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Chapter I Fluid Properties

I.1 Introduction

The part of mechanics that deals with the study of the equilibrium and movement of liquids, as

well as their interactions with solid bodies, is called fluid mechanics. The notion of fluid groups

together all the bodies which are characterized by their fluidity; that is to say, by their capacity to be

able to change their form under the action of the weakest forces.

I.2 Physical definition of a fluid

I.2.1 States of matter

There are three states of matter for a simple body:

• Solid (A): in this state; the body has its own form. To modify it, it is necessary to exert
forces generally important because the forces of attraction between the molecules are
very large.

• Liquid (B): the body does not have its own form. To modify it, it is enough to exert small
forces the forces of intermolecular cohesion are very weak. Liquids take shape from the
containers that hold them.

• Gas (C): Not only does the body no longer have its own form, but it no longer has its own volume, it

occupies all the available volume.

Figure I.1:Molecular structures. A: solid, B: liquid, C: gas.

Fluids are substances that can flow and take the shape of the container that contains
them. When they are in equilibrium, fluids cannot oppose resistance to tangential or
transverse forces. All fluids exhibit some degree of compressibility and offer no
resistance to shape changes. Fluids can be divided into two main categories:

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

• Liquids: are practically incompressible. They produce free surfaces, occupy well-
defined volumes when they are in contact with the atmosphere.
• Gases: are compressible, they expand until they occupy all parts of the container that contains

them.

I.2.2 Divided matter: dispersions, suspensions, emulsions

Not all fluids are pure liquids or gases. One encounters fluids where two phases in
thermodynamic equilibrium coexist. Compared to pure liquids, the presence of
"particles" (gas bubbles, solid particles, droplets) induces the presence of a multitude of
interfaces between the liquid (continuous phase) and the particles (dispersed phase), which
can radically change the nature of the mixture. We distinguish :

✓ Dispersions: these are mixtures of very fine particles.

✓ Suspensions: these are mixtures of fine or coarse particles
✓ Emulsions: these are mixtures of fine droplets of one liquid in another.

I.2.3 Perfect fluid

In fluid mechanics, a fluid is said to be perfect if it is possible to describe its motion without
taking into account the effects of friction.

I.2.4 Actual fluid

Contrary to an ideal fluid, in a real fluid the tangential forces of internal friction which oppose
the relative sliding of the fluid layers are taken into consideration. This phenomenon of viscous
friction appears during the movement of the fluid.

I.2.5 Incompressible fluid

A fluid is said to be incompressible when the volume occupied by a given mass does
not vary according to the external pressure. Liquids can be considered as incompressible
fluids (water, oil, etc.).

I.2.6 Compressible fluid

A fluid is said to be compressible when the volume occupied by a given mass varies
according to the external pressure. Gases are compressible fluids. For example, air,
hydrogen, methane in the gaseous state, are considered as compressible fluids.

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

I.3 Physical characteristics

I.3.1 Density

Density or specific mass is the ratio-between a mass of homogeneous matterm

and the volume occupied by this massv.We therefore write:

m
-= (I.1)
v

In the international system(WHETHER)the unit of density is therefore thekg m3.

I.3.2 Density

The density of a body is the ratio between the mass of a certain volume of this body and the mass

of the same volume of a reference body. This volume being taken under the same conditions of

temperature and pressure. This definition results in the following relationship:

m -
d= = (I.2)
mref -ref

In whichdrepresents the density of the mass bodymrelative to the mass body

mref,-And-refbeing the densities of the two bodies under the corresponding conditions of

temperature and pressure.

The reference bodies are usually pure water and dry air, from which we define:

• The density of a liquid relative to water. Water taken at 4 -VSunder 1013mbars;

• The density of a gas or vapor relative to air, taken under the same conditions of pressure
and temperature as the fluid under study.

I.3.3 Density weight

m-g
- = =-- g in(N m3) (I.3)
v

I.3.4 Viscosity of fluids

The viscosity of a fluid is the property that expresses its resistance to a tangential force. It is

mainly due to the interaction between the molecules of the fluids.

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

Referring to Figure I.2, consider two large parallel plates at a short distance from each other
there,the space between the plates being filled with a given fluid.

Figure I.2:2D representation of Newton's experiment.

One plate is fixed while the other is movable in the directionoxwith a speedU
constant. When the flow is stationary, it is necessary to provide a forceFin the directionox
to the movable plate to move it at a speedU.Experimentally, we could note that this force proportional

to the speed of the plate,U,and on the surface of the opposite plates,AT,and inversely proportional to

the thickness of the fluid,there.It is therefore possible to relate the forceF

necessary to move at speedUwith the following expression:

F of
=- (I.4)
AT dy

- NOT-
If we define the shear stress-as the force per unit area -Pa= ,
- m2--
then we have the relation:

of
- =- (I.5)
dy

Or-viscosity represents the coefficient of proportionality between force and speed. A strength,

necessary for displacement, high is synonymous with a high fluid viscosity: the friction
between the different molecules of the fluid and therefore the resistance to flow are high.
The proportionality factor-is the dynamic viscosity coefficient of the fluid.

In the international system(WHETHER),the unit of viscosity is the(Pa-s)or Poiseuille(IP):

1Pa-s=1IP=1kg m-s.The poise (symbolPOrPo)is also an old unit of viscosity

dynamic, system-based(CGS),(1Po=1g cm-s).1IP=10Po=103cpo.

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

We can also define the kinematic viscosity, which is the ratio between the dynamic
viscosity and the density:

-
= (I.6)
-

The unit of kinematic viscosity in the international system is the(m2s).We use

often the Stokes(st)as a unit of measurement, where 1m2s=104st.

Remarks

1. Influence of temperature:When the temperature increases, the viscosity of a fluid decreases

because its density decreases.

2. Difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity:The kinematic viscosity

characterizes the flow time of a liquid. On the other hand, the dynamic viscosity corresponds to

the physical reality of the behavior of a fluid subjected to an effort.

3. Rheology:Branch of physics that studies the flow or deformation of bodies under the
effect of the stresses applied to them.
A fluid is said to be "Newtonian" if its viscosity is constant as a function of the shear rate.
This is the case with many simple liquids, such as water, oil, etc.
A fluid is said to be "non-Newtonian" if its viscosity varies according to the shear rate to which

it is subjected. We then distinguish two types of non-Newtonian fluids:

To. A non-Newtonian fluid is said to be "shear thinning " if its viscosity decreases when
the shear rate increases. This is the case, for example, of good paints which are
fluid when spread but more viscous on the wall, thus avoiding "drips" or ketchup
which becomes more liquid when shaken.
b. A non-Newtonian fluid is said to be "shear thickener " if its viscosity increases when the

shear rate increases. This is the case, for example, of a concentrated suspension of

cornstarch.

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

Figure I.3:Variation of viscosity as a function of shear stress.

I.3.5 Surface tension

Surface tension is a property of liquids that keeps their free surface in equilibrium.
This quantity is mainly involved in the following phenomena:

• The shape of a drop of water (spherical shape),

• The formation of raindrops,

• The sustenance of insects on the surface of the water (Some insects are able to move on
water),

• The free surface of water forms a meniscus near the edges of a tube.

I.3.5.1 Equations

I.3.5.1.a Two-dimensional moving blade model

Consider a frameABCDequipped with a mobile barrierABlengthI,who can slip onAD

AndCB.Initially immersed in a liquid (for example soapy water), this frame is filled with a
thin layer of this liquid.

Figure I.4:Model of the moving blade in two dimensions.

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

Initially, the barrier is in positionAB,once released the blade retracts until it reaches a
stable balanceAT-B- .

If we consider that the forcefexerted on each face of the blade in order to minimize the surface

of the liquid is proportional to the lengthI,such as :

f=--I (I.7)

Given the two faces of the thin blade the force that should be applied to return to the
initial situationABEast :

F=2f=2--I (I.8)

The proportionality constant-is called surface tension is statically defined

by :

F
-= (I.9)
2I

It therefore has the dimensions of a force per unit length(N m),parallel to the surface, that it

must exercise perpendicular to an element of the boundary of the surface of a liquid in

equilibrium, at constant temperature and pressure, to maintain the constant surface. But this
notion gives a bad idea of surface tension. It should not be seen as a surface layer that stretches
like a rubber sheet. Indeed, it has been considered that the surface of the liquid during its
contraction is flat and horizontal. However, if we look more closely, we observe a curvature of the
free surface in contact with the liquid and the edges of the container. This curvature is called a
meniscus and is very well observed in a small diameter tube. It is therefore a third dimension that
must be taken into account in order to explain certain physical phenomena such as capillary rise.

I.3.5.1.b Three-dimensional model

It is therefore preferred to introduce the surface free energy. Let's take the previous example from an

energy point of view.

The work done to expand the surfaceATof the blade of a of a gradientdSby moving the
sideABof a lengthdxunder reversible conditions at constant temperature and volume, is:

dWs=F-dx=2--I-dx=--dS (I.10)
dS

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

So the surface tension- can also be defined as the ratio of the increase
of surface potential energy per increased unit area. The surface tension can therefore also

measure oneself in(Joules m2). It is thus the energy which it is necessary to bring to create a square meter of

surface.

I.3.5.2 Consequences of surface tension

I.3.5.2.a Overpressure in drops – Laplace's law (1749 – 1827)

Consider a spherical drop of radiusR:the surface tension forces, which are directed
towards the inside of the drop, exert a compression inside it. PressurePI

in the drop is therefore greater than that of the external medium,Pe.This compression is, well

sure, all the greater as the surface forces are great, so that the surface tension-is high.

LAPLACE's law makes it possible to calculate the difference(PI−Pe= -P)in terms ofRand of-.

If we increase the radiusRfrom the drop ofdR,its volume increases byS-dR=4--R2-dR, OrSis
the surface of the drop.

Work of the pressure forces during this operation:

2
-dWe= − Pe-4--R-dR
- dv
- (I.11)
-dWI=PI-4--R2-dR
- dv

The total work is therefore:

dW=(PI−Pe)-4--R2-dR (I.12)

This work is equal to that of the surface tension forces:dW=--dS.

The area of a sphere is:S=4--R2. Its increasedSEquals :dS=8--R-dR.

It follows:

2-
-P=PI−Pe= (I.13)
R

NB:The overpressure -Pis an inverse function of the radius of the drop.

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

I.3.5.2.b Contact angle (wetting)

When a drop of liquid is deposited on a flat solid surface, the angle between the tangent

to the drop at the point of contact and the solid surface is calledcontact angle(-).Thus, in a

narrow glass tube, the air/liquid interface is curved downwards and the surface forms a concave

meniscus; moreover, the water rises along the walls.

The angle(-)depends on both the liquid, the solid and the gas that surrounds the two.

Three parameters must therefore be taken into account:

• Surface tension-slbetween solid and liquid.

• Surface tension-lvbetween the liquid and its vapor phase.

• Surface tension-pleasebetween solid and vapour.

A drop of liquid deposited on a flat and horizontal solid plate can:

• Either spread out, it is said that the liquid perfectly wets the solid.

• Either form a lens, with two scenarios:

✓ (--90-):the liquid imperfectly wets the solid,
✓ (--90-):the liquid does not wet the solid.

Figure I.5:The shape of the drop and degrees of wettability.

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

The same connection angle is found at the free surface of a liquid near the vessel
edges and causes a meniscus to form in the tubes (examples of water and mercury).

To b
Figure I.5:Formation of menisci in the tubes:
To. concave meniscus (case of water),
b. Convex meniscus (case of mercury).

I.3.5.2.c Capillary rise(from Latin capillus: hair)

A small diameter glass tube is immersed in a wetting liquid, water for example. In the tube, the

level of the liquid is higher than the level of the free surface of the container. The meniscus

concave makes an angle(-)with the pipe surface. Capillary rise is due to forces

superficial applied at any point of the contour of the meniscus. The resultFof these forces
balances the weightPraised liquid. The rise of the liquid in the tube compensates for the pressure
difference between the two sides of the wall. (Laplace's law).

Figure I.6:Capillary rise.

The weight of the liquid column in the tube

P=m-g=--R2-h---g (I.14)

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Chapter I Fluid Properties

Is balanced by surface tension force

F=2--R---cos- (I.15)

Acting on the connection line between the liquid and the wall of the tube.

We thus obtain the relationship:

2--cos-
h= (I.16)
R -- -g

That we callJurin's Law.

With :R:inside radius of the tube,-: density of the liquid,g:gravity acceleration.

-:surface tension of the liquid,-: liquid/solid connection angle.

cos-:because only the vertical component contributes to the resultantF.In the case of
perfect wetting, cos-=1 .

Noticed

If the angle-exceeds 90- , Jurin's law giveshnegative. We then speak ofcapillary

depression. This is the case of mercury in contact with glass and all non-wetting liquids.

This time the cohesion forces are greater than the adhesion forces, the liquid does
not wet the walls of the tube. The liquid level drops in the tube below the surface level
free from the container. The meniscus is convex and forms the angle(--90-)with the tube wall. THE

Surface tension forces pull the liquid down. The resultFof these tensions now balances
the weightPmissing fluid.

Figure I.7:Capillary depression.

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