GEOGRAPHY ➔ Usually, pastoral nomads raise sheep or some
Agricultural Geography
➔ Rubenstein (2002) defined agriculture as the
"deliberate modification of Earth's surface
through cultivation of plants and rearing of
animals to obtain sustenance or economic
gain."
CROPS
● PLANTS HUMAN CULTIVATED
The lands that are not good for planting are
used for livestock grazing; this practice is called
ranching, which is also an important but often
disregarded part of agriculture.
Origins of Agriculture
Hunters and Gathers
➔ At present, there are only about 250,000
people who follow this way of life, and they
can be found in Australia, Africa, South
America, and the Arctic.
TWO BASIC CULTIVATION
Vegetative Planting
● done by cutting off stems from existing plants
and replanting them.
Seed Agriculture
● what you do when you plant seeds in your
backyards and help them grow.
AGRICULTURE IN LESS DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES
Shifting Cultivation
➔ Also known as SLASH-AND-BURN
agriculture
➔ done in low latitudes
➔ The farmers will first clear off all plant life
and rubbish and then bum it.
➔ clears the land while adding nutrients to the
soil.
➔ Land
➔ could be used for several years until it runs
out of nutrients, in which case the farmers
will then move on to another area and repeat
the process until they get to return to the land
they left.
What are the DISADVANTAGES of it?
Pastoral Nomadism
➔ The animals are domesticated, unlike the
herds that the hunters and gatherers follow.
other domesticated animals they use for food
Two other popular types of agriculture widely
practiced in LDCs; these are intensive subsistence
where wet rice dominates and intensive
subsistence where wet rice does not dominate.
These methods are used in densely populated regions.
Wheat Cultivation
➔ Wet-rice dominant intensive agriculture
means that wet rice is the product.
Wet-rice Cultivation
➔ Farming in these places is intensive because
the land to be cultivated is smaller and must
be used to its fullest potential. Since the land
is small, animals are not used for farming. All
work is done manually.
Intensive subsistence agriculture where wet
rice is not dominant produces mainly barley and
wheat, just like what is done in the interior of India
and northeast China. In contrast, wet-rice dominant
intensive subsistence agriculture is mostly done in
other southeastern regions of Asia.
AGRICULTURE IN MORE DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES
➔ use more technologically advanced
agricultural methods that generate higher
yields.
➔ only a small percentage of the population
engages in it.
➔ Farmers use machinery extensively to
cultivate large farms.
➔ output is sold to processes, and farming is
usually integrated with other businesses.
THE VON THUNEN MODEL
➔ example of a model that is used in agriculture.
➔ shows which crops should be planted and the
best location to grow them to maximize
profits.
➔ utilizes a set of rules to determine which crops
should be produced, given the marketplace's
location.
➔ developed during the early 19th century by a
skilled farmer who was also an economist; his
name was Johann Heinrich von Thünen
(1783-1850).

THE GREEN REVOLUTION
➔ describes the transformation of agricultural
practices, which started in Mexico in the
1940s.
➔ It was picked up worldwide by the 1950s and
1960s.
➔ Norman Borlaug, an American scientist who
was interested in agriculture who started the
Green Revolution.
➔ researched in Mexico to develop a new
variety of wheat that is disease resistant and
high yield.
➔ Fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
In an economic structure, jobs fall into three
categories:
A. The primary sector includes activities that
directly extract materials from Earth through
agriculture and sometimes by mining, fishing,
and forestry.
B. The secondary sector includes manufacturers
that process, transform, and assemble raw
materials into useful products and industries
that fabricate manufactured goods into
finished consumer goods.
C. The tertiary sector involves providing goods
and services to people in exchange for
payment, such as retailing, banking, law,
education, and government (Rubenstein,
2016).
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
● refers to the shift from an agrarian and
handicraft economy to one based on the
machine manufacturing industry.
SUMMARY POINTS
Britain , 18th Century and Arnold Toynbee
(1852-83)
● define Britain's economic development from
1760= to 1840. Since Toynbee's time, the
term has been used more generally (The
Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica).
Before the Industrial Revolution, the
industry was geographically dispersed across the
landscape. People created agricultural equipment and
household tools in their own homes or procured them
in their village. Home-based manufacturing was then
known as the cottage industry system (Rubenstein,
2016).
Series of improvements that transformed
manufacturing
IRON
➔ The first industry to benefit from Watt's steam
engine was the iron tool industry.
➔ The usefulness of iron had been known for
centuries, but it was challenging to produce
because ovens had to be continuously heated,
which was difficult before the steam engine.
TRANSPORTATION
➔ First canals and then railroads enabled
factories to attract large numbers of workers,
bring in bulky materials like coal and iron ore,
and ship finished goods to consumers' textiles.
TEXTILE PRODUCTION
➔ was transformed from a dispersed cottage
industry to a full factory system during the
late eighteenth century.
➔ In 1768, Richard Arkwright, a barber, and
wigmaker in Preston, England, invented
machines to untangle cotton before spinning.
CHEMICALS
➔ The chemical industry was created to bleach
and dye cloth.
➔ In 1746, John Roebuck and Samuel Garbett
established a factory to bleach cotton with
sulfuric acid obtained from burning coal.
FOOD PROCESSING
➔ In 1810, French confectioner Nicolas Appert
started canning food In glass bottles sterilized
in boiling water.
 ➔ Canned food was essential to feed the factory
workers who no longer lived on farms
(Rubenstein, 2016).
DIFFUSION OF THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
● did not spread as quickly as expected to other
parts of Europe due to political instability.
● The Napoleonic Wars and the French
Revolution significantly slowed the spread of
new technologies.
● North America was also beleaguered by
political upheaval during this time, so it took
even longer for them to adopt these
technologies.
● It was only after the Revolutionary War that
the Industrial Revolution's impact was felt in
the United States. But once it did, significant
changes took place from the East Coast to the
Midwest.
WHAT ARE 4 ECONOMIC FACTORS?
WEBER’S INDUSTRIAL LOCATION MODEL
➔ Industrial location is usually explained
through one influential economic geography
theory that uses both the situation and site
factors called the Least Cost Theory, created
by Alfred Weber (1868-1958), a German
economic geographer. The model is intended
to minimize three costs: transportation, labor,
and agglomeration.
SITUATION FACTORS AND SITE FACTORS
➔ A company ordinarily faces two geographic
costs: Situation factors cover the
transportation of materials to the factory and
back.
➔ Site factors are the results of the unique
characteristics of a location.
WEBER’S LOCATION TRIANGLE
Weber regarded transportation costs as the
most important factor to consider in deciding where
to locate an industry. The bulk-reducing industry is
an industry that needs bulky and heavy materials, but
the final product is lighter. Bulk-reducing industries
should be located near the source of its materials.
Hence, copper industries that use bulky and heavy
raw copper but produce light refined copper are
usually situated near copper mines.
BULK-GAINING INDUSTRIES
LABOR COST
➔ The second factor in Weber's least cost theory
is labor costs. Companies need people to work
in their factories, and the cheaper the labor
they can get, the better. So, they will put up
factories in places where they could get the
most inexpensive labor.
AGGLOMERATION
➔ or the clustering of similar industries. When
related industries are located near each other,
they can offer assistance to each other through
pooled services, facilities, and talents. They
can even save on the transportation of
manufactured inputs.
THE TERTIARY SECTOR:
SERVICES
● refers to activities that satisfy a human want
or need in exchange for money.
MARKET AREA SERVICES
MARKET
● refers to a unit confined to a specific location
intended to serve people living within its
vicinity. The area serviced by a market is
known as the market area or hinterland.
RANGE Range - The maximum distance people are willing to
● Means "the maximum distance people are travel to use a service.
willing to travel to use a service" (Rubenstein, Threshold - The minimum number of people needed
2002). to support a service (Rubenstein, 2016).
THRESHOLD
● "the minimum number of people needed to
support a service" (Rubenstein, 2002).
TYPES OF SERVICES
CONSUMER SERVICE
● A service that primarily meets individual
consumers' needs, including retail, education,
health, and leisure services.
THE ECONOMIC BASE
BUSINESS SERVICE
➔ An economic base has two principal elements:
● A service that meets mostly the needs of other
primary industries and nonbasic industries.
businesses, including professional, financial,
The basic industries produce products sold to
and transportation services.
or bring in income from people who are not
PUBLIC SERVICES
from the local market. These are big items
● A service offered by the government to
like cars or tourist attractions.
provide security and protection for citizens
➔ The nonbasic industries meet the people's
and businesses (Rubenstein, 2017).
needs locally, like grocery stores, retail stores,
CENTRAL PLACE THEORY
utilities, education, Etc.
➔ was first proposed in the 1930s by German
geographer Walter Christaller, based on his
research study in southern Germany UNIT 9
(Rubenstein, 2016). The Geography of Resources and
➔ The Central Place Theory helps determine the Environmental Impacts
most profitable location for a consumer Earth has a bounty of natural resources
service. (Rubenstein, 2016). available for human needs. But when
industrialization surged, it caused rapid consumption
and scarcity of our natural resources. Adding also to
the problem is the improper waste disposal that
causes pollution.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Fossil Fuel
➔ is an energy source that was formed from the
residue of plants and animals buried millions
A central place is surrounded by a market area
of years ago (Rubenstein, 2016).
with a range and a threshold (Rubenstein, 2016).
➔ Fossil fuels are not distributed evenly. Some
The central place - A market center for exchanging
regions are well endowed with one or more
services by people attracted from the surrounding
fossil fuels, whereas other regions have little.
area.
The uneven distribution of fossil fuels partly
Market area - The area surrounding a central
reflects how fossil fuels form:
place from which people are attracted to use the
Coal
place’s goods and services (also known as
➔ Coal formed in tropical locations, in lush,
hinterland).
swampy areas that are full of plants. The slow
movement of Earth's drifting continents 250
 million years ago caused the tropical swamps
to relocate to the midlatitudes.
➔ As a result, today's main coal reserves are in
mid-latitude countries rather than in the
tropics. China produces nearly one-half of the
world's coal, other developing countries
one-fourth, and developed countries
(primarily the United States) the remaining
one-fourth.
Petroleum
➔ Petroleum formed millions of years ago from
residue deposited on the seafloor. Some still
lie beneath such seas as the Persian Gulf and
the North Sea, but other reserves are located
beneath underwater land millions of years
ago.
➔ Russia and Saudi Arabia together supply
one-fourth of the world's petroleum, other
developing countries (primarily in Southwest
and Central Asia) one-half, and developed
countries (mainly the United States) the
remaining one fourth.
Natural Gas
➔ Like petroleum, natural gas formed millions
of years ago from sediment deposited on the
seafloor. One-third of natural gas production
is supplied by Russia and Southwest Asia,
one-third by other developing regions, and
one-third by developed countries (primarily
the United States) (Rubenstein, 2017).
Proven Reserves
● The number of resources remaining in
discovered deposits (Rubenstein,2017).
Potential Reserves
● The amount of a resource in deposits is not
yet identified but thought to exist
(Rubenstein, 2017).
ENERGY ALTERNATIVES
Nonrenewable Energy
➔ resources form so slowly that for practical
purposes, they cannot be renewed. Examples
are the three fossil fuels that currently supply
most of the world’s energy needs.
Renewable Energy
➔ resources have a nearly unlimited supply and
are not depleted when used by people. Water,
wind, and the sun provide sources of
renewable energy (Rubenstein, 2017).
TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
RESOURCES
Hydroelectric Power
● Generating electricity from the movement of
water is called hydroelectric power
(Rubenstein, 2017).
Wind Power
● has more tremendous potential for increased
use because only a small portion of the
resource has been harnessed (Rubenstein,
2017).
Solar Energy
● The ultimate renewable resource for
sustainable development is solar energy
supplied by the Sun (Rubenstein, 2017).
POLLUTION
Air Pollution
➔ refers to the concentration of trace substances
at a greater level than occurs in average air.
These concentrations of trace gases in the air
can damage property and adversely affect the
health of people, other animals, and plants.
➔ Most air pollution is generated from factories
and power plants, as well as from motor
vehicles.
Factories and power plants produce sulfur
dioxides and solid particulates, primarily from
burning coal. Burning petroleum in motor vehicles
produces carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and
nitrogen oxides.
― RUBENSTEIN,2017
RECYCLING AND REMANUFACTURING
Water Pollution
● originates from a specific point, such as a pipe
from a wastewater treatment plant
(Rubenstein, 2017).
Sanitary Landfill
● It is a place to deposit solid waste, where a
layer of earth is bulldozed over garbage each
day to reduce emissions of gasses and odors
from the decaying trash, minimize fires, and
discourage vermin (Rubenstein, 2017).
Recycling exceptionally efficient, producing virtually no
● is the separation, collection, processing, waste or unwanted by-products.
marketing, and reuse of unwanted material. ➔ Though unbroken clear glass is valuable,
Remanufacturing mixed-color glass is nearly worthless, and
● means the rebuilding of a product to broken glass is hard to sort (Rubenstein,
specifications of the original manufactured 2017).
product using a combination of reused,
repaired, and new parts. UNIT 10
● Remanufacturing contributes to a more THE ETHNIC AND POLITICAL
sustainable environment. The principal
GEOGRAPHY
challenge is to increase its economic
Ethnicity is vital in geography because ethnic
sustainability.
groups are often bound to distinct places. Geography
Paper
and political science are fundamentally linked
➔ Most types of paper can be recycled.
because political power essentially integrates specific
Newspapers have been recycled profitably for
spaces. Whether political power is despotic or
decades, and recycling of other papers,
democratic, it can affect people within its jurisdiction
especially computer paper, is growing.
and act as agents of the political body when
➔ Rapid increases in virgin paper pulp prices
interacting with other political entities.
have stimulated the construction of more
How does race differ from ethnicity?
plants capable of using waste paper. The key
Race
to recycling is collecting large quantities of
● refers to sharing a common genetic ancestor,
clean, well-sorted, uncontaminated, dry paper.
which means it has a basis in biology.
Plastic
Generally, race is classified based on physical
➔ The plastics industry has developed a system
traits such as skin color.
of numbers marked inside triangles. Symbols
Ethnicity
2 (milk jugs), 4 (shopping bags), and 5 (such
● Rubenstein (2016) describes ethnicity as an
as yogurt containers) are considered to be
identity with a group of people who share a
safest for recycling.
particular homeland (hearth)'s cultural
➔ The plastics in symbols 3 (such as food wrap),
tradition.
6 (Styrofoam), and 7 (such as iPad cases) may
Bear in mind that culture is learned and
contain carcinogens. Symbol 1 (soda and
shared among a group and is habitually connected to
water bottles) can allow bacteria to
certain places. So, the critical difference between race
accumulate.
and ethnicity is that race has its basis on genetics,
Aluminum
while ethnicity is based on culture.
➔ The principal source of recycled aluminum is
Some examples to clarify the major distinctions
beverage containers. Aluminum cans began to
The biological race categorization black
replace glass bottles for beer during the 1950s
(based on skin color) has thousands of different
and soft drinks during the 1960s.
ethnicities, including African-American, Jamaican,
➔ Aluminum scrap is readily accepted for
Zulu, Hutu, Tutsi, and Haitian. Every one of these
recycling, although other metals are rarely
ethnic groups possesses a remarkable history and set
accepted.
of cultural characteristics. Using the label black does
Glass
not tell us a lot about these ethnicities' specific
➔ Glass can be used repeatedly with no loss in
cultural backgrounds, which could have been more
quality and is 100 percent recyclable. The
informative.
process of creating new glass from old is
 The biological race categorization white also
has thousands of different ethnicities, including
German, French, Indian (from India), and Iraqi (of
various ethnicities). Each of them has a unique
culture.
The biological race categorization Native
Americans has thousands of ethnic groups like the
Sioux, Inuit, Navajo, Hopi, and Mayan. These ethnic
groups speak different languages, eat different kinds
of foods, have different religious beliefs, and reside
in different housing types.
The examples given show that race is a social
construction. The concept of race is vital to
geographers because many societies opt to categorize
people based on skin color. This classification is
manifested spatially based on where people live,
attend school, spend leisure time, and assemble.
The study of ethnicity entails knowledge of
the distribution of ethnicities and ethnic groups
interaction. Likewise, granted that many political
systems are built on the areas occupied by ethnic
groups, the interaction of ethnicity and politics is
particularly interesting to geographers.
Political geography
Political geography covers how the world is
organized into sovereign states, the spatial features of
those states, and how these states interact on a global
scale.
State
● describes a political area or unit and is also
known as a country. A state has a ruling
political party that has control over both its
internal and foreign relations.
Nation
● means a group of people from the same
region, who have similar beliefs and
characteristics, and are legally attached to a
country.
City-States
● were self-governed cities that were often
shielded by walls, moats, and surrounding
areas.
Nation-State
● comprises a group of people who have similar
beliefs, customs, and values and who coexist
within a parallel political space.
Sovereignty
➔ describes a state's autonomy from other
political powers.
➔ For example, Angola, located on the west
coast of Africa, has now gained control over
its internal affairs. This was not the case for
so many years when the Portuguese
government administered Angolan internal
matters.
Colonialism
● Rubenstein (2002) defines colonialism as "the
effort by one country to establish settlements
and impose its political, economic, and
cultural principles on such territory."
Imperialism
● "control of territory already occupied and
organized by an indigenous society." -
Rubenstein (2002)
Boundaries
● is an invisible line separating two states.
Boundaries are of two types: Physical and
Cultural boundaries.
Physical Boundaries
● usually mountains, rivers, or oceans that
separate many states and regions.
Cultural Boundaries
● separate peoples of different ethnic groups or
religions. This type of boundary causes more
conflicts, just like what happened in the
former Yugoslavia.
Shape of countries
The country’s shape is a result of the
demarcation of boundaries.
There are five basic shapes:
➢ Compact
➢ Prorupted
➢ Elongated
➢ Fragmented
➢ Perforated