Introduction - Limit States Design (Ultimate Limit States) - Ref. P.

10

Safety Margin, Reliability Index, & Resistance Factors

Relative β∗σY β = Reliability Index (Safety Index)

Frequency
σY = Standard deviation of Y distribution
(Number of (measure of spread of the data)
occurances)

0 Safety Margin, Y = R - S

Probability of failure typically between 1:10,000 and 1:100,000

Reliability Index, β
3.0 for buildings as a whole (redundancy, multiple load paths)
3.0 for ductile failure mechanisms - member design (yielding of steel)
4.5 for brittle or sudden failure mechanisms - connections, welds, bolts
(lack of redundancy, no alternate load path or reserve strength)
If there is a failure, we want it to be ductile
where there is some warning without collapse,
and not a sudden collapse (force yielding first).

Resulting Resistance Factors:

φ = 0.9 for structural steel yield strength (β = 3.0)
φu = 0.75 for structural steel tensile ultimate strength (β = 4.5)
Connections φb = 0.80 for bolts (β = 4.5)
φw = 0.67 for welds (β = 4.5)
Introduction - Connection Design Loads - Ref. P.11

UDL = total uniformly distributed load = w*L

w = unit load per m length (kN/m) Due to symmetry of loading:

RA = RB = w*L/2 = 0.5UDL
Total load = w*L When the total uniformly distributed
A B load is the maximum load the beam
C can carry before failing in bending
L then RA and RB are the maximum
beam end reactions possible under
RA RB this loading condition.
Mmax = MC = at mid-span
This is a common connection design
criterion commonly referred to 50%
UDL or 0.5UDL.

M (We will discuss this further in coming

classes and look at the relationship
Moment diagram between 0.5UDL and beam bending
moment capacity)

V
Shear diagram
Introduction - Standard Connections, Welded Double Angle - Ref. P.15

Top of angle wants to pull away from support

Tension in root of
weld due to rotation
of leg of angle. We
want to avoid this.
End of beam rotates as
beam deflects under load

2D

D
force angle
to yield here
D 2D
Introduction Connections I

ΣMZ = 0
Introduction
ΣPY = 0 P
PY = Psin θ
ΣPX = 0
Stiffness, load path, θ
and force vectors
PX = Pcos θ

T A
d

C
B
Moment couple concept
If normal force reaction
can be developed due to
stiff boundary restraint,
With an indeterminate structural arrangement the reactions are
then moment reaction
determined by relative stiffness at the boundaries of the element
can also be developed if
under consideration.
there is an unbalanced
moment in the force
system. Indeterminate = more unknown reactions than equations of
statics (ΣFy=0, ΣFx=0, ΣMz=0).

20
Introduction Connections I

Introduction
B
PX = Psin θ ΣPX = 0
Stiffness, load path,
and force vectors

Stiffness attracts load – in order to develop a

reaction to the applied load, there has to be
the necessary restraint to engage that reaction
(normal force, shear, moment).

With this arrangement only certain reactions can

develop at the boundaries due to limited stiffness
A
PY = Pcos θ in specific directions.

In this particular case it is a determinate system

Flexible web offers since the number of unknown forces (reactions)
little restraint in this are less than the number of equations of statics
direction so normal (ΣFy=0, ΣFx=0, ΣMz=0).
force reaction can ΣPY = 0
not develop.

PX = Psin θ

PY = Pcos θ
P
θ

21
 y
Introduction - Statics, Free Body Diagrams, Bending moments, & Shear - P.1 of 2

y 10 kN
3 kN

Right hand rule #1

Coordinate system A B
C D
RA 2m 3m 1m RB
6m

Calc. RA
ΣMZ = 0 Take M about pt. B
z x
-RA(6m) + (10kN)(4m) + (3kN)(1m) = 0
Mz (+ve) RA = (40 + 3)/6 = 7.17 kN
Right hand rule #2
ΣPY = 0
7.17 - 10 - 3 + RB = 0
RB = 10 + 3 -7.17 = 5.83 kN
3 Equations of statics
ΣPX = 0 (+ve )

ΣPY = 0 (+ve ) A
MC MD
C D
ΣMZ = 0 +ve 2m 1m RB
RA
5.83 kN
= 7.17 kN Calc. MD
Calc. MC ΣMZ = 0 about pt. D
ΣMZ = 0 about pt. C MD + (5.83kN)(1m) = 0
MC - (7.17kN)(2m) = 0 MD = -5.83 kN kNm
MC = 14.34 kNm Negative therefore we guessed
wrong for the direction the moment
would act.
Introduction - Statics, Free Body Diagrams, Bending moments, & Shear - P.2 of 2

y
10 kN
3 kN
x
A B
C D
RA = 7.17 kN 2m 3m 1m RB = 5.83 kN
Moment is drawn on side of BMD axis that
6m corresponds with the same side of the beam
that is in compression due to bending stresses.
MC = 14.34 kNm
M (+ve) M (-ve)
MD = 5.83 kN kNm
Positive moment Negative moment
deflected shape deflected shape
BMD
(bending
moment P
diagram)
Tension
7.17 kN
Stress M
distribution

Compression L P

A C D B
V
(shear BMD
diagram) 7.17kN - 10kN = -2.83kN

-2.83kN - 3kN = -5.83 kN M = -PL

Deflected
shape V

V = -P
Introduction - Connection Design Loads - Ref. P.11

Replace uniform load with an equivalent

point load at the location where centroid
UDL = total uniformly distributed load of the uniform load was.

Moment at point C
w = unit load per m length (kN/m) (mid-span of beam)
wL/2
L/4
Total load = w*L

A B A MC
C C
L/2
L
RA Free body diagram
RA RB of left half of beam
Mmax = MC = at mid-span Note in this equation
Take moments
moments that cause a
about point C RA = 0.5UDL = wL/2 counter-clockwise rotation
at mid-span of
are +ve, and moments that
beam in FBD
above. ΣM = 0 cause a clockwise rotation
MC - (RA)L/2 + (wL/2)L/4 = 0 are -ve.
M
Moment diagram MC = wL2/8

w = 8MC/L2 Set MC = Mr
Substitute into RA
equation from above
V RA = 0.5UDL = wL/2
Shear diagram RA = 0.5UDL = (8MC/L2)L/2 = 4MC/L = 4Mr/L

Mr = factored moment resistance of beam

0.5 UDL = 4Mr/L

Here the term UDL represents the maximum total uniformly distributed factored load capacity
of the beam since it is associated with the maximum moment resistance of the beam.
Introduction - Typical fabrication shop workflow - Ref. P.22
Shop Process Considerations for Detailing
Material (Receiving & inventory)
1. Review project requirements for material size and length. Member lengths and plate sizes larger than stock sizes
may require special order or shop/site splice connections (confirm availability with fabricator).

Detail
1. Minimize the number of different mark numbers for the components if possible to help streamline the management of
components in the detail process.
2. Drilling or punching bolt holes – if unknown assume punched.
3. Consider connection types to minimize the number of coped beams.

Fitting
1. Avoid combined fitting-welding procedures if possible (ex, fitting-welding-fitting-welding).

Welding
1. Very important to make smart connection designs with welding only as required.
2. Welding is a labour intensive and expensive process so excessive welding is a waste of time (schedule) and money.
3. The heat input from excessive welding and the subsequent shrinkage after cooling can distort material and/or induce residual
stresses that can lead to fracture of the welded joint.
4. Avoid multi-pass welds if possible (you may be able to consider a longer single pass weld as an alternative).
5. Try to consolidate welding on a minimum number of members to reduce handling.
6. Plan weld accessibility to minimize the turning of members and assemblies.

Painting
1. Shot blaster/wheel abrader equipment that removes mill scale and prepares the surface for painting will have a maximum opening
size which may restrict larger assemblies from being pre-welded. In this case the fabricator may choose to manually sand-blast the
assembly or run individual members/components through the shot blaster/wheel abrader prior to welding the assembly together.
2. If hot-dip galvanizing long members or large assemblies confirm size of galvanizing tank (check with fabricator).

Handling
1. For turning large assemblies confirm over-head crane height clearance (check with the fabricator).
2. In general choose connections types and assembly arrangements to minimize and simplify handling whenever possible.

Shipping
1. Avoid awkward assemblies that make loading and shipping difficult and possibly unsafe.
2. Plan pre-fabricated shop assemblies to avoid shipping a lot of empty space.
3. Be aware of highway regulations and transportation limits for local jurisdictions when dealing with larger assemblies. Aside from
maximum size and weight restrictions the cost of pilot cars, oversize load permits, special trailers, etc. may prohibit the economy
of shipping large assemblies (discuss with fabricator).
Introduction - Typical fabrication shop workflow - Ref. P.22

Material Length/Size Availability

General member/plate lengths/sizes available from rolling mills are as noted below:

W-shapes: 25', 30', 35', 40', 45', 50', 55', 60', 65' (40', 60' commonly stocked by local distributors)

S-shapes: 25', 30', 35', 40', 45', 50', 55', 60', 65' (40', 60' commonly stocked by local distributors)

C-shapes: 20', 30', 40', 45', 50', 55', 60', 65' (40', 60' commonly stocked by local distributors)

Angles: 20', 40'

Bars: 20'

Plates: 4', 5', 6', 7', 8', 10' wide by lengths up to 80'

Although these are the lengths/sizes available from rolling mills, there may be a wait time to accomodate rolling
schedules. Local distributors will generally provide quickest delivery time, but selection may be limited.

Maximum Fillet Weld Sizes for Single Pass

The following is a common practice general guide for maximum fillet weld sizes that can be made in a single
pass. Variations will exist due to wire size, shop practice, procedure qualification, etc. and CSA W59-03 may
allow larger single pass fillet weld sizes for some positions.

6 mm fillet welds can generally be made in a single pass in all positions for all common shop welding processes
(SMAW, FCAW, MCAW). Some shops may combine processes based on weld positions (ex., MCAW for flat and
horizontal, and FCAW for vertical and overhead).

8 mm fillet welds are generally single pass in flat, horizontal, and vertical positions, but multiple pass if done
overhead.

10 mm fillet welds may be possible in flat position only.

For SAW, maximum single pass fillet weld size is usually 8 mm in horizontal position and 12 mm in flat position
(this can vary depending on system used - single, parallel, or multiple electrodes).
Introduction - Typical fabrication shop workflow - Ref. P.22

D
1 2

3 Pass fillet weld