PSYCHOLOGY 211 : DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY by

Dr (Mrs) Osunde.
UNIT 1 : INTRODUCTION TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUNCTIONING OF SOCIAL SYSTEM,
BEHAVIOUR AND ATTITUDE OF INDIVIDUALS

UNIT 2 : PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY

UNIT 3 : PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

UNIT 4 : THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

UNIT 5 : TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELING (GROUP COUNSELING)

UNIT 6 : ATTITUDE FORMATION AND ATTITUDINAL CHANGE

UNIT 1 :
SOCIAL SYSTEM
The term system implies to an orderly arrangement and interrelationships of parts. In arrangement,
every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The parts are bound by interaction. To understand
the functioning of a system e.g human body.

Social system refers to the orderly arrangement and interrelationship of parts and also the parts bound
by interaction. Social system refers to an orderly arrangement of social interactions based on shared
shared norms and values.

Individuals constitute a social system and each has a place and function to perform within it, in the
process one influences the other, groups are formed.

Social system can also be defined as a plurality of social actors who are engaged in less or stable
interactions. Individuals constitutes the basic interacting units but the interacting unit may be groups or
organisations of individuals within the system. In other words all social organisations are there for a
system since they consist of interacting individuals.

Social system is a comprehensive arrangement. It puts into consideration all the diverse subsystems
such as economics, political, religious, and others.

Also social systems are bound by environment and this differentiates one system from another.

ELEMENTS THAT ARE PREVALENT IN A SOCIAL SYSTEM.

1. FAITH AND KNOWLEDGE: it brings about uniformity in the behaviour. They act as controlling agencies
of different types of human society. The fate is the result of prevalent source and beliefs
2. SENTIMENTS: man does not live by bread alone sentiment has played a major role investing society
with continuity. It is directly linked with the culture of the people.

3. END GOAL OR OBJECTIVE: man is born social and dependence. He has to meet the requirements and
fulfill the obligations. Man and society exist between needs satisfaction and end goal. This determines
the nature of the social system.

4. IDEAS AND NORMS: The society lays down certain norms and ideas for keeping a social system intact
on for determining the various functions of the different needs. These norms prescribe the rules and
regulations on the basis of which individuals or persons may require their cultural goals and aims.

5. STATUS ROLE: every individual in society is functioning. He goes by status true relation. It may come
to the individual by virtue of his birth, by status role of sex, by age.

6. POWER: conflict is a part of social system and other is it’s aim. It is implicit therefore that someone
should be vested the power to punish the guilty and reward those who set an example. The authority
exercising power be differ from group to group.

7. SANCTIONS: it implies confirmation by The superior in authority of the acts done to the subordinates
or the opposition of penalty for infringement of common rights.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL SYSTEM

1. SYSTEM IS CONNECTED WITH THE PLURALITY OF INDIVIDUAL ACTS : a social system cannot be born
as a result of the activity of one individual. It is as a result of the activity of various individuals.

2. Aim and objective: human interactions or activities of the individual actors should not be aimless and
without subjective.

3. Order and pattern among us various constituent units: mere coming together of various constituents
units does not necessarily create a social system. It has to be according to a pattern

4. Functional relationship is the basis of unity: different constituents units have us another to form a
system and this unity is based on function and relation.

5. Physical or environmental aspect of social system: it means that every social system is connected
with a definite geographical area of places, time. In other words means that social system is not the
same at different times places and under different circumstances.

6. Linked with cultural system: social system is also linked with cultural system. It means that cultural
system brings about unity amongst different members of the society.

7. Characteristics of adjustment: social system has the characteristics of adjustments. It is a dynamic

phenomenal which is influenced by changes in the social form. It means that social system shall be
relevant only if it changes according to the change object and needs

8. Order, pattern and balance: social system has the characteristics of pattern of balance. It is not an
integrated role of putting together of different unit. This coming together does not take place in a
random or half hazard places. It is so because different unit of society do not work as independent unit
and they did not exist a vacuum in a social cultural pattern.

UNIT 2:
PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology IS derived from two Greek words “psychi” and “logy” which means mind and study. It is the
study of behaviours of organism should care for cremation and experimentation. It is a scientific study of
human and animal behaviour and its chiefly concerned with why people or animals act or behave as
they do. It is the study of mind and behaviour.

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
1. To describe behaviour

2. To predict; can we predict what when and how people will do things?

3. To explain why people think, feel and act the way they do

4. To control behaviour; can we strengthen positive or change negative behaviour?

WHO IS THE PSYCHOLOGIST?

A psychologist is either someone who has an inductrial or master’s degree in psychology.

PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY

The principal is simply a fundamental rule used to influence action on the part of the individual. There
are four basic principles of psychology;

• The mind is the product of the physical machine which is the brain.

• We are consciously aware of only a small part of our mental activity.

• We constantly modify our behaviour, beliefs and attitudes are calling to what we perceive about the
people around us.

• Experience physically alters the structure and function of the brain.

UNIT 3 :
PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH

An increase in size in many parts of the body simultaneously. Growth usually accompanies age increase
e.g height and weight.

Oladele 1987 : growth is a permanent increase in size of cell or protoplasm acquired by an organism in
the course of its development.

Growth as a process is irreversible. Growth is quantitative in nature. As the organism feeds, the body
processes and utilizes the consumed material to replace worn out tissues and cells and develop or
produce new ones.

STAGES OF GROWTH

There are five stages namely;

1. Prenatal period (0-birth)

This is the period where the fertilised egg moves From the falubian tube to the uterus where it is
implanted. Half each from the father and mother makes up its total inheritance

2. Neonatal stage/infancy ( birth – 14days)

This is a resting stage in human development and it is characterized by adjusting to a new environment
outside the mother’s body

3. Babyhood (14days – 2 years)

The major activity here involves the development of muscular control and self reliance i.e feeding,
walking, playing etc.

4. Childhood (2 years to adolescence)

This period is marked by gaining control over his environment and making social adjustments

5. Adolescence (13/14 years – 21years)

Early adolescence ends at 18years, the major task in this stage is preparation for adult hood.

PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH

• Growth for each individual may be fast or slow because each individual grows at his own pace

• Heredity & environment are instrumental to growth

• Growth is a process of integration

• Growth is more rapid in early age

• Growth depends on maturation

DEVELOPMENT

Development is the systematic changes in the individual that occur between the moment of conception
and death.

Development can be defined by referring to particular developmental milestones that are significant
achievements of one sort or another eg. Crawling, walking, speaking.

Developmental milestones occurs at particular ages. Some children reach a particular milestone early
while others might reach the same milestone at a later age.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1) development is more comprehensive and subdues growth.

2) development is a continuous process, but growth terminates at a certain stage in life.

3) growth is indicated in the body dimension, while development is expressed both in body and
function.

4) growth is QUANTITATIVE while development is QUALITATIVE.

5) growth is influenced by internal factors while development, external factors .

6) growth is not affected by learning while learning and maturation are essential for development.

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth and development are mainly affected by 2 factors and these are genetic and prenatal
environmental factors

Genetics:

All individuals inherit some character traits from there parents carried by their genes.

Humans start their lives with one nucleus, and this nucleus contains the genetic material received from
two parents actually.

Prenatal environmental factors:

-Age of the mother; the most favourable age for child bearing is between 20 & 35. Best age is between
20 & 28.

-Maternal nutrition; the foetus obtains all nutrients from the mother. A malnurished mother can harm
the foetus.

-Prolonged disease or illness; can cause spontaneous abortion or respiratory difficulties.

-RH factor; Blood incompatibility can cause complications and if there is a mixing of blood during
childbirth, it could result in mild anaemia, deafness or mental retardation.
-Drugs; some drugs that are administered during the gestation period can be very dangerous and cause
harm to the child.

-X-rays, avoid X-rays.

-Alcohol; excessive alcohol intake results in fatal postnatal growth, physical malformation and even
sleep disorders

-Smoking; science has proven that smoking could cause premature abortion and even inmpaired
intellectual development.

-Maternal emotions; emotions tend to influence the child through glandular changes.

-Uteral crowding; occurs because of giving birth too much causing the uterus to reach limit of expansion.
It can cause epileptic seizures and a lag in mental ability.

UNIT 4

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Personality is developed from the word “persona” which means “to mask” it involves both positive and
negative qualities of an individual.

Personality is a pattern of characteristic thoughts, feelings and behaviours that persists over time and
situations that distinguishes one person from another.

Personality has also been defined as distinctive thoughts emotions and behaviours that cancerous the
way an individual adapt to the world. These definitions indicate that pregnancy is the richest individuals
and it is enduring since it persists over time. Personality is characterized by the following;

1. CONSISTENCY: to a generally a recognisable order and regularity in behaviour such that the person act
the same way in a variety of situations.

2. Personality is a psychological construct that is influenced by physiological conditions and needs of the
individual.

3. Personality in parrots behaviour and actions; it influences individual’s actions to the environmental
factors and causes them to act in a certain way.

4. MULTIPLE EXPRESSIONS: personality is not just displayed in behaviour alone but can be seen in such
processes feelings relationships and social interactions of the individuals

DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY

The dimensions of personality can be referred to as a factors and domains of personality. It is best
determined by the acronym OCEAN which stands for;

• Openness

• Conscientiousness
• Extraversion

• Agreeableness

• Neuroticism (Emotional stability)

OPENNESS

An individual is considered open if he or she accepts changes easily, attempts new thoughts, ideas and
situations.

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS

This is related to how a person takes work, if he’s organised, focused and timely. Could also be
thorough, careful or vigilant.

EXTRAVERSION

Some individual love gatherings, while others like solitude. The individuals that are high on extraversion
as social, friendly, talkative, assertive and energetic. They prefer to lead, others are charismatic and fit
into politics.

The ones that are low in extraversion are private, serious, sceptic, keep secrets and the often quiet and
prefer to be alone.

AGREEABLENESS

This individuals usually agree with the opinions of others. They are good natured, sympathetic forgiving,
tolerant and courteous, they are not good leaders. Those on the other hand who are low on
agreeableness are critical and analytical and tough, do not hide reactions, are rude and self-centered.

NEUROTICISM

Those with high neuroticism are usually linked with high concentration, fear of failure, usually nervous,
unstable, vulnerable, never satisfied with life and easily inflammed, while those with low neuroticism
are emotionally stable, strong nerved, controlled and optimistic.

FACTORS OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Personality development is the development of the organised patterns of behaviour and attributes that
distinguish individuals. It has been argued over the years as to which of the factors influence personality
development, is it hereditary or environmental? Some argue that person behave the way he does
because of the genes he inherited from his parents while some argue that a person behaves the way he
does because of the environment he was raised in.

Psychologist have however been able to put these arguements to rest through numerous research that
have been carried out and it was concluded that personality is formed as a result of both hereditary and
environmental nature.
HEREDITY

Temperaments refers to a set of genetically determined trait that influences a child’s approach to the
world and how he learns about the world. They are genes that control the development of the nervous
system which in turn controls the behaviour.

ENVIRONMENT (PARENT & AND THEIR PARENTING STYLE)

1. The school

2. Peer relationships help with self-esteem.

3. Cultural factors (values and culture of the society)

4. Situational factors; certain events, situations happenings may change or modify a person’s personality
traits.

THEORIES IN PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

• PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY BY SIGMUND FREUD (1865 – 1939)

Sigmund Freud stipulated that personality is composed of three elements and they are id, ego and
superego. These three elements work together to create a complex human behaviour.

-The Id

The Id is the component of personality that is present at birth. It is entirely unconscious, like a child, the
Id is immature, impulsive and irrational, the Id operate the pleasure principle. It’s seeks immediate
gratification of all desires, wants and needs and it avoids pain or discomfort. It operates without
consideration for logic or reality. The Id is very essential at the early stage of life as it ensures that the
infant needs are met. It is all about “I want it now regardless of how I get it”

-The Ego

The ego is the component of personality that deals with reality. The ego develops from the Id. It is
capable of planning, problem-solving and controlling the ID. Unlike the ID, the eagle resides in the
conscious. The ego ensures that the impulses of the ID are expressed in an appropriate manner, the ego
operates the reality principle which ensures that the needs and wants are met in a socially appropriate
way.

-The Super-ego

This is the last component of personality development. The super-ego is referred to as the conscience
and it originates from the ego but separated to become kind of an overseer or moral censor. The
separation occurs when the child learns all the rules and values from home. It is the part of personality
that holds all the internalized moral standards, ideals and values which are acquired from our parents
and society. The super-ego suppresses all an acceptable origins of the ID and tries to make the ego act
upon idealistic standards.
In summary, the Id seeks pleasure, the ego must always find objects and events to satisfy the Id and
make sure that these objects do not violate standard of the super-ego and the super ego seeks ideal.

EGO DEFENSE MECHANISM

When the eagle failed to satisfy both the Id and super-ego anxiety steps into conscious awareness.
Anxiety is uncomfortable so people tend to get rid of it by employing some behaviour pattern is known
as ego defence mechanism.

1. Rationalization- this is a situation in which the individual tries to justify a behaviour not wanting to
accept responsibility for wrong actions, a way of saving face eg. Trying to justify cheating in an exam.

2. Regression- this is when an adult begins to act in a way that he or she used to act in the early stages of
life eg. Biting of nails or throwing tantrums.

3. Displacement- this is when an individual transfers and a motion from an object or person to another
person.

4. Sublimation- this is the diversion of sexual or libidinal energy to non sexual activities.

5. Repression- this is the deliberate attempt to resist the recollection of a painful or unpleasant memory.

6. Identification- this is when an individual unconsciously incorporates a personality or mannerism of an

idol into his or her non personality in order to mask feelings of inadequacy.

7. Denial- i.e unwilling to accept the situation because it provokes pain and anxiety.

STAGES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT.

Sigmund Freud’s theory of PD is centred on the effect of sexual drive and individual’s mind. He claims
that at a particular point in the present developments, a single part of the body is sensitive to sexual
stimulus. At each stage of development each other specific needs and demands. Frustration occurs
when the method of obtaining satisfaction which is characterized by the particular stage and not met.

Overindulgence occurs when these needs are met in such a way that the child is ready to progress
beyond the stage and then fixation occurs.

Sigmund Freud identified five stages of PD.

1. ORAL (0 – 18 months)

This stage begins at birth and the mouth is the main focus of the libidinal energy. The child cries himself
with sucking and putting things in the mouth. A child who is over indoors in this stage grows up to be
optimistic, gullible and full of admiration for others while a child who is not properly nursed you could
grow up to become pessimistic, sarcastic and envious.

2. ANAL STAGES (18 MONTHS TO 4 YEARS)

This stage begins at the time toilet training of the child begins. The area of libidinal energy is the anus.
The child derives pleasure from expelling and retaining faeces. Conflict between the child’s desire and
the parental demands may result in two ways. If the child is over indulged, he becomes an anal retentive
character who is neat, precise, orderly, careful, stingy and passively aggressive. While a child who takes
delight in malicious expulsion becomes a reckless and careless personality.

3. PHALLIC STAGE (4-6 YEARS)

At this stage the child becomes interested in his genitals and genitals of others and this results in
conflict. The conflict here is referred to as *oedipus complex* in males and the electra complex in
females. An individual who is fixated in the phallic stage may go to become a reckless resolute
excessively vain and proud person and may also result to one who is incapable of showing love.

4. LATENCY STAGE (6 – 12 YEARS)

This stage is not a psychosexual stage of development but it really bisexual stage is dormant. At this
stage the children for out all their libidinal energy into asexual activities.

5. GENITAL STAGES (12 - 18 YEARS)

This stage coincides with the onset of adolescence and genital stage, the child's energy is focused on the
genitals the adolescence begins to develop interest in the opposite sex and begins to assume the
responsibility of adults. If the conflict is properly resolved at the stage then it will result in normal
relationship with the opposite sex.

• PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT BY ERIK ERIKSON (1902 - 1994)

The stages of psychosocial development by Erikson are;

1. TRUST VERSUS MISTRUST (BIRTH TO 2 YEARS)

At this stage the child completely depends on the primary caregiver. The level of trust is dependent on
the way the caregiver attends to the needs of the individual. If the child is well handled he develops
trust, if not, he develops mistrust.

2. AUTONOMY VS SHAME AND DOUBT (2 TO 4 YEARS)

At this stage the child wants to do things himself it is characterised by self possession, initiative and
independence. The child at this stage has not fully developed his motor skills and as such shows signs of
clumsiness. If this stage is well handled the child grows to be sure of himself, proud and confident. But if
it is not well handled the child grows up to be ashamed with a sense of inadequacy.

3. INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT (4 - 6 YEARS)

There is a tremendous growth at this stage of development. This stage is characterized by persistent
questioning and interaction. The child prefers to do things with other children to lead and to follow. If
the child is discouraged he becomes immobilized by guilt and he becomes fearful and continues to
depend unduly on the adults. And he systematically begins to withdraw from his peers.

4. INDUSTRY (COMPETENCE) VERSUS INFERIORITY (6 TO 12 YEARS).

This stage coincide with the elementary school age and goes on to junior secondary school. At this stage
the child begins to master his skills progression from FreePlay to teamwork. If the child was not able to
resolve adequately the earlier stages the child will become mistrusting, shy, guilt filled, with doubt thr
future and will experience defeat and inferiority.

5. IDENTITY VERSUS ROLE CONFUSION (12 -20YEARS)

This stage is when the child is able to answer satisfactorily the question 'who am i',the individual shows
some refinement and maturity. There is a quest for relevance by the individual. There is also a trait of
problems, disobedience and peer group influence. They are st cross roads of adulthood, where they
have to start making adult decisions. If the other stages are not well resolved the individual may suffer
role confusion.

6. INTIMACY VS ISOLATION (YOUNG ADULTHOOD) (20 TO 40 YEARS)

This stage of early adulthood is a time when the individual is faced with the choice of intimacy on one
hand or isolation on the other hand. At this stage, the young adults struggles to form relationship and to
gain the capacity for intimate love or suffer emotional isolation.

7. GENERATIVITY VERSUS STAGNATION (40 TO 60 YEARS)

During this period of middle adulthood individuals continue to build their life, establish that career and
focus on their families as well as contribute meaningfully to the society through raising their own
children as being productive at work. If this stage is handled well, there is a virtue achieved, but if not
well handled is lead to stagnation and the individuals feel unproductive.

8. INTEGRITY VERSUS DESPAIR (60 YEARS AND ABOVE)

This is the period of late adulthood, in the stage, the old adults reflects on his life to see whether he or
she has been successful or not. the older adults who are unsuccessful at this stage will feel they have
wasted their lives and be filled with regrets. This stage leads to feeling of bitterness and despair.
however if the individual is successful, a sense of satisfaction and integrity is developed.

UNIT 5
TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELING IN GROUP COUNSELING
What is counselling?

Counselling could be said to be as old as man. It is often used alongside with guidance. According to the
British Association for counselling, counselling is an activity freely entered into by the person seeking
help keyword being freely. It allows for the client to discover by himself or herself the things that are
bothering them. It is a contracted relationship with boundaries that cannot be crossed.

FEATURES OF COUNSELLING
1. Counselling is a facilitative two-way collaborative exchange. A supportive relationship that enables
the clients to explore their problems, understands, resolve or come to terms with their problems.

2. Counselling is not advise giving, the counsellor helps the clients look at all possible solutions but does
not tell the clients the way to go.

3. Counselling is not persuasive, prevailing upon or overcoming

4. Counselling is not exercising undue influence on the counselee. Some counselors practise
manipulation on their clients making them think that the idea was theirs when it is actually that of The
counselor.

STAGES A TYPICAL COUNSELING

1. INITIAL PHASE- it starts with the exchange of pleasantries this is done to create a rapport the greeting
should be warm and courteous, The counselor should meet the client at the reception and escort him or
her to his office. after exchanging small talks, The counselor get the ball rolling by saying something like
" I am ready when you are" or "waiting for you" or "would you like to tell me what brings you here?"

2. WORKING PHASE- this stage the council helps the client to work through his feelings by using
techniques like probing, paraphrasing, and confrontation. This working phase could last for several
sessions of between 30 to 45 minutes each. The counselor usually sets the time before each session and
assignments are given after each session.

3. TERMINATION PHASE- every counseling session must have a termination phase, this stage includes
the client's lack of a problem, referring the client to another counselor or a successful completion of the
case. The session can be terminated with the client stated that he has actualize the set goals and the
council that promises to be in touch.

4. FOLLOW UP PHASE- in this stage the council or checks to find out how the client is doing and if he is
maintaining the behaviour acquired during counselling.

GROUP COUNSELLING
There are situations that would warrant a counselor to meet with a large group of persons. The group
may be made up of between 4 to 15 members who have a common problem. Members of the group
have common goals and operate a mutually supportive interaction.

WHEN TO USE GROUP COUNSELING?

1. When there is a general incident among students.

2. When the encounter with the client looks threatening.

3. For individuals who lack a feeling of belonging.

4. When a need arises to foster kids in the interpersonal skills.

GOALS OF GROUP COUNSELING

1. To learn how to trust one's self and others.

2. To become more open with selected group of people.

3. To learn how to confront others in a polite way.

4. To explore hidden potentials.

5. To learn how to give or share to others.

6. To become more sensitive to the needs of others.

PROCESS IN GROUP COUNSELING

1. INTRODUCTORY FAMILIARISATION STAGE

The counselor introduces himself and allows other members of the group to do the same. They say their
names, position of birth in the family and where they work or school etc.

2. WORKING STAGE

In this stage the member state their problems, clarifications are made in cases of discrepancies and
members are also encouraged to interact.

3. CONSOLIDATION STAGE

This stage is consolidated by the groups willingness to work together and solve their problems. Those
that have improved help those that are still struggling. If majority of the group have achieved set goals,
then the council announces that the therapy will be terminated in the next session.

4. TERMINATION STAGE

When the group's objective have been achieved, the council then terminate the session, members
discuss what they have learnt and the counselor fixes fill up exercises.

ADVANTAGES OF GROUP COUNSELLING

1. It is economical in time and human resource.

2. Participants are more realistic as they realise that their problems are not peculiar.

3. Members in the group accept changes more easily as they see it is a collective exercise.

4. Members of the group get help from two sides.

5. It involves problem solving skills.

DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP COUNSELING

1. Individual attention cannot be guaranteed.

2. In-depth appraisal may not be made due to lack of time.

3. Confidentiality and self disclosure limited.

4. It is not easy to evaluate progress and attainment of objectives.

5. Application of diagnostic tools and not easy to use in group counseling.

UNIT 6
ATTITUDE FORMATION AND ATTITUDINAL CHANGE
Attitude is often defined as a tendency to react favorably or unfavorably towards a designated class of
stimuli. It is a combination of cognitive, affective and behavioral disposition towards a person or an
object. Attitude has three components and these are;

-cognitive

-affective

-behavioural

The cognitive component refers to the beliefs of factual knowledge about a person's idea or objects.

The affective component refers to one's emotional response to or feelings towards a person's idea or
object. These feelings are either positive or negative.

The behaviour component refers to one's disposition to do something about one's feelings, beliefs and
object.

Attitude could be appropriate or inappropriate, examples of appropriate attitude at the ones that
promote happiness, enjoyment and satisfaction. Examples of inappropriate attitudes promote self-
defeating behaviour and feelings of depression. All attitudes are learned.

Attitudes are acquired through direct instructions. All attitudes are continually open to modifications
and change.

THEORIES OF ACQUISITION OR MODIFICATION OF ATTITUDE.

1. LEARNING THEORIES APPROACH

This is on the assumption that all attitudes are learned. Attitude change is said to be a matter of new
learning. In this method, students negative attitude can be modified by using classical conditioning,
operant conditioning and persuasion.
In classical conditioning, it is believed that people acquire negative attitude when they associate and
idea or a person with an unpleasant experience.

Operant conditioning states that these attitudes that are reinforced are more likely to be maintained as
opposed to those that are not.

Persuasion method assumes that people are rational in the way the process information. By controlling
the way a person sees you, the way your messages are organised and presented, you may be able to
persuade them to change their attitude.

2. SOCIAL INFLUENCE APPROACH

Everyone depend on other people for information to establish the validity of their attitude. If most
members of a reference group share similar attitude then it is believed that the attitude is correct.

3. FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

This approach uses attitude as a function of the extent to which goals are achieved.

4. COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY THEORY

This theory suggests that we strive for consistency among our cognitions (reasoning) that people seek
consistency between their attitude, behaviour and environment.

Assignment:

Write short notes on the following

- Balance Theory

- Cognitive dissonance Theory

Compiled by DXC