ENG 203

ACADEMIC ENGLISH

LECTURE NOTES
ON ACADEMIC WRITING
IN ENGLISH

PREPARED BY CAN GÜR

GAZİ UNIVERSITY
ANKARA, 2021

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 CAUSE – EFFECT

When you use a cause-effect method of development, this will often mean that you are
supporting your topic sentence by listing or enumerating. What you should remember,
however, is that in a cause-effect development, there is always a causal relationship between
the topic sentence and the supporting sentences, or even between major supporting
sentences and minor ones. Depending on the topic, there are three patterns of cause-effect
development:

(1) Focus on Effect: In this kind of paragraph, the aim is to explain the effects (results) of
an event or situation.
E.g. Effects of vitamin A on human health (multiple effects resulting from one cause).

(2) Focus on Cause: In this kind of paragraph, the aim is to explain the causes (reasons) of
an event or situation.
E.g. Reasons why cities are becoming so crowded (multiple causes leading to one effect ).

(3) Chain Reaction: Sometimes an event causes something to happen, and that situation
leads to another event, and it causes another event to happen. This is called the chain
reaction or domino effect.
E.g. Smoking is the main reason for the diseases of the heart and circulation (One main
cause resulting in a chain reaction to one main effect)

Note: There may be several causes or effects of a situation. However, in a student

paragraph, it is advisable to keep the number of major points to 2 or 3.

Overall Structure for

(1) Focus on Effect and (2) Focus on Cause

Topic sentence: topic + (enumerator) + controlling ideas (names of causes or effects)

Major 1: cause 1 or effect 1
Minor(s): examples/details
Major 2: cause 2 or effect 2
Minor(s): examples/details
Major 3: cause 3 or effect 3
Minor(s): examples/details
Concluding sentence: restatement of the topic sentence

Overall Structure for (3) Chain Reaction

Topic sentence: topic + (enumerator) + controlling ideas (names of causes or effects)

Major 1: MAIN CAUSE causes effect 1
Major 2: Effect 1 causes effect 2
Major 3: Effect 2 causes effect 3
Major 3: Effect 3 causes MAIN EFFECT
Concluding sentence: restatement of the topic sentence

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 1. Focus on Effect

This means that your supporting sentences become a list of effects (what a certain situation
has lead to or has resulted in). There are one cause and multiple effects with the following
organization:
Overall Structure

Topic sentence: topic + (enumerator) + controlling ideas (names of cause and/or effects)
Major 1: Effect 1
Minor(s): examples/details
Major 2: Effect 2
Minor(s): examples/details
Major 3: Effect 3
Minor(s): examples/details
Concluding sentence: restatement of the topic sentence

USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES

A- Introducing the Topic Sentence: Topic Sentence for a cause-effect paragraph should
give the topic (cause/effect), the enumerator and the controlling ideas (names of
causes/effects) where possible. Check the following examples:

1. Vitamin A has multiple effects on human health (, such as treating skin problems, treating
eye disorders and fighting infections).

2. There are three main effects of vitamin A on human health: treating skin problems, treating
eye disorders and fighting infections).

3. Vitamin A leads to multiple effects on human health (, such as treating skin problems,
treating eye disorders and fighting infections).

4. Treating skin problems, treating eye disorders and fighting infections are the most striking
effects of vitamin A.

B - Introducing the Effects (major ideas)

There are several ways of introducing the major ideas:

1. Listing signals

To begin with,
First(ly), tablets with vitamin A have been used effectively in treating
First of all, skin problems.
Initially,

Second(ly),
Next,
Then,
After that,
vitamin A is a successful way of treating eye disorders.
Afterwards,
Subsequently,
Later,

Finally,
vitamin A plays an integral role in fighting infections.
Last(ly),

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2. Listing signal + Enumerator

One effect
One of the most important effects is that tablets with vitamin A have been used
The first effect effectively in treating skin problems.
*(effect is enumerator)

The second effect

The next effect
The other effect
is that vitamin A is a successful way of treating eye disorders.
Another effect
Still another effect
Yet another effect

The last effect

is that vitamin A plays an integral role in fighting infections.
The final effect

3. Ascending Order

most important
is that vitamin A plays an integral role
But by far the most essential effect
in fighting infections.
(etc.)
– and most vitamin A plays an integral role in fighting
Finally,
importantly – infections.

4. Descending Order

The most important

is that vitamin A plays an integral role in fighting
The most essential effect
infections.
(etc.)

5. Name of the effect

Vitamin A is a successful way of treating eye disorders.

6. Name of the effect with listing signal (+ enumerator)

Treating eye disorders is the second effect of Vitamin A.

C - Supporting the Causes/Effects (minor ideas)

Examples, details, description, facts, statistics and testimony are the basic
techniques that are used to support the major ideas. To explain reasons and results, we
use: As a result / Therefore / Consequently / So / Since / As / Because / lead to / result in /
result from / contribute to… etc.
However, one or more of the following useful language structures can be used to
support the major ideas:

1- Cause-Effect, 2- Opposition/ Concessive Contrast (Unexpected Result) 3- Purpose

4- Time 5- Exceptions 6- Additions 7- Expanding 8- Sequencing (Listing Signals)
9- Summarizing 10- Classification 11- Giving Examples 12- Similarity
13- Difference And Direct Contrast 14- Condition 15- Description Of An Object
16- Language Patterns For Argumentative Essays

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 Brainstorm for Model Paragraph

Cause Effects
treating skin problems
treat acne - clear up boils - heal ulcers - remove warts
treating eye disorders
Vitamin A
night blindness - blurred vision - glaucoma - conjunctivitis
fighting infections
communicable diseases, such as colds and measles

Outline

Topic sentence: Scientific studies have shown that vitamin A may have beneficial effects in
clearing up skin problems, treating eye disorders, and fighting infection.
Major 1: treating skin problems
Minor(s): treat acne - clear up boils - heal ulcers - remove warts
Major 2: treating eye disorders
Minor(s): night blindness - blurred vision - glaucoma - conjunctivitis
Major 3: fighting infections
Minor(s): communicable diseases, such as colds and measles
Concluding sentence: In conclusion, these many beneficial effects demonstrate the
importance of encouraging people to take regular dietary supplements of vitamin A.

Model Paragraph

Scientific studies have shown that vitamin A may have beneficial

effects in clearing up skin problems, treating eye disorders, and fighting infection. To begin
with, tablets with vitamin A have been used effectively in treating skin problems like acne.
When applied directly on the skin, vitamin A can also clear up boils and heal ulcers. Injections
of vitamin A have even been used to remove warts from people’s skin. Vitamin A is a
successful way of treating such eye disorders as night blindness and blurred vision. In
addition, therapeutic dosages of vitamin A are used to treat glaucoma and conjunctivitis
(inflammation of the eyelids). Finally, – and most importantly – vitamin A plays an integral role
in fighting infections. Because it strengthens cell walls, vitamin A protects the mucous
membrane from invading bacteria. Furthermore, dosages of vitamin A have shortened the
duration of communicable diseases, such as colds and measles. In conclusion, these many
beneficial effects demonstrate the importance of encouraging people to take regular dietary
supplements of vitamin A.

2. Focus on Cause

This means that your supporting sentences become a list of causes (reasons or
explanations why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did). There are
multiple causes and one result. In this pattern, the organization is as follows:

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 Overall Structure

Topic sentence: topic + (enumerator) + controlling ideas (names of effect and/or causes)
Major 1: cause 1
Minor(s): examples/details
Major 2: cause 2
Minor(s): examples/details
Major 3: cause 3
Minor(s): examples/details
Concluding sentence: restatement of the topic sentence

USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES

A- Introducing the Topic Sentence: Topic Sentence for a cause-effect paragraph should
give the topic (cause/effect), the enumerator and the controlling ideas (names of
causes/effects) where possible. Check the following examples:

1. Getting crowded of Tokyo, Istanbul and Shanghai has two main reasons: economic and
socio-cultural factors.

2. Getting crowded of Tokyo, Istanbul and Shanghai results from two main reasons: economic
and socio-cultural factors.

3. There are two main reasons why Tokyo, Istanbul and Shanghai are becoming so crowded:
economic and socio-cultural factors.

4. Economic and socio-cultural factors are the two main reasons why Tokyo, Istanbul and
Shanghai are becoming so crowded.

B - Introducing the Causes (major ideas)

There are several ways of introducing the major ideas:

1. Listing signals

To begin with,
First(ly), there are economic reasons having an important role in the huge
First of all, increase in urban populations.
Initially,

Second(ly),
Next,
Then,
After that, there are economic reasons having an important role in the huge
Afterwards, increase in urban populations.
Subsequently,
Later,

Finally, there are socio-cultural factors having an important role in the

Last(ly), huge increase in urban populations.

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2. Listing signal + Enumerator

One reason
is that there are economic factors.
One of the most important reasons
why these cities are becoming so crowded is
The first reason
economic factors.
*(reason is enumerator)

The second reason

The next reason
The other reason is that there are economic factors.
Another reason why these cities are becoming so crowded is economic factors.
Still another reason
Yet another reason

The last reason is that there are socio-cultural factors.

The final reason why these cities are becoming so crowded is socio-cultural
factors

3. Ascending Order

is that there are socio-cultural factors.

most important
But by far the reason why these cities are becoming so
most essential
crowded is socio-cultural factors.
there are socio-cultural factors having an
– and most
Finally, important role in the huge increase in urban
importantly –
populations.

4. Descending Order

is that there are economic factors.

The most important
reason why these cities are becoming so crowded is
The most essential
economic factors.

5. Name of the reason

Socio-cultural factors have an important role in the huge increase in urban

populations.

6. Name of the reason with listing signal (+ enumerator)

Another reason in the huge increase in urban populations is the socio-cultural

factors.

C - Supporting the Causes/Effects (minor ideas)

Examples, details, description, facts, statistics and testimony are the basic
techniques that are used to support the major ideas. To explain reasons and results, we
use: As a result / Therefore / Consequently / So / Since / As / Because/ lead to / result in /
result from / contribute to… etc.

However, one or more of the following useful language structures can be used to
support the major ideas:

1- Cause-Effect, 2- Opposition/ Concessive Contrast (Unexpected Result) 3- Purpose

4- Time 5- Exceptions 6- Additions 7- Expanding 8- Sequencing (Listing Signals)
9- Summarizing 10- Classification 11- Giving Examples 12- Similarity
13- Difference And Direct Contrast 14- Condition 15- Description Of An Object
16- Language Patterns For Argumentative Essays

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 Brainstorm for Model paragraph

Causes Effect
Economic reasons
1. cities are engines of development - many job opportunities
2. Tokyo motor in the 60s and 70s – people moved to Tokyo
for their economic security
Huge increase in the
Socio-cultural reasons
population
1. education – better universities – students after graduate
work there
2. personal – young people see custom and tradition oriented
areas obstacle to their freedom

Outline

Topic sentence: There are two main reasons why Tokyo, Istanbul, Shanghai and other cities
are becoming so crowded: economic and socio-cultural.
Major 1: economic reasons
Minor 1. cities are engines of development - many job opportunities
Minor 2. Tokyo motor in the 60s and 70s – people moved to Tokyo for their economic
security
Major 2: socio-cultural reasons
Minor 1. education – better universities – students after graduate work there
Minor 2. personal – young people see custom and tradition oriented areas obstacle to
their freedom

Model paragraph

Why are Cities Becoming Overcrowded?

There are two main reasons why cities, such as Tokyo, Istanbul and Shanghai are
becoming so crowded. The primary cause of cities becoming so crowded is economic. As a
country develops, its cities become the engines of development, and this leads to many job
opportunities being available in these areas. For example, Tokyo was the motor for Japan’s
rapid economic development in the 1960’s and 70’s; as a result, people moved to Tokyo
because they could find employment and establish economic security for themselves and their
families there. This resulted in the rapid increase in the population of Tokyo. Another factor in
the huge increase in urban populations is the socio-cultural factor. Thousands of people
migrate to the cities not only for jobs but also for educational and personal reasons. The better
universities are always located in big cities; hence, this attracts thousands of students every
year, and these students stay on and work in the city after they graduate. Moreover, young
people will move to the city as the villages and rural areas are more custom and tradition
oriented. Therefore, young people believe this is an obstacle to their personal freedom.

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3. Chain Reaction
Frequently, in developing a causal relationship you will find that the effect of one
situation becomes the cause of the next. When this relationship exists, we have what is
called a chain reaction. In other words, the first event leads to or influences the second, the
second leads to or influences the third, and so on.

Overall Structure

Topic sentence: topic + (enumerator9 + controlling ideas (names of causes or effects)

Major 1: MAIN CAUSE causes effect 1
Major 2: Effect 1 causes effect 2
Major 3: Effect 2 causes effect 3
Major 4: Effect 3 causes MAIN EFFECT
Concluding sentence: restatement of the topic sentence

USEFUL LANGUAGE STRUCTURES

A- Introducing the Topic Sentence: Topic Sentence for a chain reaction paragraph should
give the topic (main cause/and final effect), the enumerator and the controlling ideas where
possible.
E.g. The impact of smoking is an established risk factor for the diseases of the heart and
circulation, such as ischemic stroke and cerebral hemorrhage.

B - Introducing the Causes/Effects (major ideas)

Usually, name of the cause or effect is used to introduce the major ideas.

E.g. These contracted blood vessels result in slowing the circulation.

C - Supporting the Causes/Effects (minor ideas)

Examples, details, description, facts, statistics and testimony are the basic
techniques that are used to support the major ideas. To explain reasons and results, we
use: As a result / Therefore / Consequently / So / Since / As / Because/ lead to / result in /
result from / contribute to… etc.

However, one or more of the following useful language structures can also be used to
support the major ideas:

1- Cause-Effect, 2- Opposition/ Concessive Contrast (Unexpected Result) 3- Purpose

4- Time 5- Exceptions 6- Additions 7- Expanding 8- Sequencing (Listing Signals)
9- Summarizing 10- Classification 11- Giving Examples 12- Similarity
13- Difference And Direct Contrast 14- Condition 15- Description Of An Object
16- Language Patterns For Argumentative Essays

Brainstorm for Model Paragraph

Effect 1 Effect 2 Effect 3 Effect 4 Effect 5

MAIN CAUSE FINAL EFFECT
(Cause 2) (Cause 3) (Cause 4) (Cause 5) (Cause 6)
Tobacco
The blood Hardening Less blood CEREBRAL
reaches slowing the
SMOKING vessels of the reaches HEMORRHAGE/
the blood circulation
contract arteries the brain A "STROKE."
stream

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 Outline

Topic sentence: According to medical scientists, the impact of smoking is an established

risk factor for the diseases of the heart and circulation, such as ischemic stroke and cerebral
hemorrhage.
Major 1: SMOKING – tobacco in the bloodstream
Major 2: tobacco in the bloodstream - blood vessels contract
Major 3: blood vessels contract - slowing the circulation
Major 4: slowing the circulation - hardening of the arteries
Major 5: hardening of the arteries - less blood reaches the brain
Major 6: less blood reaches the brain – STROKE / CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE

Model Paragraph

According to medical scientists, the impact of smoking is an established risk factor for
the diseases of the heart and circulation, such as ischemic stroke and cerebral hemorrhage. It
has been found that the presence of tobacco in the bloodstream causes blood vessels to
contract. These contracted blood vessels result in slowing the circulation, which eventually
leads to hardening of the arteries. As the arteries stiffen, less blood reaches the brain, and the
end result of this slowdown is a cerebral hemorrhage, commonly referred to as a "stroke."

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