructed by Augustus around Rome,[11] and his first major architectural project
undertaken independently in the city.[12][b] Other Augustan monuments of the same period
included the restoration of the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius in 32 BCE,[14] the construction
of the Mausoleum of Augustus in 28 BCE,[15] and the completion in 29 BCE of the Curia
Julia, a senate house whose construction was begun in 44 BCE by Octavian's adoptive
father, Julius Caesar.[16] Apollo was a favourite god of Augustus.[17] Two laurel trees,
symbolic both of Apollo and of victory, stood by the side of the front door of Augustus's
house, highlighting the connection between Apollo, Augustus and his victory over Mark
Antony at the Battle of Actium.[18] According to a story related by Suetonius, who reports
having read it in a work of the Greek author Asklepiades of Mendes, Augustus
considered himself the son of Apollo, and Apollo as the patron deity of his
family.[19] During the civil war, Augustus used the iconography of Apollo to contrast
himself with Antony, who was closely associated with the antithetical god Dionysus;
Augustus was criticised for his rumoured appearance at a feast in costume as
Apollo.[20] Augustus further explained his cultivation of Apollo through the tradition that
Apollo had protected the hero Aeneas, believed to have been the ancestor of the
Romans and the progenitor of Augustus's family, the gens Iulia.[21]
Construction

The Prima Porta statue of Augustus, produced from

around 20 BCE onwards, has been called "the most iconic image of Augustus". Its
iconography connected him both to Apollo and to the art of fifth-century Greece.[22]
The dedication of temples by generals following military victories was an established
part of Roman political culture in the Middle Republic (c. 200 – c. 100 BCE), but had
largely fallen out of fashion by 100 BCE.[23] Octavian's vow to dedicate the temple
followed the victory of his admiral Marcus Agrippa over Sextus Pompeius at the Battle
of Naulochus on 3 September 36 BCE:[24][c] Octavian probably announced the temple's
construction in November, during a speech to the Roman senate and people.[27] In
36 BCE, he began buying land in the area of the future temple. The Palatine was
considered particularly sacred and among Rome's most fashionable residential
districts,[28] and had the additional advantage of being mostly owned by private citizens,
from whom Octavian was able to buy land in a private capacity. The precise location of
the temple was determined when a bolt of lightning struck part of Octavian's property.
On the advice of the haruspices, specialist priests who interpreted divine portents, this
was considered to be an indication of a god's desire for a temple, and as urging the
construction of a temple to Apollo within the city. Octavian declared that portion of his
property to be public land, and initiated the construction of the temple.[29]

The temple was dedicated on 9 October 28 BCE,[30] a day traditionally associated with
the worship of deities of victory.[31] The temple's dedication followed Octavian's defeat of
the forces of Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE,
which was linked in Octavian's propaganda with the intercession of Apollo; in thanks for
his victory, Octavian constructed a new sanctuary of Apollo at the site of his camp at
Actium, and restored the god's existing sanctuary at the entrance to the Ambracian Gulf,
where the battle had taken place.[32] It was the second of four temples built in Rome by
Augustus, following the Temple of Caesar (dedicated in 29 BCE) and preceding the
Temple of Jupiter Tonans on the Capitoline Hill (dedicated in 22) and that of Mars Ultor,
dedicated in 2 BCE in Augustus's newly-built forum.[33]

The temple was formally dedicated to Apollo,[7] but considered to be dedicated both to
Apollo and to his sister Diana,[34] who was closely associated with Augustus's victory at
Naulochus.[35] Roman temples were often dedicated to gods under particular epithets,
which could relate to the builder or location of the temple as well as to a specific aspect
of the god in question.[36] Although the temple's official name was the Temple of Actian
Apollo (using the epithet Actius), it was also informally known by the same god's
epithets Actiacus, Navalis, Palati – all of which referred to Apollo's connection with the
Battle of Actium – and Rhamnusius, an epithet of obscure significance which may have
referred to the Nemeseion sanctuary at Rhamnous in Attica, sometimes believed to
have been the source of the temple's cult statue.[37]

Cossutius, a brick-maker employed by Gaius Asinius Pollio – a politician and literary

patron of the early Augustan era – was probably involved in the temple's construction:
bricks bearing his stamp have been recovered from the temple and adjacent
buildings.[38][d] Immediately adjacent to the temple,[e] the Portico of the Danaids included
two libraries of Greek and Latin literature,[42] known collectively as the Library of Palatine
Apollo and considered among the largest and most important libraries in Rome. [43] As
well as literary works, these libraries contained artworks depicting some of their authors,
and were noted as a repository of legal texts.[44] The portico was used by Augustus to
hold meetings of the Roman Senate, particularly during his convalescence from illness
in 23 BCE,[45][f] and to receive official guests and foreign ambassadors.[42] The surviving
sources are contradictory as to the opening of the libraries; they may have been opened
at the same time as the temple, or at another point before 23 BCE.[47]

Later history
After Augustus's death in 14 CE, his successors as emperor occasionally used the
temple's precinct for senate meetings. His immediate successor, Tiberius, held one
there in 16 CE, while at least one more under Claudius (r. 41–54 CE) is attested and
was intended, in the judgement of the classicist David L. Thompson, as "a symbolic
assertion of the imperial power". According to the Roman historian Tacitus, Claudius's
wife Agrippina the Younger had a secret door installed in the room used for the senate
meetings, leading to a hiding-place from which she could listen to them. Thompson
considers this account less as factual and more as symbolic of Agrippina's influence
over the senate.[48] According to the archaeologist Pierre Gros, the sanctuary served as
a model for later complexes dedicated to the imperial cult in the western Roman
empire.[49]

The temple was damaged in the Great Fire of Rome of 64 CE, but restored under the
emperor Domitian (r. 81–96 CE); the Portico of the Danaids, probably also destroyed in
64, may never have been rebuilt.[50] The temple was finally destroyed in another fire,
during the night of 18–19 March 363.[51][g] The blaze may have destroyed the precinct as
well as the temple itself:[h] the Sibylline Books, housed within the temple, were narrowly
rescued from the flames. The cause of the fire was never firmly established. The
emperor Julian, who was in the process of an ultimately unsuccessful effort to re-
establish Roman polytheism as the empire's dominant religion, considered it an act
of arson by Christians: this view has been considered plausible in modern scholarship,
particularly as the Sibylline Books were viewed as a symbol of Julian's anti-Christian
religious policy, but no secure evidence on the matter exists. Christian writers saw the
destruction as a matter of divine intervention: the fifth-century Church
historian Theodoret falsely claimed that the temple had been struck by lightning, while
the theologian John Chrysostom wrote that God had destroyed the temple to punish
Julian's actions.[53] The temple may have been systematically dismantled after the fire;
pieces of marble from it were possibly reused in the construction of a new building, of
uncertain function, on top of the ruined podium at some point in late antiquity.[54]

In the twelfth century, the philosopher John of Salisbury propagated an account

that Pope Gregory I (r. 590–604) had destroyed the Library of Palatine Apollo to create
more space for Christian scriptures, but his testimony is considered unreliable by
modern scholarship.[55] The only surviving remains of the temple's two libraries date to
reconstructions made in the Domitianic period,[56] which rebuilt the structures on higher
ground.[57]

Description
Location
The temple was the second in Rome dedicated to Apollo; its position on the Palatine Hill
made it the first within the Roman pomerium.[58] It was prominently visible from
the Circus Maximus to the south of the Palatine.[59] It was adjacent to the older Temple of
Cybele, which had been dedicated in 191 BCE,[60] and the ancient stairway known as
the Scalae Caci ('Stairs of Cacus').[61] It was also near the early-third-century Temple of
Victory; the proximity of the monuments may have been intended to reinforce the links
between Apollo and the military victories for which Augustus credited him. [62]

The Temple of Apollo Palatinus was immediately south-east of a domus ('house')

constructed during the late Roman Republic (c. 133–33 BCE). In the 1950s, this house
was designated by one of its excavators, Gianfilippo Carettoni, as the domus
Augusti ('House of Augustus'), since Carettoni believed that it had been Augustus's
personal residence.[63] Following Carettoni's excavations, the temple and the house were
believed to have been connected by a ramp, though this theory was disproved by later
excavations. The status of the so-called domus Augusti and its relationship to both
Augustus and the Temple of Apollo Palatinus is controversial. Excavations subsequent
to Carettoni's indicate that the house was largely destroyed, while still under
construction, to facilitate the building of the temple; they also found that the house was
considerably larger than Carettoni believed, which meant that its identification as
Augustus's personal residence contradicted the testimony of Roman biographers that
the emperor's Palatine house had been noted for its modesty.[64]

According to Roman authors, the temple's sanctuary also included the Roma
Quadrata ('Square Rome'), a monument to the foundation of the city by Romulus; a
four-columned shrine known as the Tetrastylum; and the Auguratorium, a monument to
the taking of the auspices by Romulus during the foundation of Rome, which may have
been an alternative name for the Roma Quadrata.[38]

Architecture

Plan of the area around

the temple. The location of the Portico of the Danaids is debated, and the Arch of
Octavius is generally located to the north of the temple.[65]
Scholars are divided on the interpretation of the temple's architecture. The
archaeologist John Ward-Perkins has described its architecture and embellishment,
particularly its use of proportions common in Hellenistic architecture and its sculptural
programme, as "a lively architectural experiment". He contrasts this with the
conservatism of other Augustan projects, such as the restoration of the Temple of
Cybele, which largely reused material from the existing structure.[57] On the other hand,
the archaeologist Stephan Zink describes the temple as "an imposing revival of
Republican architectural traditions".[12] According to the Roman architectural
writer Vitruvius, the temple's intercolumniation was diastyle (that is, the gap between
each pair of columns was three times a column's width).[66] Zink interprets this wide
intercolumniation, unusual in contemporary architecture but common in older Roman
and Etruscan temples, as a sign of conservatism.[67] The archaeologist Barbara
Kellum has suggested that the temple's intercolumniation may have specifically recalled
that of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus,[68] Rome's most important temple.[69]

The temple's precinct – the Area Apollonis – was built on a raised platform,
approximately 9 metres (30 ft) above the terrace below and generally considered to
have measured approximately 70 by 90 metres (230 by 300 ft),[71] which included
a retaining wall with blocks of tufa.[38] This platform was constructed on top of the
remains of older buildings on the site, which were demolished and their courtyards filled
in.[72] The entrance to the precinct was through a triumphal arch, known as the Arcus
Octavii, in honour of Augustus's father, Gaius Octavius.[73] The sculptural programme of
this arch, which included a statue group by the Greek sculptor Lysias showing Apollo
and Diana mounted in a chariot, has been called "a further testimony to Apollo's
Augustan vocation" by the archaeologist Maria Tomei.[74]

A Roman temple generally included an enclosed inner part, known as the cella,
surrounded by a series of columns (the peristyle) and approached via a porch or
vestibule known as the pronaos.[75] Apart from the podium, the Temple of Apollo
Palatinus was constructed entirely from marble, making it the first temple in Rome to be
built in this fashion.[8] The number of columns supporting the temple is unclear; it is
generally reconstructed as having had six columns across the front of the pronaos,
though the archaeologist Amanda Claridge has proposed that it may instead have had
four across the front and seven along its length.[76] Corinthian capitals have been found
among the temple's remains;[38] the columns which supported them are reconstructed to
have reached 14 metres (46 ft) in height and have supplied evidence of fluting.[77] Apart
from the drums of the columns, all surviving fragments of the temple have furnished
evidence of painted polychromy.[78] Parts of the column capitals were probably gilded,
while other parts of the temple were painted in yellow ochre and red, blue, brown and
green pigments.[79] The podium of the temple was constructed using materials and
techniques common during the late Republican period, using ashlar blocks of tufa
and travertine (known to the Romans as opus quadratum), under the walls and columns
of the temple's cella, surrounding a core of concrete (known to the Romans as opus
caementicium).[80] According to reconstructions made by the archaeologist Giuseppe
Lugli, the temple had overall dimensions of 22.4 by 38.8 metres (73 by 127 ft), with
a cella 26 metres (85 ft) long and a pronaos 12.8 metres (42 ft) in length.[81]

The surviving ruins do not allow a definitive reconstruction of the temple's orientation. It
is generally believed to have faced south: the temple's first excavator, Pietro Rosa,
proposed this orientation in 1865, on the grounds that it would have the temple face out
of the hillside in a similar manner to earlier Republican hillside sanctuaries found
elsewhere in Latium.[82] In 1913, the prehistorian Giovanni Pinza suggested that the
temple may have faced north, which he considered a better fit with the surviving
accounts of its appearance in Roman literature, but his idea was generally
rejected.[83] Some modern hypotheses, such as that of Claridge, have argued for a north-
facing temple on the grounds that the more substantial foundations of the temple's
southern side would be more likely to support the heavier cella than the comparatively
light pronaos, and that the temple's visual impact would have been greater if the façade
faced north, from which direction the temple was generally accessed.[84]

The temple's building materials, such as Libyan ivory and so-called "Punic" columns,
recalled Rome's military conquests and successes.[85] Its primary material was
white Carrara marble from the Italian town of Luna,[38] a material frequently used in
Augustan building projects: Augustus is believed to have initiated its large-scale
quarrying and exploitation.[86] Fragments of marble flooring have been found during
excavations of the site.[38] The columns of the Portico of the Danaids were made from
yellow giallo antico marble quarried in Numidia. This is the earliest known use of giallo
antico in Rome.[87]
The temple's architecture may have been designed to compete with that of the Temple
of Apollo Sosianus,[15] which was reconstructed at approximately the same time.[88] The
Temple of Apollo Sosianus was restored by and named for Gaius Sosius, a former
supporter of Octavian's enemy Mark Antony. Augustus later tried to reduce its
prominence by constructing the Theatre of Marcellus to block the view of its façade, and
rebuilt the adjacent Porticus Octaviae, named after his sister Octavia, whom Antony had
abandoned in favour of Cleopatra.[89]

Sculptures and artwork

So-called "Apollo Barberini", 1st–2nd century CE: a statue of

the "Apollo Citharoedus" type bearing similarities to the cult statue from the Temple of
Apollo Palatinus.[90]
The temple contained three cult statue: one of Apollo in the "Apollo Citharoedus" ('lyre-
playing Apollo') type, one of his sister Diana, and one of their mother Latona. A further
statue of Apollo was situated in front of the temple. The cult statues were the work of
Greek sculptors of the fourth century BCE: that of Apollo was made by Scopas.[91] On
the basis of the temple's epithet Rhamnusius, it has been conjectured that the statue
originally came from the Nemeseion sanctuary at Rhamnous in Attica.[37][i] Two badly-
weathered fragments of colossal statuary excavated at the temple – one from a head,
excavated in the temple's foundations,[7] and one from a foot – have been suggested as
possible remains of the cult statue of Apollo.[93] Depictions of the statue on Roman
coinage suggest that its base was decorated with anchors and the prows of ships,
linking it to the naval victory at Actium, while its hands held a lyre and
a libation bowl.[94] Zanker has suggested that the choice of an Apollo Citharoedus for the
cult statue, offering a libation as if in expiation, contrasted with the alternative
iconography of Apollo as an "avenging archer", and would have suggested the bringing
of peace and of atonement for the civil war.[95]
The cult statue of Latona was by Kephisdotos the Younger, the son of the Athenian
sculptor Praxiteles. That of Diana was originally sculpted by
the Epidaurian artist Timotheos, but its head was remade by Avianus Evander,[38] an
Athenian artist who had been taken to Rome as a prisoner in the mid-first
century BCE.[96] Other statues in the temple included a representation of the chariot of
the sun on the acroterion of the temple's ridge,[24] a group at the corners of the altar of
four oxen made by the fifth-century Athenian sculptor Myron,[61] and another set
representing the daughters of Danaus. [7] The Roman polymath Pliny the Elder, writing in
the second half of the first century CE, catalogued works of Bupalus and Athenis,
two Chian sculptors of the archaic period (c. 800 – c. 480 BCE), on the
temple's pediments.[97] The inclusion of statues by noted Greek artists, especially of the
fourth and fifth centuries BCE and the archaic period, came to be almost universal in the
temples built or restored by Augustus in Rome.[15] The temple also contained a series of
engraved gemstones dedicated by Augustus's nephew Marcellus.[61]

On the temple's doors, a scene depicting the killing of the children of Niobe by Apollo
and Diana was rendered in ivory,[98] while the other door depicted the defeat of
the Celtic attack on the Oracle of Delphi, of which Apollo was the patron god, in
281 BCE.[7] One of the marble jambs of the doors depicted a Delphic tripod[38] flanked
by griffins, with an acanthus, symbolic of Apollo in his capacity as a god of regeneration,
springing from it.[99] The cella was lit by a chandelier said to have been taken
by Alexander the Great from the Greek city of Thebes.[100]

A statue in rosso antico marble, excavated in 1869 and restored in multiple phases
thereafter,[101] believed to have been either one of the original Danaids from the temple or
a version of such a statue made before 68 CE[102]
The Portico of the Danaids included statues of the eponymous Danaids,[103] the Egyptian
sisters who killed their cousin-husbands on their wedding night in an act
of impietas.[j] This artwork may have been intended to evoke and condemn the memory
of Cleopatra, who had similarly married and then had assassinated her brother, Ptolemy
XIV.[105] The statues of the Danaids were situated between the portico's columns, near a
statue of Danaus with drawn sword and faced by equestrian statues of their
bridegrooms and victims, the sons of Aegyptus.[106] Parts of at least four of these statues,
around 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) in height and in the style of herms, have been discovered.
Three of these were sculpted from black bigio morato marble, probably quarried in Ain
El-Ksir in Tunisia or from Cape Tainaron in southern Greece,[107] while at least one was
made from red rosso antico marble.[108] A series of painted terracotta panels in
the Campana style, found in the area of the temple, may have originally belonged to the
Portico of the Danaids.[110] The panels show mythical scenes including Perseus's defeat
of Medusa, the caryatids and the contest between Hercules and Apollo for the Delphic
tripod.[100][k] Kellum has interpreted the latter myth as an allegory for the military struggle
between Augustus and Antony, given Augustus' identification with Apollo and Antony's
similar claims of descent from and affinity with Hercules: the tripod, a traditional votive
dedication of victorious generals, may also have been linked with Augustus's victory at
Actium.[112] Other scenes show the Egyptian goddess Isis trapped between two sphinxes,
probably alluding to the defeat of Cleopatra,[113] and human beings worshipping sacred
objects. These include one which may be a candelabrum – a symbol both of Apollo and
of pietas[6] – a thymiaterion or a baetylus, a cult object associated with Apollo.[114] It has
been suggested that a marble sculpture known as the meta ('turning-post'), displayed in
modern times in the Villa Albani, may originally have been one of several
monumentalised baetyli that stood around the sanctuary.[115]

The portico's libraries included a statue of Augustus with the appearance of Apollo.[100] A
statue of a young man (ephebe) in black basalt, discovered by Rosa in 1869 in
the cryptoporticus to the temple's east, is believed to have come from the temple. [116] A
common building material in the temple's sculptures was Pentelic marble from Mount
Pentelicus near Athens: this material was frequently used in Athenian building projects
of the fifth and fourth centuries BCE, and was particularly prized in Rome.[117]

Walker has suggested that the sculptural decoration of the Temple of Apollo Palatinus
served a complex ideological purpose: to elevate the standard of Rome's public art, to
showcase the material wealth generated by the Roman Empire's expansion, and to
promote Augustan moral values such as the value of Roman citizenship and of modesty
in dress and personal behaviour.[15] Between 161 and 169 CE, a further statue of the
"Apollo Comaeus" ('Long-Haired Apollo') type was taken from the Persian city
of Seleucia and installed in the temple by the Roman emperor Lucius Verus, following
the city's capture in the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166.[118]

Function
Main article: Roman temple

A relief from the temple in Pentelic marble, showing

a Delphic tripod
It is unclear whether the Temple of Apollo Palatinus was intended to supplant or
complement the existing centre for Apollo's worship at the Temple of Apollo
Sosianus.[119] According to the classicist Bénédicte Delignon, the temple served to
establish Apollo as the tutelary deity of Rome and as a representation of Augustus's
symbolic refoundation of the city.[32] In Augustus's political propaganda, it represented
the restoration of Rome's 'golden age', a key aspect of Augustan ideology,[120] marked by
the end of civil war and the reaffirmation of Roman pietas.[94] The visual iconography was
particularly ideologically charged: though it made no direct references to Augustus, it
employed several images and tropes commonly associated with him in contemporary
culture.[121] The classicist Gilles Sauron has interpreted many of the temple's artworks,
including that of the Danaids and the scenes on the temple's doors, as emblematic of
the divine punishment of impietas.[122]

Assessments of the sanctuary's primary significance vary. Walker has described the
temple as "Augustus's personal shrine",[42] a view echoed by Zanker, who considers that
the adjacent house was that of Augustus, has suggested that the two buildings
combined in a manner reminiscent of a Hellenistic palace-complex.[123] Pointing to the
prominence of the sanctuary's libraries, the classical archaeologist Lilian
Balensiefen has described the temple as a "literary sanctuary" in which Apollo was
venerated in his capacity as a god of learning.[59] For Zanker, the temple was part of a
cultural programme intended both to emulate and to surpass the artistic achievements
of ancient Greece.[6] The temple was also used for meetings of the senate.[27]

Over time, the temple was given additional functions, likely on an ad hoc basis rather
than as part of any preconceived plan.[124] From around 20 BCE,[125] the temple was used
to store the Sibylline Books, a series of prophetic writings believed to date from the time
of Rome's semi-legendary king Tarquinius Superbus (c. 510 BCE), which Augustus
moved there from the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. They were stored in gold cases in
the base of the cult statue of Apollo.[126] The temple became a popular site for the
dedication of votive offerings, particularly statues. According to Augustus's
autobiography, the Res Gestae, he melted down approximately 80 silver statues of
himself that had been offered there by Rome's citizens, sold the resulting metal and
used the proceeds to purchase gold tripods in honour of Apollo.[100]

The temple played a significant role in the Secular Games, a religious and artistic
festival revived by Augustus in 17 BCE and repeated irregularly thereafter.[127] On
3 June, the third day of the inaugural games, Augustus and his lieutenant Marcus
Vipsanius Agrippa made sacrifices to Apollo and Diana at the temple.[128] The
poet Horace wrote his Carmen Saeculare, a religious hymn, for the occasion: it received
its first performance on the same day, sung at the temple by a choir of 27 boys and 27
girls and accompanied by sacrifices to Apollo and Diana.[130] In years where the Secular
Games were held, priests known as the quindecimviri sacris faciundis, who had
responsibility for the temple's Sibylline Books, met at the temple on 25 May and cast
lots to determine which of them would sit on the various tribunals which distributed
purifying agents – torches, sulphur and bitumen – to the Roman people. The temple
was then used, alongside the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, the Temple of Diana on the
Aventine and the Temple of Jupiter Tonans, to receive offerings of first fruits (fruges)
and as centres for the distribution of the aforementioned purifying agents
(purgamenta).[131]

Reception
Terracotta plaque from the temple's precinct, showing the contest
between Hercules and Apollo for the Delphic tripod
In modern times, the temple has been described by Ward-Perkins as "one of the earliest
and finest of the Augustan temples".[1] It was noted by contemporaries as among
Rome's most impressive monuments,[27] and described by the historians Velleius
Paterculus and Josephus in the 1st century CE as the greatest of Augustus's building
projects.[132] Suetonius similarly described it as among Augustus's most important
architectural works, alongside the Forum of Augustus, the Temple of Mars Ultor and
the Temple of Jupiter Tonans.[133] Delignon has suggested that the proem of the
poet Virgil's Georgics, published in 29 BCE, may have alluded to the proposed or
incipient construction of the temple.[134]

The Roman poet Propertius attended the opening of the temple and wrote
two elegies to celebrate it.[30] The first of these (conventionally numbered 2.31) was
written around the time of the temple's dedication and published in either 25 or
24 BCE.[135] Propertius's contemporary Horace published an ode (1.31) in 23 BCE,
ostensibly written on the day of the temple's dedication to celebrate Apollo. [136] Around
20 BCE, the poet Tibullus wrote an elegy (2.5) commemorating the appointment
of Marcus Valerius Messalinus as a priest of Apollo with responsibility for inspecting the
Sibylline Books stored at the temple.[125]

The temple's political significance and association with Actium became universal
themes of poetic responses to the monument from 16 BCE onwards, when Propertius
published the second of his elegies on the temple (4.6).[137] A common motif in these
poetic works was the association between the Sibylline Books and the works of the
poets themselves.[138] The newly intensified religious significance of the Palatine Hill also
featured in its presentation in the eighth book of Virgil's Aeneid, composed between 29
and 19 BCE, in which the king Evander walks Aeneas around the future site of the
temple;[10] later in Aeneid 8, the Battle of Actium is reconstructed as
a theomachic contest on the Shield of Aeneas, and Augustus's triple triumph of 29 BCE
is anachronistically imagined as having taken place at the temple.[139] Many of the
responses to the temple in Augustan poetry have been read as appropriating,
subverting or challenging its political and ideological significance.[32] Ovid, in the Ars
Amatoria (published around 4 BCE), wrote of the temple as a particularly fruitful place to
find pretty women.[140] Later, in the Tristia (composed between 9 and 18 BCE), he
included the temple in an imagined tour of the monuments of central Rome.[141]

The temple's cult statue of Apollo was depicted on the Sorrento Base, a late-Augustan
or early-Tiberian (that is, c. 14 CE) statue plinth first identified as a depiction of it by the
architectural historian Christian Hülsen in 1894.[142] Gros has suggested that a group of
bronze statues found in the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, known as "dancers" or
"Danaids", were modelled after those of the Danaids from the Portico of the Danaids. [100]

Excavation
 Remains of a Corinthian capital from the temple.
In modern times, only the cement core of the temple's podium, measuring 19.2 by 37.0
by 4.7 metres (63.0 by 121.4 by 15.4 ft),[52] survives,[38] as well as isolated architectural
fragments including blocks from the cella.[12] Pietro Rosa made the first full excavations
of the area around the temple in the nineteenth century. He began working on the
Palatine in 1861, in the employ of Napoleon III, the owner of the Farnese
Gardens which included the site of the temple.[143] In 1863, he discovered the Arcus
Octavii to the north of the temple,[108] followed by the concrete core of the temple's
podium in 1865.[144] In the same year, he consolidated the surviving fragments of the
temple and built a staircase over them.[12] In 1869 he discovered the surviving fragments
of statuary in the Portico of the Danaids,[108] and he carried out his final excavations in
1870. During Rosa's excavations, the site was opened to the public on Thursdays,
though visitors had to obtain a permit from the French government, and Rosa often led
tours himself.[145]

Further excavations took place under Alfonso Bartoli in 1937, as part of Bartoli's
extensive excavations in the Roman Forum and on the Palatine; he removed 40,000
cubic metres (52,000 cu yd) of earth to bring the whole domus Augusti complex down to
its Roman level.[146] In the 1950s, Giuseppe Lugli re-surveyed and documented the
surviving remains: this work was described in 2008 as the most detailed existing study
of the temple's ruins, though it contains contradictions and ambiguities, particularly over
the width of the column axis (that is, the distance between the centres of adjacent
columns).[147]

Rosa misidentified the temple as the third-century BCE Temple of Jupiter Invictus (or
Jupiter Victor), believing its location on the side of the Palatine to be reminiscent of that
of other Republican-era sanctuaries.[82] The architect Henri Deglane, a member of
the French School at Rome, accepted this identification in his 1885–1886 reconstruction
of what he called the "Palace of the Caesars" on the Palatine Hill.[148] In 1910, Giovanni
Pinza studied the concrete used in the temple and concluded that it was early Augustan
in date, being similar to that used for the Mausoleum of Augustus, completed in
28 BCE.[149] The first to identify the temple as Apollo Palatinus was the nineteenth-
century art historian Franz von Reber; this identification was advanced in a 1914 article
by the classicist Oliffe Legh Richmond, who argued for it largely from the
correspondence between the excavated remains and literary testimonia of the temple.
By 1952, scholars had generally come to accept Pinza's conclusion that the temple had
been constructed on top of the remains of houses constructed in the late Republican
period (that is, c. 100 – c. 30 BCE), which eliminated any possibility of its being third-
century in date.[150] The temple was by this time almost universally accepted as Apollo
Palatinus.[151]

The area around the temple, including its sanctuary and the rest of the domus
Augusti complex, was further excavated by Carettoni between 1958 and 1984. [152] The
excavations of 1968 saw the excavation of the temple's pronaos as well as the
beginning of the collection of the fragmentary terracotta plaques, which continued in
1969 and 1970.[100] Carettoni's excavations were only partially published.[153] The work of
both Rosa and Carettoni involved extensive reconstruction, which was continued
thereafter by the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma [it].[154]

Zink carried out an architectural survey of the temple from 2006, primarily aimed at
reconstructing the dimensions, measurements and form of its plan and elevation. [155] In
2008, he investigated the architectural remains of the façade for the traces of its original
colouring, together with the conservator and colour scientist Heinrich
Piening.[156] Between 2009 and 2013, Zink also documented the architectural remains in
an area south-west of the temple, revealing a building dating to the archaic period (that
is, between the sixth and early fifth centuries BCE), which he posited to have been a
small shrine.[157]

Footnotes
Explanatory notes
1. ^ According to Zanker, Greek art was held to have an "acknowledged moral superiority". [6]
2. ^ Previous projects, such as the construction of the Temple of Caesar, had been conducted in
collaboration with others: in that case, his fellow triumvirs Antony and Lepidus.[13]
3. ^ The classicists Olivier Hekster and John Rich dispute any direct connection between the victory and
the temple;[25] the classicist Robert Gurval has similarly argued that it is difficult to be certain that
Octavian intended for the temple to be predominantly associated with Actium. [26]
4. ^ A minority view, first advanced by the architectural historian Christian Hülsen,[39] holds that the
temple known from Roman literary sources as the Temple of Apollo Palatinus was in the hitherto-
unexcavated area of the Vigna Barberini [it] on the northern side of the Palatine Hill, but this
suggestion is generally rejected in favour of the conventional identification.[40] In this article, references
to the archaeological site and excavated remains refer to the temple near the so-called domus
Augusti.
5. ^ The precise relative position of the Temple of Apollo and the Portico of the Danaids is disputed: the
portico is generally held either to have been situated on a terrace immediately below the temple, or to
have surrounded it on its own level.[41]
6. ^ The classicist David L. Thompson points out that the account of Suetonius, which provides the
evidence for senate meetings in the temple precinct, is technically ambiguous as to where exactly in
the sanctuary they occurred, but concludes that the portico and its libraries are the most likely
answer.[46]
7. ^ The archaeologist Caroline K. Quenemoen gives the date of destruction as 364 CE.[52]
8. ^ The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, whose work is the primary source for the destruction,
uses the word templum ('temple') to refer to the damaged structure, which usually referred to the
entire sacred area around the main temple building (aedes).[51]
9. ^ The classicist Linda Jones Roccos has argued that the statue was not in fact ancient, but rather
made by an Augustan sculptor copying the style of earlier Greek statues, particularly the Athenian
type known as "Apollo Patroos" ('Apollo the Ancestor').[92]
10. ^ That is, a breach of pietas and so of the compact between human beings and the gods: the murder
of a close relative was seen as the most extreme example of impietas.[104]
 11. ^ The classicist Karl Galinsky has suggested that the scene may represent the two characters
reconciling after their conflict.[111]

References
1. ^ Jump up to:a b Ward-Perkins 1981, p. 36.
2. ^ Hill 1962, pp. 125–126. For the origins of Apollo's worship in Rome, see Jannot 2005, pp. 144–145.
3. ^ Zanker 1990, p. 52.
4. ^ Ward-Perkins 1981, p. 21; Suetonius records the remark at Divus Augustus 28.3
5. ^ Ward-Perkins 1981, p. 37. Augustus made the claim in Res Gestae 20.4.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c Zanker 1990, p. 89.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Walker 2000, p. 61.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Tuck 2021, p. 140.
9. ^ Coarelli 2014, p. 132.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b Schmitzer 1999.
11. ^ Roccos 1989, p. 571.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Zink 2008, p. 47.
13. ^ Claridge 2010, p. 100.
14. ^ Welch 2005, p. 134.
15. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Walker 2000, p. 71.
16. ^ Sumi 2015, p. 218.
17. ^ Feeney 2006, p. 468; Zanker 1990, p. 57.
18. ^ Wiseman 2022, p. 10.
19. ^ Hill 1962, p. 129. Suetonius records the story at Divus Augustus 94.4.
20. ^ Zanker 1990, p. 49.
21. ^ Favro 2007, p. 238.
22. ^ Gardner 2013, pp. 53–54.
23. ^ Hekster & Rich 2006, p. 152.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b Gros 1993, p. 54.
25. ^ Hekster & Rich 2006, pp. 154–155.
26. ^ Gurval 1995, chapter 2, discussed in Clauss 1996.
27. ^ Jump up to:a b c Morgan 2022, p. 144.
28. ^ Hekster & Rich 2006; Galinsky 1996.
29. ^ Hekster & Rich 2006, pp. 152, 158; Walker 2000, p. 62. The Roman historian Cassius Dio reports
the omen at 49.15.5.
30. ^ Jump up to:a b Walker 2000, p. 61; Roccos 1989, p. 571.
31. ^ Galinsky 1996, p. 214.
32. ^ Jump up to:a b c Delignon 2023, p. 115.
33. ^ Hekster & Rich 2006, p. 153.
34. ^ Wiseman 2022, p. 29.
35. ^ Hekster & Rich 2006, p. 155.
36. ^ Kajava 2022, pp. 7–12.
37. ^ Jump up to:a b Hill 1962, p. 129; Richardson 1992, p. 14.
38. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Coarelli 2014, p. 143.
39. ^ Platner & Ashby 1929, p. 18.
40. ^ Quenemoen 2006, p. 229; Richardson 1992, p. 14.
41. ^ Galinsky 1996, p. 219; Quenemoen 2006.
42. ^ Jump up to:a b c Walker 2000, p. 62.
43. ^ Platner & Ashby 1929, p. 84; Schmitzer 1999; Rohmann 2016, p. 242.
44. ^ Galinsky 1996, p. 218.
45. ^ Thompson 1981, p. 339.
46. ^ Thompson 1981, pp. 338–339.
47. ^ Thompson 1981, p. 339; see also Tomei 2000, p. 573.
48. ^ Thompson 1981, p. 339. Tacitus recounts this episode at Annals 13.5
49. ^ Gros 1993, p. 56.
50. ^ Hill 1962, p. 130; Gros 1993, p. 56.
51. ^ Jump up to:a b Rohmann 2016, p. 242.
52. ^ Jump up to:a b Quenemoen 2006, p. 234.
53. ^ Rohmann 2016, pp. 242–243.
54. ^ Claridge 2014, pp. 133, 136.
55. ^ Rohmann 2016, p. 243.
56. ^ Fischer 2021, pp. 84–85.
57. ^ Jump up to:a b Ward-Perkins 1981, p. 37.
58. ^ Hill 1962, p. 126.
59. ^ Jump up to:a b Fischer 2021, p. 85.
60. ^ Price 1996, p. 832.
61. ^ Jump up to:a b c Richardson 1992, p. 14.
62. ^ Tuck 2021, p. 140. For the date of the Temple of Victory, see Ando 2013, p. 278.
63. ^ Wiseman 2013, p. 255.
64. ^ Wiseman 2013, p. 255, citing Iacopi & Tendone 2006; see also Claridge 2014, p. 129.
65. ^ Quenemoen 2006, p. 231.
66. ^ Wiseman 2022, p. 29, citing Vitruvius, De Architectura 3.3.4.
67. ^ Zink 2008, p. 63.
68. ^ Kellum 1993, p. 76.
69. ^ Coarelli 2014, p. 32.
70. ^ Quenemoen 2006, p. 236.
71. ^ Gros 1993, p. 56; Quenemoen 2006, p. 232. Quenemoen suggests alternative dimensions of 40 by
25 metres (131 by 82 ft).[70]
72. ^ Zink 2015, p. 369.
73. ^ Hill 1962, p. 130.
74. ^ Tomei 2000, p. 560.
75. ^ Stamper 2015, p. 174.
76. ^ Claridge 2014, p. 141; Wiseman 2022, p. 28.
77. ^ Gros 1993, p. 55: for fluting, Zink 2008, p. 51.
78. ^ Zink & Piening 2009, p. 110.
79. ^ Zink & Piening 2009, p. 113.
80. ^ Quenemoen 2006, p. 234; Zink 2008, p. 48.
81. ^ Quenemoen 2006, p. 234, citing Lugli 1965, pp. 266–267.
82. ^ Jump up to:a b Claridge 2014, p. 128.
83. ^ Claridge 2014, p. 129; Wiseman 2022.
84. ^ Claridge 2010; Claridge 2014, pp. 138–141; Wiseman 2022, p. 29.
85. ^ Walker 2000, p. 61. The Punic columns quotation is from Propertius, Elegies 2.31, and recalls
the Punic Wars in which Rome defeated the city of Carthage.
86. ^ Ward-Perkins 1981, p. 22.
87. ^ Walker 2000, p. 72, note 2; Ward-Perkins 1981, p. 36.
88. ^ Walker 2000, pp. 62–63.
89. ^ Walker 2000, p. 63.
90. ^ Hill 1962, p. 132.
91. ^ Coarelli 2014, p. 143; Guerrini 1958, p. 936.
92. ^ Roccos 1989, p. 587.
93. ^ Roccos 1989, p. 579.
94. ^ Jump up to:a b Delignon 2023, p. 116.
95. ^ Zanker 1990, pp. 85–86.
96. ^ Guerrini 1958, p. 936.
97. ^ Walker 2000, p. 61, citing Pliny, Natural History 36.13.
98. ^ Wiseman 2013, p. 250.
99. ^ Zink & Piening 2009, p. 114. For the association between Apollo and the acanthus, see Pollini 2012,
p. 292.
100. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Gros 1993, p. 55.
101. ^ Quenemoen 2006, p. 229; Tomei 1997, p. 56.
102. ^ Sheard 2022, p. 52, citing Candilio 1989, pp. 86, 88.
103. ^ Walker 2000, p. 61, with reference to Propertius, Elegies 2.31.
104. ^ Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 126.
105. ^ Delignon 2023, pp. 116–117.
106. ^ Richardson 1992, p. 14. For the statue of Danaus, see Gros 1993, p. 55.
107. ^ Cook 2018, p. 283.
108. ^ Jump up to:a b c Quenemoen 2006, p. 229.
109. ^ Tuck 2021, pp. 141–142.
110. ^ Coarelli 2014, p. 114. Tuck places them as "lining" the inside of the portico.[109]
111. ^ Galinsky 1996, p. 223.
112. ^ Kellum 1993, pp. 77–78: see also Tuck 2021, p. 142.
113. ^ Kellum 1993, p. 78.
114. ^ Gros 1993, p. 55. For the association between the baetylus and Apollo, see Zanker 1990,
p. 89.
115. ^ Zanker 1990, p. 89; Longfellow 2010, p. 281.
116. ^ Tomei 1997, p. 60; Coarelli 2014, p. 157.
117. ^ Giustini et al. 2018, p. 252 (on the use of Pentelic marble in the Temple of Apollo
Palatinus); Bernard 2010, pp. 49–50 (on the status of Pentelic marble in Rome).
118. ^ Hill 1962, p. 132; Harper 2021, p. 16.
119. ^ Miller 2006.
120. ^ Delignon 2023, p. 116; Sauron 1994, p. 501.
121. ^ Zanker 1990, p. 195.
122. ^ Delignon 2023, p. 117.
123. ^ Wiseman 2022, p. 12, citing Zanker 1983, pp. 51–52.
124. ^ Galinsky 1996, p. 213.
125. ^ Jump up to:a b Delignon 2023, p. 126.
126. ^ Coarelli 2014, p. 143, citing Suetonius, Divus Augustus 31.3.
127. ^ Turcan 2013, p. 83.
128. ^ Galinsky 1996, p. 218; Wiseman 2012, p. 374.
129. ^ Zanker 1990, p. 169.
130. ^ Wiseman 2012, p. 374; Cooley 2023, p. 277. For the position of the choir and sacrifices
within the Secular Games, see Zanker 1990, p. 169. Zanker gives the choir as three choruses, each
composed of seven boys and seven girls.[129]
131. ^ Forsythe 2012, pp. 73–74.
132. ^ Platner & Ashby 1929, pp. 16–17.
133. ^ Babcock 1967, p. 189. Suetonius, at Divus Augustus 29.1–3, uses the phrase vel
praecipua (lit. 'among the foremost').
134. ^ Delignon 2023, p. 132.
135. ^ Delignon 2023, p. 118.
136. ^ Delignon 2023, pp. 120–122.
137. ^ Delignon 2023, pp. 122–123.
138. ^ Fischer 2021, p. 90.
139. ^ Delignon 2023, p. 129.
140. ^ Walker 2000, p. 62; Ars Amatoria 3.379–389.
141. ^ Delignon 2023, pp. 124–125; Tristia 3.1. For the dates of the Tristia and Ars Amatoria,
see Thorsen 2013, p. 381.
142. ^ Roccos 1989, pp. 573–574.
143. ^ Cooley 2006, p. 207.
144. ^ Wiseman 2022, p. 11.
145. ^ Cooley 2006, pp. 207–208.
 146. ^ Lugli 1946, p. 6; Carettoni 1960, p. 193; Coarelli 2014, p. 142.
147. ^ Zink 2008, p. 49; for Lugli's survey, see Claridge 2014, p. 129.
148. ^ Claridge 2014, p. 129.
149. ^ Claridge 2014, p. 129, n. 11.
150. ^ Coarelli 2014, p. 143; Hill 1962, p. 131; Claridge 2014, p. 129. Richmond's article
is Richmond 1914.
151. ^ Bishop 1956, p. 187.
152. ^ Wiseman 2022, p. 11; Zink 2015, p. 359.
153. ^ Hekster & Rich 2006, p. 149. The published reports are Carettoni 1967 and Carettoni 1978.
154. ^ Zink 2012, p. 390.
155. ^ Zink 2012, p. 389.
156. ^ Zink & Piening 2009, p. 109.
157. ^ Zink 2015, pp. 359–360, 362.

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