THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND

MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES (CNMS)
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

FS 0111:
General Chemistry

LECTURE 4

Instructor : Joseph Mnilago Fugo

Phone : +255 625 973 343 / +255 755 820 493
Email : fugo_dox@yahoo.co.uk
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 The Physical States of Matter:
Distinguishing gases from liquids and solids.
 Gas volume changes significantly with pressure.
 Solid and liquid volumes are not greatly affected by
pressure.
 Gas volume changes significantly with temperature.
 Gases expand when heated and shrink when cooled.
 The volume change is 50 to 100 times greater for gases
than for liquids and solids.
 Gases flow very freely.
 Gases have relatively low densities.
 Gases form a solution in any proportions.
 Gases are freely miscible with each other.
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Characteristics of the Three States of Matter

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 Physical Behaviour of Gases:
The physical behaviour of a gas can
be described completely by the four
variables:
1. volume (V),
2. Pressure (P),
3. Temperature (T), and
4. Amount (number of moles, n).

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 1. Volume (V)
A gas expands uniformly to fill any
container in which it is placed. This
means that the volume of a gas is the
volume of its container.
Volumes of gases can be expressed in
liters, cubic decimeters, cubic
centimeters, or cubic meters:
1 L = 1 dm3 = 1 x 103 cm3 = 1 x 10-3 m3

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 2. Pressure (P)
 Pressure is defined as force per unit area. The SI unit of
pressure is the pascal (Pa), the pressure exerted by a force
of one newton on an area of one square meter. Atmospheric
pressure is about 105 Pa or 100 kilopascals (kPa).
 The pressure units used most frequently are:
 the atmosphere (atm), defined by the relation
 1 atm = 1.01325 x 105 Pa
 the millimeter of mercury (mmHg), the pressure
exerted by a column of mercury one millimeter high. A
column of mercury 760 mm high exerts a pressure of one
atmosphere. The unit mm Hg is often called the torr.
 1 standard atmosphere = 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760
torr = 1.01325 × 105 Nm-2
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 3. Temperature (T)
The temperature of a gas is ordinarily
measured using a thermometer marked in
degrees Celsius.
However, in any calculation involving the
physical behavior of gases, temperatures
must be expressed on the Kelvin scale (K).
The formula for converting between 0C and
K is:
 K = 0C + 273.15
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 4. Amount (n)
Most commonly, the amount of matter in a
gas sample is expressed in terms of the
number of moles (n). In some cases, the
mass is given instead.
These two quantities are related through the
molar mass.
n = mass ÷ molar mass
NOTE: The four variables given above are
interdependent. Any one of them can be
determined by measuring the other three.
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 Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions

STP or standard temperature and pressure

 specifies a pressure of 1 atm (760 torr)
and a temperature of 0°C ( 273.15 K).
The standard molar volume is the volume of
1 mol of an ideal gas at STP.
 Standard molar volume = 22.4141 L or
22.4 L

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 The Gas Laws:
Experience has shown that several properties
of a gas can be related to each other under
certain conditions.
The properties are pressure (P), volume (V),
temperature (T, in kelvins), and amount of
material expressed in moles (n).
These properties and other variables such as
rate of diffusion of any gaseous substance bear
a simple mathematical relationship to each
other. These are collectively called Gas Laws.
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 1. Boyle’s Law:
 Robert Boyle (1627–1691), an Irish physical scientist,
discovered that the volume of a given sample of a gas at a
constant temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure.
This generalization, known as Boyle’s law, applies
approximately to any gas, no matter what its composition. (It
does not apply to liquids or solids.)
 Boyle’s Law states that;
“At constant temperature, the volume occupied by a fixed
amount of gas is inversely proportional to the external
pressure”.
V∝1 or PV = constant
P
Therefore; P1 V1 = P2 V2
 At fixed T and n, P decreases as V increases and vice versa.
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 Graphical illustration of Boyle’s law:

(a) Plot of V versus P (b) Plot of 1/V versus P.

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 2. Charles’s Law:
 In 1787, 125 years after Boyle published the law that
bears his name, J. A. C. Charles (1746–1823) a French
physicist discovered a law relating the volume of a given
sample of gas to its absolute temperature.
 Charles’s Law states that;
“At constant pressure, the volume occupied by a fixed
amount of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
(Kelvin) temperature”.

Therefore;

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 3. The Combined Gas Law:
 Boyle‘s and Charles‘ laws may be merged into one law,
called the combined gas law, expressed in equation form
as derived below:
 From Boyle‘ law: V∝1/𝑃 (T constant)
 From Charles‘ law: V ∝𝑇 (P constant)

 That is, for a given sample of a gas, PV/T remains

constant, and therefore
(a given sample of a gas)

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 The Combined Gas Law Cont…
 This expression is a mathematical statement of the
combined (or general) gas law.
 In words, the volume of given sample of a gas is
inversely proportional to its pressure and directly
proportional to its absolute temperature.
 Note that;
 If the temperature is constant, T1 = T2, then the
expression reduces to the equation for Boyle‘s law,
P1V1 = P2V2.
 Alternatively, if the pressure is constant, P1 = P2, the
expression is equivalent to Charles‘ law, V1/T1 =
V2/T2.
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 Problem 1:
A sample of neon gas has a volume of 396 L and a
pressure of 15.2 atm. What is the volume of the neon if
the pressure is changed to 6.75 atm?
Answer:
Given:
V1 = 396L , V2 = ?
P1 = 15.2atm P2 = 6.75 atm
From Boyle’s Law
P1V1 = P2V2
V2 = (P1V1)/P2 = (15.2atm x 396L)/ 6.75atm
V2 = 892L
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 Problem 2:
If 2.85 L of gas is warmed from 21.8°C to 23.7°C at
constant pressure, what is the new volume?
Answer:
Data given:
V1 = 2.85L V2 = ?
T1 = 21.8 + 273 = 294.8K
T2 = 23.7 + 273 = 296.7K
From Charles’s Law
V1/T1 = V2/T2
V2 = (V1T2)/T1 = 2.85L x 296.7K)/294.8K
V2 = 2.87 L

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 Problem 3:
A 3.78 L sample of carbon dioxide gas at -35.0°C has a pressure of 15.0 atm.
Calculate the temperature in °C at which this same size sample would occupy
a volume of 71.2 L at a pressure of 0.987 atm.
Answer:
Data given:
V1 = 3.78L T1 = -35.0 + 273 = 238K P1 = 15.0atm
V2 = 71.2L T2 = ? P2 = 0.987atm
From combined gas Law
(P1V1) = (P2V2)
T1 T2
T2 = P2V2T1 = 0.987atm x 71.2L x 238K
P1 V 1 15atm x 3.78L
T2 = 295K
°C = 295 – 273 = 22 °C
T2 = 22 °C
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 Problem 4:
Calculate the volume of a sample of gas originally
occupying 908 mL at 717 torr and 20°C after its
temperature and pressure are changed to 72°C and 1.07
atm.
Solution:
In attempting this problem, the volume can be stated in
millilitres in both states. The pressure can be stated in
atmospheres in both but the temperature must be in
kelvins in both states.
Data provided
V1 = 908 mL

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Solution 4 Cont…

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 4. Gay-Lussac's Law
 Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac observed that temperature
is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
particles. As the particles of a substance move faster,
the substance‘s temperature increases.
 The particles bump into each other and the sides of
the container more often where the volume is closed
and constant (closed container).
 Therefore, the Gay-Lussac law of gases states that;
“At constant volume, the pressure of a fixed mass of
a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature”.
 The law is expressed mathematically as follows:
𝑃∝𝑇 (Constant volume)
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 Gay-Lussac's Law

 A more useful form of the law can be express as:

 Where P1 and T1 refer to the original pressure and

temperature, P2 and T2 refer to the pressure and
temperature under the new or changed conditions.
Note: in solving or addressing mathematical
problems with this law, the temperature must be
expressed in Kelvin and the pressure in a standard
unit.
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 Example:
10.0 L of a gas is found to exert 97.0 kPa at 25.0°C.
What would be the required temperature (in
Celsius) to change the pressure to standard
pressure?
Solution
Data provided
P1 = 97.0 kPa
T1 = 25.0°C = (25 + 273)K = 298.0 K,
P2 = s.p. = 101.325kPa T2 = ?
Applying and making T2 the subject
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 Solution Cont…

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 5. Avogadro's Law
 The work of the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro
complemented the studies of Boyle, Charles, and
Gay-Lussac. In 1811 he published a hypothesis that
later became a Law.
 This law states that equal volumes of all gases, under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure,
contain the same number of molecule.
Mathematically: V ∝𝑛 (at constant T and P)
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑛

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 6. Dalton's Law
The total pressure in a gas mixture is the sum
of the partial pressures of the individual
components.
The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure of
an individual gas in a gas mixture that
contributes to the total pressure of the mixture.
This is expressed mathematically as:
PTOTAL = PT = P1 + P2 + P3 +…
Dalton's law is often used to determine the
pressure of a gas collected over water.
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 Example:
Hydrogen gas is collected over water at a total
pressure of 95.0kPa. The volume of gas collected is
28.0mL at 25.0°C. Determine the partial pressure of
the hydrogen gas if the water vapor pressure is
3.17kPa.
Solution:
From
PTOT = PH2 + PH2O
95.0kPa = PH2 + 3.17kPa
PH2 = 95.0kPa - 3.17kPa
PH2 = 91.8 kPa
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 8. The Ideal Gas Law
pV = nRT

R is the universal gas constant; the numerical

value of R depends on the units used.
The ideal gas law can also be expressed by the
combined equation:

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 The Ideal Gas Law and Gas Density
The density of a gas is
- directly proportional to its molar mass and
- inversely proportional to its temperature.

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 Example
Find the density (in g/L) of CO2 (g) and the number of
molecules per liter
(a) at STP, and
(b) at room conditions (20°C and 1.00 atm).
Solution:
We can use the molar mass of CO2 to find its density
from the ideal gas equation.
(a) At STP, or 273 K and 1.00 atm:

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 Example Cont…

(b) At room conditions (20°C and 1.00 atm)

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 9. Graham’s Law of Effusion
 Effusion is the process by which a gas under pressure
escapes from one compartment of a container to
another by passing through a small opening.
 In 1832 the Scottish chemist Thomas Graham did
experiments on diffusion and effusion of gases and
came up with Graham’s Law.
 Graham’s law of effusion states that “the rate of
effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the
square root of its molar mass”

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 Graham’s Law of Effusion Cont…
 A lighter gas moves more quickly and therefore has a
higher rate of effusion than a heavier gas at the same T.
 Therefore, under the same conditions of temperature
and pressure, rates of effusion and diffusion for gases
are inversely proportional to the square roots of their
molar masses. Mathematically can be expressed as;

 Where r1 and r2 are the diffusion rates of gases 1 and 2,

and M1 and M2 are their molar masses, respectively.

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 Graham’s Law of Effusion Cont…
 Effusion. Lighter (black) particles effuse faster than
heavier (red) particles.

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 Example
A mixture of helium (He) and methane (CH4) is placed in
an effusion apparatus. Calculate the ratio of their effusion
rates.
Solution:
Data provided
M of CH4 = 16.04 g/mol
M of He = 4.003 g/mol
From the formula;

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 Kinetic Energy and Gas Behavior
At a given T, all gases in a sample have
the same average kinetic energy.

Kinetic energy depends on both the mass

and the speed of a particle.
At the same T, a heavier gas particle
moves more slowly than a lighter one.

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The relationship between molar mass and molecular speed.

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 Ideal and Real Gases:
Any gas that obeys the gas laws at all
temperatures and pressures is called an
ideal or perfect gas.
Hence, the gas equation:
PV = nRT
is applicable to ideal gases only. Real
gases only obey gas laws under normal
conditions of temperature and pressure.
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 Differences between ideal gas and real gases
1. An ideal gas obeys the gas laws at all temperatures
and pressure, while a real gas obeys the gas laws
under normal conditions of temperature and pressure.
2. The actual volume of the molecules of an ideal gas is
negligible compared with the volume of the container,
while the actual volume of the molecules of a real gas
is not negligible i.e. molecules of a real gas occupy
space.
3. In an ideal gas there are no intermolecular attractions
at all temperatures and pressures, while intermolecular
attraction is strong and appreciable in a real gas at
high pressure and low temperature.

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