‭Content‬

S‭ tructure of the Earth, the Early Geosphere, Atmosphere and Hydrosphere‬

‭Inquiry question:‬‭How did the compositional layers‬‭of the Earth develop?‬
‭●‬ ‭Investigate and model the processes that formed the geosphere‬
‭●‬ ‭Investigate evidence for the structure of the Earth using technologies, including‬
‭○‬ ‭Seismic wave velocities‬
‭○‬ ‭Meteorite evidence to demonstrate differences in density and composition‬
‭●‬ ‭Describe the compositional layers and thickness of the Earth’s layers, including:‬
‭○‬ ‭Lithosphere‬
‭○‬ ‭Asthenosphere‬
‭○‬ ‭Crust, mantle and core and their compositional layers‬
‭●‬ ‭Conduct a practical investigation to compare the differences in the density of samples found in‬
‭the crust, mantle and core‬
‭●‬ ‭Analyse evidence of the Earth’s age, including:‬
‭○‬ ‭Formation and age of zircon crystals‬
‭○‬ ‭Radiometric techniques‬
‭○‬ ‭Meteorite evidence‬

‭ ocks, Mineral and the Rock Cycle‬

R
‭Inquiry question:‬‭What are the components of rocks‬‭and soils?‬
‭●‬ ‭Investigate methods of classifying rocks and minerals used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait‬
‭Islander Peoples‬
‭●‬ ‭Investigate the chemical composition of a variety of minerals and explain their formation,‬
‭including:‬
‭○‬ ‭Felsic mineral‬
‭○‬ ‭Mafic minerals‬
‭●‬ ‭Investigate the physical properties of minerals that are used to assist in classification‬
‭●‬ ‭Investigate a range of rocks and minerals and classify samples using dichotomous keys‬
‭●‬ ‭Explain the formation of rocks as characteristic assemblages of mineral crystals or grains that are‬
‭formed through igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic princesses, as part of the Rock Cycle‬
‭ eological Time Scale‬
G
‭Inquiry question‬‭: How is the age of geological materials‬‭determined?‬
‭●‬ ‭Describe relative and absolute dating of the geosphere‬
‭●‬ ‭Use data of both relative and absolute dating from secondary sources to determine the age of‬
‭geological materials‬

‭Geological Resources‬
‭●‬ ‭Investigate traditional Aboriginal quarrying and mining methods‬
‭●‬ ‭Locate and relate a range of non-renewable resources to their location, for example:‬
‭○‬ ‭Minerals‬
‭○‬ ‭Fossil fuels‬
‭○‬ ‭Ores of economic significance‬
‭●‬ ‭Analyse the economic importance of Australia’s non-renewable resources‬
‭●‬ ‭Investigate and assess the appropriateness of direct sampling techniques and remote sensing‬
‭techniques in discovering non-renewable resources, including but not limited to:‬
‭○‬ ‭Satellite images‬
‭○‬ ‭Aerial photographs‬
‭○‬ ‭Geophysical data‬
‭●‬ ‭Investigate the locations and extraction methods of, for example:‬
‭○‬ ‭Open-pit mining‬
‭○‬ ‭Underground mining methods‬
‭○‬ ‭Offshore and onshore drilling‬
 ‭Structure of the Earth‬

I‭nvestigate and model the processes that formed the geosphere‬

‭Formation of the Earth‬
‭Formation of the atmosphere‬
‭●‬ ‭Earth’s original gases were made up of the gas released from what Earth was made of (known as‬
‭outgassing‬‭). The main gases were Nitrogen, Carbon‬‭monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, water‬
‭vapour and methane‬
‭○‬ ‭Nitrogen‬‭- Most original nitrogen remains in the current‬‭atmosphere due to unreactive‬
‭properties‬
‭○‬ ‭Carbon monoxide‬‭&‬‭Carbon dioxide‬‭- 100-1000x gas more‬‭than it currently does,‬
‭combined with elements dissolved in seawater and formed carbonate rocks‬
‭○‬ ‭Hydrogen‬‭- Hydrogen’s light density vented it from‬‭molten rock and it was lost into space‬
‭○‬ ‭Water vapour‬‭- Most water vapour cooled and fell as‬‭rain‬
‭●‬ ‭Where did current gases come from‬
‭○‬ ‭Nitrogen‬‭- remained original did u study‬
‭○‬ ‭Oxygen‬‭- produced as waste from plants during photosynthesis‬
‭○‬ ‭Argon‬‭- Formed by radioactive decay of elements within‬‭mantle and released as volcanic‬
‭gas‬
‭○‬ ‭Carbon dioxide‬‭- Added by volcanic eruptions, weathering‬‭of carbonate rocks,‬
‭respiration of living things‬
‭○‬ ‭Water vapour‬‭- Vented from molten rocks, and from‬‭meteorites - constantly recycled‬
‭Earth’s water‬
‭●‬ ‭Number of possibilities including asteroids from space, volcanic outgassing - water vapour that‬
‭condensed into heavy rain‬

‭Investigate evidence for the structure of the Earth using technologies‬

‭Seismic waves‬
‭ -Waves‬‭- Primary seismic waves that can travel through‬‭solids and liquids‬
P
‭S-Waves‬‭- Secondary seismic waves that can only travel‬‭through solids‬

‭Andrija Mohorovicic and his contribution to the layers of Earth‬

‭●‬ ‭When a wave travels through different substances, it changes in velocity due to density change,‬
‭causing the wave to refract or reflect‬
 ‭●‬ W ‭ aves that travel to the deeper layers of Earth, return back to the surface much later than waves‬
‭that travelled a shorter length - Travel time of a wave from the source to the surface can be used‬
‭to calculate the‬‭depth‬‭of where the wave was‬‭reflected‬‭from‬
‭○‬ ‭If a wave is reflected at the outer core, the depth of the Earth up to the outer core can‬
‭be calculated‬
‭○‬ ‭As different waves come back to the surface at different times, we know there are‬
‭multiple layers of Earth‬
‭○‬ ‭OIL COMPANIES use this strategy by sending sound signals down into the ocean and‬
‭using microphones to detect the depth and what type of rocks can be found at the‬
‭bottom - this is especially used to tell if there is oil underneath the surface‬
‭●‬ ‭Andrija Mohorovicic‬‭discovered that the shortest distance‬‭for a wave to travel was not always‬
‭the fastest way‬
‭○‬ ‭This is because the longer path had much denser rock, meaning the velocity of the wave‬
‭was increased significantly‬
‭○‬ ‭E.g mantle is denser that crust, and so waves that travel through the mantle AND THEN‬
‭back up to surface may take shorter amount of time‬
‭○‬ ‭Used this to discover boundary between the crust and the mantle‬

‭●‬ D
‭ escribe the contribution of Andrija Mohorovičić to our understanding of the structure of the‬
‭Earth.‬
‭○‬ ‭The significance of seismic wave velocities to our understanding of Earth’s layers was‬
‭first recognised in 1909 by seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic. By comparing the time it‬
‭took for an earthquake in Croatia to be detected at a range of seismic stations around‬
‭Europe and elsewhere, he was able to show that the velocity of the wave dramatically‬
‭increased at around 50 km depth beneath the region. Therefore this proved the‬
‭fundamental compositional boundary between the crust and the mantle, as materials‬
‭were significantly denser in the mantle and hence seismically ‘faster’‬

‭The Structure of the Interior‬

‭●‬ ‭We can use this concept to determine the rest of the layers‬
‭●‬ ‭If the whole Earth was made of the same material with the same density - Waves would travel in‬
‭straight lines‬
‭●‬ ‭This is not the case however‬
‭●‬ ‭The increase in pressure (gravity) deeper in the Earth is responsible for the increasing density‬
‭●‬ ‭What do S-Waves tell us?‬
‭○‬ ‭We know that S-Waves cannot travel through liquids -‬
‭It is clear from the diagram (right) that S-waves from‬
‭one point, cannot reach the other side (‬‭called the‬
‭S-wave shadow zone)‬
‭○‬ ‭This is because there is a substance the waves cannot‬
‭pass through, and so the S-waves are reflected‬
 ‭○‬ T‭ herefore, there is a‬‭liquid layer‬‭in Earth (as S-Waves cannot pass through‬‭liquid) -‬‭The‬
‭OUTER CORE‬
‭●‬ ‭What do P-Waves tell us?‬
‭○‬ ‭We now know about the outer core, but using‬
‭P-Waves we can differentiate the inner core (solid‬
‭layer inside outer core)‬
‭○‬ ‭For a wave that only travels through the liquid outer‬
‭core, the wave bends‬‭three‬‭times‬
‭○‬ ‭For a wave that passes through the inner core the‬
‭wave bends‬‭four‬‭times‬
‭○‬ ‭Therefore we know that there is another layer‬
‭inside the outer core - that it is not just liquid all the‬
‭way through‬
‭ ‬ ‭It was significantly harder to investigate the inner core and‬
●
‭so‬‭nuclear explosions‬‭were used‬
‭○‬ ‭Method used to determine size of inner core - Measure travel time of the P-wave that‬
‭was‬‭reflected‬‭at the outer-inner core boundary‬

‭Meteorite evidence‬
‭●‬ M ‭ eteorites are considered the ‘leftovers’ of our Solar System, meaning that what the meteors‬
‭are made of is what Earth was‬‭originally‬‭made of‬
‭●‬ ‭The majority of meteorites are stony and rock-like, mainly composed of silicate materials,‬
‭significantly iron & iron compounds‬
‭○‬ ‭From this we can tell that this is was the Earth should be made up of as well‬
‭●‬ ‭Silicate minerals make up every single rock on Earth‬
‭●‬ ‭Approx. 10% are not silicate, and instead are iron oxide meteorites‬
‭●‬ ‭We know what meteorites are what they're made of and how old they are‬
‭●‬ ‭The stuff meteorites are made up of is the same stuff Earth is made up of‬
‭●‬ ‭Seismic waves confirm this by confirming the density of the layers‬
‭●‬ ‭If these two forms are made up of the same thing and meteorites were made up 4.5 billion years‬
‭ago, Earth’s initial structure also should’ve been made up 4.5 million years ago‬
‭●‬ ‭Meteorites help us work out when the Earth formed a layered structure‬
‭○‬ ‭It was using meteorites that allowed scientists to research and confirm the Earth’s initial‬
‭crust was formed approx. 4.5 billion years ago‬
‭○‬ ‭Meteorites that contain zircon are rare, and there had to be a meteorite with a large‬
‭enough zircon to contain‬‭enough hafnium‬‭and‬‭lutetium‬‭for precise analysis‬
‭○‬ ‭The heat and pressure mixes the chemical composition of layers, and the Earth’s layers‬
‭form‬
‭○‬ ‭The difference between the meteorites and the oldest rocks on Earth is that the‬
‭meteorites haven’t been altered in chemical composition‬
‭ escribe the compositional layers and thickness of the Earth’s layers: Asthenosphere/lithosphere, crust,‬
D
‭mantle, core‬

‭The junction between the crust and the mantle‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭lithosphere‬‭is the solid layer that joins‬
‭the crust and mantle‬
‭○‬ ‭The mantle and the crust have‬
‭been firmly attached by the‬
‭lithosphere in some areas‬
‭●‬ ‭Convection currents in the mantle carry‬
‭heat from the Core, causing the plates to‬
‭move. This is assisted by‬
‭○‬ ‭The plastic, slippery like‬
‭asthenosphere that allows the‬
‭plates to move‬
‭○‬ ‭The lower mantle is dense rock, but has so much pressure that it can also move slowly,‬
‭allowing currents to push through at a great force‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭lithosphere (upper mantle)‬‭also forms the tectonic‬‭plates and can vary greatly in thickness‬
‭from 10 - 200 km‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭asthenosphere (lower mantle)‬‭is not molten, however‬‭has liquid like features due to the‬
‭immense pressure, and so allows the lithosphere above it to move more freely‬

S‭ ummarised‬
‭Tectonic plates are what make up the lithosphere, which is the layer of Earth that joins the crust and the‬
‭mantle. There are a number of features that allow the lithosphere to move. Convection currents create‬
‭immense heat that puts pressure on the plates, and these currents are able to move with such force due‬
‭to the extremely dense, but putty-like mantle. The aesthenosphere, which is a layer directly under the‬
‭lithosphere, is not molten, however it has liquid-like properties and so allows the lithosphere to move‬
‭more freely.‬

‭Layer‬ ‭Thickness‬ ‭Density‬ ‭Composition‬

‭Oceanic Crust‬ ‭5-10km‬ ‭2.9-3.3g/cm‬‭3‬ ‭Dense igneous rocks such as basalt‬

‭Continental Crust‬ ‭25-70 km‬ ‭2.7g/cm‬‭3‬ ‭ ostly made up of igneous rocks e.g granite, also‬
M
‭comprises of sedimentary and metamorphic rock‬

‭Lithosphere‬ ‭80 - 200 km‬ ‭-‬ ‭Crust and solid upper mantle‬

‭Asthenosphere‬ ‭500 km‬ ‭-‬ ‭ lasticy and slow moving (lower mantle) - heat from‬
P
‭the core causes convection currents which then‬
 f‭ orce the lithosphere (tectonic plates) to tear or‬
‭crush, causing earthquakes‬

‭Mantle‬ ‭2800 km‬ ‭4.5g/cm‬‭3‬ ‭ riodite containing minerals such as pyroxene,‬

P
‭garnets & olivine‬
‭Upper mantle‬‭- relatively rigid‬
‭Lower mantle‬‭- allows very slow plasticy movement‬

‭Outer core‬ ‭2300 km‬ ‭11g/cm‬‭3‬ L‭ iquid nickel and iron - similar to the inner core‬
‭however not under enough pressure to become‬
‭solid - Conductor of Earth;s magnetic field‬

‭Inner core‬ ‭1200 km‬ ‭12.6g/cm‬‭3‬ ‭Solid ball of nickel and iron alloy - sulphur presence‬

‭ nalyse evidence of the Earth’s age‬

A
‭The Age of Earth is a topic that has been debated for a long time, with some of the earliest Western‬
‭theories being based off of biblical information, as well as basic observations. The concept of‬
‭‘catastrophism’ is the idea that the world was shaped by sudden catastrophic events as per the‬
‭description of a great flood from the Bible. Catastrophism was used to explain many geological processes‬
‭such as the existence of basalt and granite rocks from the crystallisation of flood water.‬

T‭ his idea was widely believed until a farmer, James Hutton, observed the erosion of rocks and that there‬
‭were unconformities in the rock layers' angles., allowing him to theorise that this process could not be‬
‭possible through a single catastrophic event and must have taken a long time. Hutton also discovered‬
‭that granite was mixed in with other rocks, and this could only have occurred if the granite was molten,‬
‭causing him to challenge previous biblical theories. These two observations led to the principle of‬
‭uniformitarianism, the concept that the rate at which geologic processes occur has been consistent‬
‭throughout history (meaning we can use current geological processes to explain the past).‬

‭ roceeding with the development of this concept, many scientists incorporated uniformitarianism in‬
P
‭their methods for researching the age of the Earth, such as John Joly using the salinity of seawater, and‬
‭William Thomson applying the principle of rate of heat loss. However these results were inaccurate due‬
‭to the scientists not considering specific variables. Thomas Chamberlin speculated on William Thomson’s‬
‭theory and concluded that another source of energy must have existed to fuel Earth’s geologic‬
‭processes.‬

‭ round the same time the discovery of nuclear radiation as a form of energy was made by Henri‬
A
‭Becquerel, with Ernest Rutherford later hypothesising how radioactive decay occurs and releases energy.‬
‭This was implemented as a dating technique as radioactive substances decay as per their half-life,‬
‭meaning we can calculate the amount of time that has passed since the radioactive elements cooled and‬
‭ ardened by working backwards. We can determine the age of a rock by calculating the amount of a‬
h
‭specific element/mineral that is left in the rock presently. This process has been used consistently with‬
‭the age of Earth increasing with new discoveries. The oldest rock ever dated contained zircon minerals‬
‭which are fairly resistant in comparison and wouldn’t have been altered since the original rock‬
‭formation, therefore more accurately telling us the age of Earth. However, this process has also been‬
‭used for meteorites which were formed the same time as Earth and can tell us how old the Earth is‬
‭(approx. 4.54 billion years).‬

‭Glossary‬
‭Word‬ ‭Definition‬

‭Proto-star‬ a‭ contracting mass of gas which represents an early stage in the formation of‬
‭a star, before nucleosynthesis has begun.‬

‭Nuclear Fusion‬ ‭ hen smaller atoms join together to form heavier atoms and release a large‬
W
‭amount of energy during the process‬

‭Accretion‬ i‭n general is the gradual increase/accumulation of layers and matter - in this‬
‭case referring to how small particles of matter and colliding with other‬
‭particles to get larger and larger‬

‭Proto-planet‬ ‭ large body of matter that is in orbit and developing into a planet - a planet‬
A
‭embryo‬

‭molecular clouds‬ ‭Made up of tiny dust and gas particles from the debris of a dead star‬

‭electrostatic charge‬ ‭ momentary flow of electric charge current between two electrically‬
A
‭charged objects (caused by contact)‬

‭solar wind‬ ‭A strong wind of charged particles from the Sun‬

‭magnetosphere‬ T‭ he region surrounding Earth (or another astronomical body) that is a‬

‭magnetic field and can extend through space‬

‭magnetic field‬ ‭The area surrounding the main ‘magnet’ that attracts and pulls‬

‭radio telescopes‬ ‭ sed to detect radio waves from space - these are used to enhance our‬
U
‭understanding of the universe‬

‭meteorite‬ ‭A piece of rock that has fallen from outer space, to Earth‬

‭zircons‬ ‭A tiny mineral, harder than diamond‬

‭stromatolites‬

‭blue green bacteria‬

 ‭overgassing‬

‭P-waves‬ ‭Primary seismic waves that can travel through solids and liquids‬

‭S-waves‬ ‭Secondary seismic waves that can only travel through solids‬

‭Lithosphere‬ ‭A solid layer that joins the crust and mantle‬

‭Crust‬ ‭The first, outermost geological layer of earth‬

‭Rocks, Minerals and the Rock Cycle‬

I‭nvestigate methods of classifying rocks and minerals used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander‬
‭Peoples‬
‭-‬ ‭Rocks were classified according to their use:‬
‭-‬ ‭Quartz → Flint knives & other cutting purposes;‬
‭-‬ ‭Stone Fragments → Gouge off slabs of timber to make shields;‬
‭-‬ ‭Other stones → Hammers;‬
‭-‬ ‭Ochre → pigment for art & body decor for ceremonies‬
‭-‬ ‭Sandstone → abrasive/grinding tools‬

I‭nvestigate the chemical composition of a variety of minerals and explain their formation: Felsic and‬
‭mafic minerals‬
‭Minerals‬‭- Rock forming solid particles‬
‭Silicate minerals‬‭- The most common minerals found‬‭on Earth and made up of varying amounts of‬
‭silicate compounds.‬
‭Quarts, feldspar, pyroxene, olivine‬
‭Formed‬‭as molten rock cools and crystallises with‬‭conditions/environment determining what‬
‭type of silicate is formed‬
‭Silica‬‭is pure SiO (Silicone & Oxygen atoms) and is‬‭also known as “quartz”‬
‭Mafic minerals‬‭- Igneous rock that is rich in magnesium‬‭and iron but relatively low in silicates, making‬
‭the minerals darker in colour‬
‭olivine, pyroxene, biotite‬
‭Formed‬‭deeper in the surface where there is high temperature‬‭and pressure. It is common in‬
‭areas where crustal plates move apart (divergent zones)‬
‭Felsic minerals‬‭- Igneous rock that is relatively richer in silicates, making the minerals lighter in colour‬
‭Quartz, muscovite, orthoclase‬
‭Formed‬‭near the surface of Earth where there is lower‬‭temperature and pressure - Because‬
‭magma from the mantle is high in silicates, they are common in volcanic areas and plate‬
‭boundaries where magma from the mantle can rise‬

I‭nvestigate the physical properties of minerals that are used to assist in classification‬
‭Physical properties of a mineral can be used for identification of minerals. The main physical‬
‭characteristics used are:‬‭hardness, streak, lustre,‬‭density/specific gravity, cleavage‬

‭Hardness‬ T‭ he mineral’s resistance to it being scratched - The softer the mineral is‬
‭the easier it will be to scratch, and this is measured by the‬‭Moh’s scale‬
‭of hardness‬

‭Streak‬ S‭ treak is a mineral’s powdered colour and can be determined by‬

‭scraping the mineral on an unglazed tile. It is used because it is seen as‬
‭more reliable and consistent than the surface colour of a mineral, which‬
‭could change over time.‬

‭Lustre‬ L‭ ustre refers to how shiny a mineral’s surface is and can be classified as‬
‭metallic or non-metallic. There are several non-metallic lustres: glassy,‬
‭pearly, waxy and earthy.‬

‭Density/specific gravity‬
‭ mineral’s density in comparison to water for example halite has a‬
A
‭specific gravity of 2 which means it is twice as dense as water.‬
‭Density of water = 1g/cm‬‭3‬
‭High specific gravity> 3.5g/cm‬‭3‬
‭To determine a mineral’s specific gravity you find out its density -‬
‭mass(g)/volume (cm‬‭3‬‭)‬‭-‬‭volume of mineral can be determined‬‭by water‬
‭displacement‬

‭Cleavage‬ ‭ leavage‬‭is how a mineral breaks or splits naturally‬‭due to weak‬

C
‭lines/points, causing certain minerals to break in a specific way‬
‭Fractures‬‭refer to when minerals have no specific‬‭lines of weakness and‬
‭so they break in uneven ways due to coincidental erosion/weathering.‬

E‭ xplain the formation of rocks‬

‭Rocks‬‭- Consist of many joined pieces with either‬‭one or multiple types of minerals and can be classified‬
‭in a number of ways‬
I‭ gneous Rocks‬
‭Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling of molten lava or magma, and are classified according to their‬
‭chemical composition, texture or size of crystals.‬
‭Chemical composition‬
‭-‬ ‭Changes in chemical composition cause variations in rocks‬
‭-‬ ‭Light coloured minerals have abundant silicate minerals whereas dark coloured minerals contain‬
‭ferromagnesian minerals‬
‭Texture‬
‭-‬ ‭The slower the magma cools into a rock, the larger the crystals of minerals will be‬
‭-‬ ‭If an igneous rock has larger crystals it was formed deeper in Earth, whereas if it has smaller or‬
‭not visible crystals, it was formed closer to Earth’s surface‬
‭-‬ ‭Texture types include glassy, aphanitic, phaneritic, porphyritic‬

S‭ edimentary Rocks‬
‭Sedimentary rocks are formed by layers of compacted and cemented sediments which may come from‬
‭the breakdown of other rocks, chemical precipitates or organic remains.‬
‭-‬ ‭Divided into two main subgroups:‬‭Clastic and chemical‬
‭Clastic Sedimentary Rocks‬
‭Clastic sedimentary rocks‬‭form from weathered and‬‭eroded pieces of other rocks which have been‬
‭deposited and cemented together. Classification occurs according to sediment pieces size‬
‭-‬ ‭Conglomerates‬‭- Pebble sized or larger sediments‬
‭-‬ ‭Sandstones‬‭- Sand sized sediments‬
‭-‬ ‭Shales/mudstones‬‭- silt sized sediments‬
‭Formation process‬
‭-‬ ‭The further the sediments have travelled before they are deposited the more uniform their sizes‬
‭will be‬
‭-‬ ‭The larger the sediment, the faster the water was flowing during deposition‬

‭ hemical Sedimentary Rocks‬

C
‭Formed by chemical precipitation or biological activity‬
‭Chemical precipitation‬‭- Occurs when the evaporation‬‭of water from shallow bodies of water causes the‬
‭water to become saturated with soluble minerals e.g calcium carbonate, dolomite, halite, gypsum‬
‭-‬ ‭These substances are deposited at the bottom of that water bodied and are eventually hardened‬
‭to become rocks like‬‭inorganic limestone‬‭and‬‭dolostone‬
‭Biological activity to form sediments‬‭- Varied ways‬‭of formation including the extraction of calcium‬
‭carbonate to form shells that are left to deposit when the organism dies. This forms rocks like‬‭organic‬
‭limestone‬‭and‬‭chalk‬
‭-‬ ‭Coal‬‭is formed from vegetation buried in mud, however‬‭the lack of oxygen does not allow it to‬
‭fully decompose, therefore causing the sediments to be compressed to form varieties of coal‬
‭ etamorphic rocks‬
M
‭Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have changed from what they originally were due to exposure to high‬
‭temperatures/pressures‬
‭Contact metamorphic rocks‬‭- Rocks that have been altered‬‭primarily by heat due to close contact with‬
‭bodies of molten rock, forming in a narrow ring around the magma‬
‭Regional metamorphic rocks‬‭- Rocks that have been‬‭altered primarily by high pressure when tectonic‬
‭plate collisions cause rocks to fold and compress‬
‭-‬ ‭Regional occurs over much larger areas in comparison to contact metamorphism and often‬
‭deform the rock if it was sedimentary (folding the strata layers and mixing them up)‬
‭Metamorphic rocks are classified into two main types:‬‭foliated and nonfoliated‬

F‭ oliated Metamorphic Rocks‬

‭Foliated rocks contain flaky minerals that are aligned in parallel structures (foliations) due to the‬
‭compressional forces of regional metamorphism e.g‬‭slate, phyllite,schist‬
‭Lineation‬‭- when shapes of any form are rearranged‬‭to be parallel to one another‬

‭ on-foliated Metamorphic Rocks‬

N
‭Non-foliated metamorphic rocks have large crystals and a grainy appearance that do not contain‬
‭foliations. Some result from regional metamorphism however they do not contain sufficient flaky‬
‭minerals e.g‬‭quartzite, marble‬
‭-‬ ‭Some non-foliated rocks contain flaky mineral however were formed through contact‬
‭metamorphism meaning they didn’t form lineage‬

‭Degrees of metamorphism‬
‭-‬ ‭When you start with an original rock, the properties it forms through metamorphism will vary‬
‭according to the amount and type of change it undergoes‬
‭-‬ ‭Does it go through regional or contact metamorphism and to what extent?‬
‭-‬ ‭However there are some rocks that only turn into another rock when metamorphosed‬
‭-‬ ‭Limestone → Marble‬
‭-‬ ‭Sandstone → Quartzite‬

‭Recognising metamorphic rocks‬

‭-‬ ‭Presence of lineation‬
‭-‬ ‭Presence of specifically metamorphic minerals‬

‭ hat do rocks tell us?‬

W
‭Igneous rocks‬
‭-‬ ‭Light coloured rocks are rich in silicate and would have formed at convergent plate boundaries‬
‭-‬ ‭Dark coloured rocks are low in silicate and would have formed at divergent boundaries‬
‭-‬ ‭Large crystals tell us the rock was formed deep in Earth‬
‭-‬ ‭Large crystals surrounded by smaller crystals tell us formation started as‬‭intrusive‬‭but the rock‬
‭was brought closer to the surface before it solidified‬
 -‭ ‬ ‭ on-visible crystals tell us the rock was formed close to Earth’s surface‬
N
‭-‬ ‭Glassy texture - rock cooled rapidly above Earth’s surface‬

‭Sedimentary rocks‬
‭-‬ ‭Rocks with larger particles indicate deposition in fast flowing waters‬
‭-‬ ‭Conglomerate has large particles - Steeper parts of river, mountainous areas‬
‭-‬ ‭Sandstone has medium particles - Rivers, near coast marine environments‬
‭-‬ ‭Shale has small particles - quiet waters, lagoons, shallow seas‬

‭ etamorphic rocks‬
M
‭By determining the original rock we can determine the conditions of Earth at the time of formation‬
‭-‬ ‭Low grade metamorphism caused by regional compression (colliding tectonic plates) - in the‬
‭area the rock was found‬
‭-‬ ‭High grade metamorphism caused by intense compression or contact with magma - in the area‬
‭where the rock was found‬

‭Rock Cycle - Formation of rocks‬

‭ eathering and erosion of rocks on‬
W
‭the surface - these get carried away‬
‭by water and get deposited onto the‬
‭land, eventually finding themselves in‬
‭river banks and bodies of water. This‬
‭process repeats years after years, and‬
‭eventually forms layers over millions‬
‭of years.‬
‭The loose layers of sediment get‬
‭compacted (being extremely pressed‬
‭down/pressured) and cemented‬
‭( joined by chemical glues), forming‬
‭into sedimentary rock over time. The‬
‭sedimentary rock layers get buried‬
‭deep underground as layers form on‬
‭top of other layers. Sometimes cracks‬
‭in the Earth’s crust (beneath the‬
‭sedimentary layers) appear and cause magma to seep through. The severe heat causes the sedimentary‬
‭rock to melt (into magma) and change into a different type of rock, therefore turning into metamorphic‬
‭rock.‬
‭Glossary‬
‭Word‬ ‭Definition‬

‭Minerals‬ ‭ ock forming solid particles identified by their varying physical and chemical‬
R
‭composition‬

‭Silicate minerals‬ T‭ he most common minerals found on Earth, made up of silica that have metal‬
‭atoms bonded in place of some oxygen or silicone atoms‬

‭Silica‬ ‭ ure SiO (Silicone & Oxygen atoms) that is also known as “quartz”. The higher‬
P
‭the presence of silica the lighter the rock will be‬

‭Mafic minerals‬ I‭gneous rock that is rich in ferromagnesian minerals but relatively low in silica,‬
‭making the minerals darker in colour‬

‭Felsic minerals‬ I‭gneous rock that is relatively richer in silica, making the minerals lighter in‬
‭colour‬

‭Hardness‬ ‭The mineral’s resistance to it being scratched‬

‭Streak‬ S‭ treak is a mineral’s powdered colour and can be determined by scraping the‬
‭mineral on an unglazed tile‬

‭Lustre‬ L‭ ustre refers to how shiny a mineral’s surface is and can be classified as metallic‬
‭or non-metallic‬

‭ ensity/specific‬
D ‭ mineral’s density in comparison to water for example halite has a specific‬
A
‭gravity‬ ‭gravity of 2 which means it is twice as dense as water‬

‭Cleavage‬ ‭How a mineral naturally breaks or splits due to points of weakness‬

‭Fractures‬ ‭ efer to when minerals have no specific lines of weakness and so they break in‬
R
‭uneven ways‬

‭Rocks‬ ‭ onsist of many joined pieces with either one or multiple types of minerals and‬
C
‭can be classified in a number of ways‬

‭Igneous rocks‬ F‭ ormed from the cooling of molten lava or magma and classified according to‬
‭their chemical composition, texture or size of crystals‬

F‭ erromagnesian‬ ‭Minerals rich in iron and/or magnesium‬

‭minerals‬

‭Sedimentary rocks‬ F‭ ormed by layers of compacted and cemented sediments which may come‬
‭from the breakdown of other rocks, chemical precipitates or organic remains‬

‭Strata‬ ‭Layers of rock or sediment where each layer is buried by another over time‬
‭Law of superposition‬ ‭When rocks at the bottom of sedimentary strata are older than the top‬

‭ lastic sedimentary‬
C F‭ orm from weathered and eroded pieces of other rocks which have been‬
‭rocks‬ ‭deposited and cemented together‬

‭Conglomerates‬ ‭ lassification of pebble sized or larger sediments within a clastic sedimentary‬

C
‭rock‬

‭Sandstones‬ ‭Classification of sand sized sediments within a clastic sedimentary rock‬

‭Shales/mudstones‬ ‭Silt sized sediments‬

‭ hemical‬
C ‭Formed by chemical precipitation or biological activity‬
‭sedimentary rocks‬

‭ hemical‬
C ‭ ccurs when the evaporation of water from shallow bodies of water causes the‬
O
‭precipitation‬ ‭water to become saturated with soluble minerals‬

‭ iological activity to‬

B ‭ aried ways of formation including the extraction of calcium carbonate to form‬
V
‭form sediments‬ ‭shells that are left to deposit when the organism dies‬

‭Intrusive rocks‬ ‭Rocks that are formed deep in the Earth‬

‭Extrusive rocks‬ ‭Rocks that are formed near the Earth’s surface‬

‭Metamorphic rocks‬ ‭ ocks that have changed from what they originally were due to exposure to‬
R
‭high temperatures/pressures‬

‭ ontact‬
C ‭ ocks that have been altered primarily by heat due to close contact with‬
R
‭metamorphic rocks‬ ‭bodies of molten rock, forming in a narrow ring around the magma‬

‭ egional‬
R ‭ ocks that have been altered primarily by high pressure when tectonic plate‬
R
‭metamorphic rocks‬ ‭collisions cause rocks to fold and compress‬

F‭ oliated‬ ‭ ontains flaky minerals that are aligned in parallel structures (foliations) due to‬
C
‭metamorphic rock‬ ‭the compressional forces of regional metamorphism‬

‭Lineation‬ ‭When shapes of any form are rearranged to be parallel to one another‬

‭ on-foliated‬
N ‭Contains large crystals and a grainy appearance that do not contain foliations‬
‭metamorphic rock‬

‭Validity‬ T‭ o what extent does the experiment measure what it is supposed to measure -‬
‭does it achieve the purpose of the experiment (aim)?‬
 ‭Reliability‬ ‭ n experiment is considered reliable if it is repeated several times and a‬
A
‭consistent set of results is achieved‬

‭Accuracy‬ ‭How close the final result is to the correct or accepted value‬

‭Scientific skills‬

‭Validity‬
‭●‬ ‭To what extent does the experiment measure what it is supposed to measure - does it achieve‬
‭the purpose of the experiment (aim)?‬
‭●‬ ‭This involves determining the correct variables, as well as controlling all other variables in order‬
‭for the experiment to achieve the most valid results that meet the aim of the experiment‬
‭●‬ ‭Things you can do to make an experiment more valid:‬
‭○‬ ‭Control more of the variables‬
‭○‬ ‭Improving the measurement‬‭technique‬‭for the results‬‭e.g using a thermometer instead‬
‭of saying it is hot or cold‬
‭○‬ ‭May contain assumptions that need to be satisfied‬

‭Reliability‬
‭●‬ ‭An experiment is considered reliable if it is repeated several times and a consistent set of results‬
‭is achieved‬
‭●‬ ‭Scientists should be able to use different equipment and achieve the same results‬
‭●‬ ‭To test for reliability‬‭- Repeat the experiment to‬‭see how consistent the results are‬
‭●‬ ‭Reliability can be affected by the validity of an experiment. If the experiment is not valid due to‬
‭control variables not being controlled, then it could be affecting the reliability in an‬
‭unpredictable way‬
‭●‬ ‭Things you can do to make an experiment more reliable‬
‭○‬ ‭Reduce the risk of random errors e.g fix control variables, choice of equipment‬

‭Accuracy‬
‭●‬ ‭How close the final result is to the correct or accepted value‬
‭●‬ ‭How to improve accuracy‬
‭○‬ ‭Look at individual measurements - Faulty equipment like thermometers‬
‭○‬ ‭Choice of equipment‬
‭○‬ ‭A method that reduces systematic errors‬
‭ ote that a result can be reliable but inaccurate and invalid. A result can also be accurate but not‬
N
‭reliable. Reliability does not depend on accuracy or validity.‬
‭Accuracy is affected by systematic errors‬
‭Reliability is affected by random errors‬

‭How to construct a dichotomous key‬

‭1.‬ ‭Identify all distinguishing characteristics‬
‭2.‬ ‭Order the characteristics from most to least generalised‬
‭3.‬ ‭Split specimens into two groups using the most generalised characteristics‬
‭4.‬ ‭Split the two groups further‬
‭5.‬ ‭Form a dichotomous key‬
‭6.‬ ‭Test it out‬

‭Geological Time Scale‬

‭ escribe relative and absolute dating of the geosphere‬

D
‭Relative dating‬‭- Dating in comparison to other rocks/layers‬
‭Absolute dating‬‭- Specific dating of rock using methods‬‭such as radioactive dating‬

‭Geological Time Scale Laws‬

‭1.‬ ‭Law of superposition‬‭- The idea that the closer to‬‭the surface the layer of rock is, the younger‬
‭that layer id in comparison to rock layers beneath it‬
‭2.‬ ‭Law of cross-cutting relations‬‭- dd‬