Automatic light fence with alarm

A project report 0n
Submitted by

Ch .Praveen 180069007
Ch .saikrishna 180069008
D .Abdul kalam 180069009
Sec - 1, Batch -8

II/IV BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

Electrical and Electronics engineering

(SEMESTER-IV)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERS

Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation

VADDESWARAM-522502

April 2020

i
 Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation
Analog Electronics Circuits and
Design (18EC2103) Electrical &
Electronics engineers

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr.Ch.Praveen -180069007,

Mr.Ch.Saikrishna- 180069008 & Mr.D.abdul
kalam-180069009 of section 1 studying II/IV
B.Tech in EEE has satisfactorily completed project
Automatic fence lighting with alarm in the
semester IV during the academic year
2019-2020

Signature of Course Instructor SignatureofCoordinator

Mr.KASI UDAY KIRAN Mr.KASIUDAYKIRAN

Signature of HOD

Dr.S.V.N.L.Lalitha

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express great pleasure for me to express my gratitude to our

honourable President Sri. Koneru Satyanarayana, for providing
the opportunity and platform with facilities in accomplishing the
project based laboratory. We express the sincere gratitude to our
principal Dr. K. Subbarao for his administration towards our
academic growth.

We express sincere gratitude to our Head of the department EEE Dr. S. V.

N. LALITHA for her leadership and constant motivation provided
in successful completion of our academic semester. We record it as
our privilege to deeply thank for providing us the efficient faculty
and facilities to make our ideas into reality.

We express my sincere thanks to our project supervisor Mr. KASI

UDAY KIRAN for his novel association of ideas, encouragement,
appreciation and intellectual zeal which motivated us to venture
this project successfully.

We are pleased to acknowledge the indebtedness to our lab

technicians who devoted themselves directly or indirectly to make
this project success.

Last but not the least we express our deep gratitude and affection to
our parents who stood behind us in all our endeavors.

CH.Praveen 180069007
CH.Saikrishna 180069008
D.Abdul kalam 180069009

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SNO: CONTENT: PGNO:

1 Abstract i-v
2 Introduction v-viii
3 Ldr Viii
4 555ic ix-xi
5 741ic xi-xiv
6 Led xiv-xx
7 Resistor xx-xix
8 Pizeo buzzer xix-xxx
9 Bread board xxx-xxxi
10 Result xxxi
11 Inference xxxii

iv
 ABSTRACT:
Light fence circuit is used to detect the presence of any human or
object in a particular area. The detecting range of Light Fence Circuit
is about 1.5 to 3 meters. It’s quite simple to design the circuit using
LDR and Op-amp. This portable circuit can work smoothly with a
commonly available 9V battery and the alarm sound generated from
the buzzer is loud enough to detect the presence of a human, vehicle
or object.

LDR is placed facing towards the entrance and a potentiometer is

used to adjust the sensitivity of the device. You can also add a switch
between the negative pin of the battery and LDR’s grounded pin to
control this security system manually.

From this experiment we can have many advantages that is It is quiet

easy to make it is used in security systems to identify the
miscellaneous objects are not entered into the restricted area if any
object is trying to enter into the restricted area then the system used
gives signal in the form of buzzer and light will glow then we can
identify the miscellaneous objects.

v
Introduction:

The project is based on purely analog components like op-amp;

transistor resistors capacitors and other equipment

Aim:

To perform the automatic fence lighting with alarm using op-amps

Components required:

▪ LM741 Op-amp IC
▪ 555 timer IC
▪ BC557 – PNP Transistor
▪ LDR
▪ Resistor (210, 1K, 5.7K, 100k, 1M)
▪ Capacitor (0.1uf, 10uf)
▪ Potentiometer – 100K
▪ Buzzer
▪ LED
▪ Battery - 9V
▪ Breadboard

Description of Automatic Fence Lighting Circuit with

Alarm:
The circuit of automatic fence lighting circuit with alarm is shown in
figure 1. The construction of this project is very simple and is built
around readily available electronics components like op-amp 741,
timer
▪ IC 555, PNP transistor BC557, LED, pizeo buzzer and few other
passive components like resistor and capacitors.
▪ IC741 is configured in voltage comparator mode where resistor
R1 and R2 is voltage divider which provide reference voltage

vi
 and LDR with variable resistor RV1 is also voltage divider and
provide signal voltage. Timer IC 555 is configuring
▪ in monostable multivibrator mode where resistor r6 and
capacitor C2 is responsible for time delay because these two
components are called time constant.

Basically, a voltage comparator compares a signal voltage on one

input of op-amp with a known voltage called reference voltage on
the other input. This circuit is also called non-inverting comparator
because Vin (input voltage signal) is given to non-inverting pin (pin 3).
Reference voltage of about ½ of 4.5V is available at inverting input
(pin 2) and signal voltage to be compare is available at non-inverting
input (pin 3) from the potential divider network build using LDR and
VR1. The output may be high (+) and low (-) saturation voltage,
depending on with input is the larger.

vii
When Vin at pin 3 is greater than Vref at pin 2 then the output of
IC1 will be high, which drive transistor T1 in off state. As a result, LED
become off and IC2 is also stop from oscillation. Similarly, when light
is interrupted on LDR, the voltage (Vin) at pin 3 is less than Vref voltage
(voltage at pin 2) as a result the output of IC1 (741) become low. This
low output trigger timer IC 555 (IC2) which activate piezo buzzer for
definite time interval which is determined by resistor R6 and C2

Theory:
LDR: An LDR is a component that has a (variable) resistance that
changes with the light intensity that falls upon it. This allows them to
be used in light sensing circuits.

Applications of LDRs:

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There are many applications for Light Dependent Resistors.
These include:
o Lighting switch
o Camera shutter control
555 Timer IC:
o 555 Timer IC is one of the most used IC in electronics, especially
for triggering purpose. To learn more about it follow our
various 555 Timer circuits. Here we are using 555 Timer IC in
astable mode to create a beeping sound with Buzzer. Below we
have explained the behavior of each of the pin of 555 Timer IC
when operating in Astable mode.

o Pin 1. Ground: This pin should be connected to ground.

o Pin 2. TRIGGER: Trigger pin is dragged from the negative input
of comparator two. The Lower comparator output is connected
to SET pin of flip-flop. A negative pulse (< Vcc/3) on this Pin sets
the Flip flop and output goes High.
o Pin 3. OUTPUT: This pin also has no special function. This is
output pin where Load is connected. It can be used as source or
sink and drive upto 200mA current.

ix
o Pin 4. Reset: There is a flip-flop in the timer chip. Reset pin is
directly connected to MR (Master Reset) of the flip-flop. This is a
active Low pin and normally connected to VCC for preventing
accidental Reset.
o Pin 5. Control Pin: The control pin is connected from the
negative input pin of comparator one. Output Pulse width can be
controlled by applying voltage at this Pin, irrespective of RC
network. Normally this pin is pulled down with a capacitor
(0.01uF), to avoid unwanted noise interference with the working.
o Pin 6. THRESHOLD: Threshold pin voltage determines when to
reset the flip-flop in the timer. The threshold pin is drawn from
positive input of upper comparator. If the control pin is open,
then a voltage equal to or greater than VCC*(2/3) will reset the
flip-flop. So the output goes low.
o Pin 7. DISCHARGE: This pin is drawn from the open collector of
transistor. Since the transistor (on which discharge pin got taken,
Q1) got its base connected to Qbar. Whenever the output goes
low or the flip-flop gets reset, the discharge pin is pulled to
ground and capacitor discharges.
o Pin 8. Power or VCC: It is connected to positive voltage (+3.6v to
+15v).

A monostable multivibrator (MMV):

x
Initially, when the output at pin 3 is low i.e. the circuit is in a stable
state, the transistor is on and capacitor- C is shorted to ground.
When a negative pulse is applied to pin 2, the trigger input falls
below +1/3 VCC, the output of comparator goes high which resets the
flip-flop and consequently the transistor turns off and the output at
pin 3 goes high. This is the transition of the output from stable to
quasi-stable state, as shown in figure. As the discharge transistor is
cutoff, the capacitor C begins charging toward +VCC through
resistance RA with a time constant equal to RAC. When the increasing
capacitor voltage becomes slightly greater than +2/3 VCC, the output
of comparator 1 goes high, which sets the flip-flop. The transistor
goes to saturation, thereby discharging the capacitor C and the
output of the timer goes low, as illustrated in figure.
Thus the output returns back to stable state from quasi-stable state.
The output of the Monostable Multivibrator remains low until a
trigger pulse is again applied. Then the cycle repeats. Trigger input,
output voltage and capacitor voltage waveforms are shown in figure.

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Op amp 741 IC or Operational Amplifier 741 IC:
1. Pin 1 is balance pin (offset null)
2. Pin 2 is inverting input
3. Pin 3 is non inverting input
4. Pin 4 is negative power supply pin
5. Pin 5 is balance pin (offset null)
6. Pin 6 is output pin
7. Pin 7 is positive power supply pin
8. Pin 8 does not have any connection

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IC 741 mainly performs mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction, division, multiplication, integration, differentiation etc.
IC 741 has three stages such as differential input, gain, and push-pull
output.
Pin 1 and 5 are “offset null” or “balance” terminals.
The op amp is nothing but a differential amplifier. When we apply
the same voltage at the inverting terminal (Pin 2) and the non-
inverting terminal (Pin 3) there should not be any voltage at the
output terminal (Pin 6). This condition is an ideal. Practically there is
always a small voltage (offset voltage) appears at pin 6 even the
voltage applied at pin 2 and 3 are exactly equal. Offset voltage
appears at output because we can not make the parameters of
transistors and value of biasing resistances of differential amplifier
perfectly same.
But still, we can make the output voltage exactly zero if we apply the
offset voltage to the inputs to balance the output offset voltage. We
call this as the input offset voltage.
We can add some external circuitries to reduce the mismatches in
the IC 741. These circuitries balance the offset voltage. IC 741 has
two terminals (Pin 1 and Pin 5) at input stage for the purpose where
we can add external circuits to balance offset voltages. Offset null
adjustment usually requires a potentiometer with its slider
connected to the negative supply.Pin 4 is for negative power supply
and pin 7 is for positive power supply.

Architecture:

xiii
A small-scale integrated circuit, the 741 op-amp shares with most op-
amps an internal structure consisting of three gain stages:[12]

1. Differential amplifier (outlined dark blue) — provides high

differential amplification (gain), with rejection of common-
mode signal, low noise, high input impedance, and drives a
2. Voltage amplifier (outlined magenta) — provides high voltage
gain, a single-pole frequency roll-off, and in turn drives the
3. Output amplifier (outlined cyan and green) — provides high
current gain (low output impedance), along with output
current limiting, and output short-circuit protection.

7.LED:
• A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that
emits light when current flows through it. Electrons in the
semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in
the form of photons. The color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for

xiv
• electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor.[5] White
light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of
light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.[6]
• Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest
LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light.[7] Infrared LEDs are used
in remote-control circuits, such as those used with a wide variety
of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were of low
intensity and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with high light
output.
• Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps, replacing small
incandescent bulbs, and in seven-segment displays. Recent
developments have produced high-output white light LEDs
suitable for room and outdoor area lighting. LEDs have led to new
displays and sensors, while their high switching rates are useful in
advanced communications technology.
• LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources,
including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs are
used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera
flashes, lighted wallpaper, horticultural grow lights, and medical
devices.[8]
• Unlike a laser, the light emitted from an LED is neither
spectrally coherent nor even highly monochromatic. However,
its spectrum is sufficiently narrow that it appears to the human
eye as a pure (saturated) color.[9][10] Also unlike most lasers, its
radiation is not spatially coherent, so it cannot approach the very
high brightnesses characteristic of lasers.
White:
• There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting
diodes. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary
colors—red, green and blue—and then mix all the colors to form
white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert
monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum
xv
 white light, similar to a fluorescent lamp. The yellow phosphor
is cerium-doped YAG crystals suspended in the package or
coated on the LED

This YAG phosphor causes white LEDs to look yellow when off, and
the space between the crystals allow some blue light to pass
through. Alternatively, white LEDs may use other phosphors like
magnesium-doped potassium fluorosilicate (PFS) or other
engineered phosphors. PFS assists in red light generation, and is used
in conjunction with conventional Ce:YAG phosphor. In LEDs with PFS
phosphor, some blue light passes through the phosphors, the Ce:YAG
phosphor converts blue light to green and red light, and the PFS
phosphor converts blue light to red light. The color temperature of
the LED can be controlled by changing the concentration of the
phosphors.[94][95][96]
The 'whiteness' of the light produced is engineered to suit the
human eye. Because of metamerism, it is possible to have quite
different spectra that appear white. However, the appearance of
objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies.
This is the issue of color rendition, quite separate from color

xvi
temperature. An orange or cyan object could appear with the wrong
color and much darker as the LED or phosphor does not emit the
wavelength it reflects. The best color rendition LEDs use a mix of
phosphors, resulting in less efficiency but better color rendering.
Safety and health
Certain blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs can exceed safe limits of the
so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications
such as "ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1–05: Recommended Practice for
Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems".[124] One study
showed no evidence of a risk in normal use at domestic
illuminance,[125] and that caution is only needed for particular
occupational situations or for specific populations.[126] In 2006,
the International Electrotechnical Commission published IEC 62471
Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems, replacing the
application of early laser-oriented standards for classification of LED
sources.[127]
While LEDs have the advantage over fluorescent lamps, in that they
do not contain mercury, they may contain other hazardous metals
such as lead and arsenic.[128]
In 2016 the American Medical Association (AMA) issued a statement
concerning the possible adverse influence of blueish street
lighting on the sleep-wake cycle of city-dwellers. Industry critics
claim exposure levels are not high enough to have a noticeable
effect.[129]
Advantages
• Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent
light bulbs.[130] The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not
affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
• Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any
color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more
efficient and can lower initial costs.

xvii
• Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2[131]) and are
easily attached to printed circuit boards.
• Warmup time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator
LED achieves full brightness in under a microsecond.[132] LEDs used
in communications devices can have even faster response times.
• Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling,
unlike incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when
cycled often, or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) that
require a long time before restarting.
• Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width
modulation or lowering the forward current.[133] This pulse-width
modulation is why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars,
when viewed on camera or by some people, seem to flash or
flicker. This is a type of stroboscopic effect.
• Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very
little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive
objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the
base of the LED.
• Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather than
the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.[134]
• Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report
estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to
complete failure may be shorter or longer.[135] Fluorescent tubes
typically are rated at about 10,000 to 25,000 hours, depending
partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at
1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have shown
that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime,
rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in determining
the payback period for an LED product.[136]
• Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult
to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and
incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.[137]
• Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its
light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an
external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.
xviii
 For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are
often used to the same effect. However, when large quantities of
light are needed many light sources are usually deployed, which
are difficult to focus or collimate towards the same target.
Disadvantages
• Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on
the ambient temperature of the operating environment – or
thermal management properties. Overdriving an LED in high
ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package,
eventually leading to device failure. An adequate heat sink is
needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in
automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must
operate over a wide range of temperatures, and require low
failure rates.
• Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with a voltage above
their threshold voltage and a current below their rating. Current
and lifetime change greatly with a small change in applied voltage.
They thus require a current-regulated supply (usually just a series
resistor for indicator LEDs).[138]
• Color rendition: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ
significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an
incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can
make the color of objects appear differently under cool-white LED
illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due
to metamerism,[139] red surfaces being rendered particularly
poorly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. The same is
true with green surfaces. The quality of color rendition of an LED
is measured by the Color Rendering Index (CRI).
• Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point
source of light giving a spherical light distribution, but rather
a lambertian distribution. So, LEDs are difficult to apply to uses
needing a spherical light field; however, different fields of light
can be manipulated by the application of different optics or

xix
 "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few
degrees.[140]
• Light pollution: Because white LEDs emit more short wavelength
light than sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the
increased blue and green sensitivity of scotopic vision means that
white LEDs used in outdoor lighting cause substantially more sky
glow.[118]
• Efficiency droop: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the electric
current increases. Heating also increases with higher currents,
which compromises LED lifetime. These effects put practical limits
on the current through an LED in high power applications.[141]
• Impact on wildlife: LEDs are much more attractive to insects than
sodium-vapor lights, so much so that there has been speculative
concern about the possibility of disruption to food
webs.[142][143] LED lighting near beaches, particularly intense blue
and white colors, can disorient turtle hatchlings and make them
wander inland instead.[144] The use of "Turtle-safe lighting" LEDs
that emit only at narrow portions of the visible spectrum is
encouraged by conservancy groups in order to reduce harm.[145]
• Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in
comparison to incandescent lights, LED lights used for traffic
control can have snow obscuring them, leading to
accidents.[146][147]
• Thermal runaway: Parallel strings of LEDs will not share current
evenly due to the manufacturing tolerances in their forward
voltage. Running two or more strings from a single current source
may result in LED failure as the devices warm up. If forward
voltage binning is not possible, a circuit is required to ensure even
distribution of current between parallel strands.[148]
Applications:
LED uses fall into four major categories:

• Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the
source to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning

xx
• Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual
response of these objects
• Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human
vision[149]
• Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias
mode and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light

RESISTOR:
What is resistor?
Resistor is an electrical component that reduces the electric current.
The resistor's ability to reduce the current is called resistance and is
measured in units of ohms (symbol: Ω).
If we make an analogy to water flow through pipes, the resistor is a
thin pipe that reduces the water flow.
Ohm's law
The resistor's current I in amps (A) is equal to the resistor's
voltage V in volts (V)
divided by the resistance R in ohms (Ω):

The resistor's power consumption P in watts (W) is equal to the

resistor's current I in amps (A)
times the resistor's voltage V in volts (V):
P=I×V
The resistor's power consumption P in watts (W) is equal to the
square value of the resistor's current I in amps (A)
times the resistor's resistance R in ohms (Ω):
P = I2 × R

xxi
The resistor's power consumption P in watts (W) is equal to
the square value of the resistor's voltage V in volts (V)
divided by the resistor's resistance R in ohms (Ω):
P = V2/ R
Resistor symbols
Resistor
(IEEE)
Resistor reduces the
current flow.
Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer
(IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has
3 terminals.
Potentiometer
(IEC)

Variable
Resistor /
Rheostat
(IEEE) Adjustable resistor - has
Variable 2 terminals.
Resistor /
Rheostat
(IEC)

Trimmer
Presest resistor
Resistor

Thermal resistor -
Thermistor change resistance when
temperature changes
Photoresistor /
Light Changes resistance
dependent according to light
resistor (LDR)

Resistor color code

xxii
The resistance of the resistor and its tolerance are marked on the
resistor with color code bands that denotes the resistance value.
There are 3 types of color codes:
• 4 bands: digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance.

• 5 bands: digit, digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance.

• 6 bands: digit, digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance, temperature

coefficient.

Resistance calculation of 4 bands resistor

R = (10×digit1 + digit2) × multiplier
Resistance calculation of 5 or 6 bands resistor
R = (100×digit1 + 10×digit2+digit3) × multiplier
Variable resistors
Adjustable resistors
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the
resistance can be changed by moving the connecting wires to
different terminals. Some wirewound power resistors have a tapping
point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or
smaller part of the resistance to be used.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during
operation of equipment is required, the sliding resistance tap can be
connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a device is called
a rheostat and has two terminals.
Potentiometers

Typical panel mount potentiometer

xxiii
bands:

A.The first significant figure of component value (left side)

B. The second significant figure (some precision resistors have a
third significant figure, and thus five bands).
C. The decimal multiplier (number of trailing zeroes)
D. If present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no band means
20%)
Temperature
Ring color
Significa Tolerance
coefficient
nt Multiplier
Nam Cod Percen Lett [ppm/ Lett
RAL figures
e e t [%] er K] er
None – – – – ±20 M –
301 ×10−3
Pink PK – [7] ×0.001 – –
5
Silver SR – – ×10−2 ×0.01 ±10 K –
Gold GD – – ×10−1 ×0.1 ±5 J –
900
Black BK 0 ×100 ×1 – 250 U
5
Brow BN 800 1 ×101 ×10 ±1 F 100 S

xxiv
 n 3
300
Red RD 2 ×102 ×100 ±2 G 50 R
0
Oran 200
OG 3 ×103 ×1000 ±0.05[7] W 15 P
ge 3
Yello 102 ±0.02[7]
YE 4 ×104 ×10000 [nb 1][8] P 25 Q
w 1
Gree 601 Z[nb
GN 5 ×105 ×100000 ±0.5 D 20 2]
n 8
501 Z[nb
Blue BU 6 ×106 ×1000000 ±0.25 C 10 2]
5
400 ×1000000
Violet VT 7 ×107 ±0.1 B 5 M
5 0
±0.01[7]
700 ×1000000
Grey GY 8 ×108 [nb 3][nb
L (A) 1 K
0 00 1][8]

Whit 101 ×1000000

WH 9 ×109 – –
e 3 000

A useful mnemonic matches the first letter of the color code, in

numeric order. The following examples include the tolerance codes
gold, silver, and none:

• Bad Beer Rots Out Your Guts But Vodka Goes Well –
Get Some Now.[14]
• Black Bears Ruined Our Young Green Berry Vines Growing
Wild – Grandma Said Nervously.
B B ROY of Great Britain had a Very Good Wife who
wore Gold and Silver Necklace
Capacitors

xxv
Capacitors may be marked with 4 or more colored bands or dots. The
colors encode the first and second most significant digits of the value
in picofarads, and the third color the decimal multiplier. Additional
bands have meanings which may vary from one type to another.
Low-tolerance capacitors may begin with the first 3 (rather than 2)
digits of the value. It is usually, but not always, possible to work out
what scheme is used by the particular colors used. Cylindrical
capacitors marked with bands may look like resistors.

Capacitor types

o Voltage-dependent capacitors
o Frequency-dependent capacitors

Styles:

xxvi
Applications:
• Energy storage
• Pulsed power and weapons
• Power conditioning
• Power factor correction
• Digital memory
• Decoupling
• Suppression and coupling
• High-pass and low-pass filters
• Noise suppression, spikes, and snubbers
• Motor starters
• Signal processing
Oscillators

A capacitor can possess spring-like

qualities in an oscillator circuit. In the
image example, a capacitor acts to influence the biasing voltage at
the npn transistor's base. The resistance values of the voltage-divider
resistors and the capacitance value of the capacitor together control
the oscillatory frequency.
Producing light:
A light-emitting capacitor is made from a dielectric that
uses phosphorescence to produce light. If one of the conductive
plates is made with a transparent material, the light is visible. Light-
emitting capacitors are used in the construction of
electroluminescent panels, for applications such as backlighting for

xxvii
laptop computers. In this case, the entire panel is a capacitor used
for the purpose of generating light.

Hazards and safety

The hazards posed by a capacitor are usually determined, foremost,
by the amount of energy stored, which is the cause of things like
electrical burns or heart fibrillation. Factors such as voltage and
chassis material are of secondary consideration, which are more
related to how easily a shock can be initiated rather than how much
damage can occur.[50] Under certain conditions, including conductivity
of the surfaces, preexisting medical conditions, the humidity of the
air, or the pathways it takes through the body (i.e.: shocks that travel
across the core of the body and, especially, the heart are more
dangerous than those limited to the extremities), shocks as low as
one joule have been reported to cause death, although in most
instances they may not even leave a burn. Shocks over ten joules will
generally damage skin, and are usually considered hazardous. Any
capacitor that can store 50 joules or more should be considered
potentially lethal.[75][50]
Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a
circuit; this charge can cause dangerous or even potentially
fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For example, even a
seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable-camera flash unit,
powered by a 1.5 volt AA battery, has a capacitor which may contain
over 15 joules of energy and be charged to over 300 volts. This is
easily capable of delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic
devices usually include instructions to discharge large or high-voltage
capacitors, for instance using a Brinkley stick. Capacitors may also
have built-in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe
level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-voltage
capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from
potentially dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption or from
transient voltages the capacitor may pick up from static charges or
passing weather events.[50]

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Some old, large oil-filled paper or plastic film capacitors
contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). It is known that waste
PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills. Capacitors containing
PCB were labelled as containing "Askarel" and several other trade
names. PCB-filled paper capacitors are found in very old (pre-
1975) fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other applications.
Capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or
currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of
life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing
that vaporizes the dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture,
or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current
applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor
rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can
violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden
dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit.
High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during
normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive
maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.
High-voltage capacitors may benefit from a pre-charge to limit in-
rush currents at power-up of high voltage direct current (HVDC)
circuits. This extends the life of the component and may mitigate
high-voltage hazards.
•

Swollen electrolytic capacitors – the special design of the capacitor

tops allows them to vent instead of bursting violently

xxix
 •

This high-energy capacitor from a defibrillator has a resistor

connected between the terminals for safety, to dissipate stored energy.

Catastrophic failure of a capacitor has scattered fragments of paper

and metallic foil

PIEZEO BUZZER

Piezoelectric buzzers, or piezo buzzers, as they are sometimes called,

were invented by Japanese manufacturers and fitted into a wide
array of products during the 1970s to 1980s. This advancement

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mainly came about because of cooperative efforts by Japanese
manufacturing companies. In 1951, they established the Barium
Titanate Application Research Committee, which allowed the
companies to be "competitively cooperative" and bring about several
piezoelectric innovations and inventions.[3]

Types
Electromechanical
Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical
to an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be
connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing
the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or
ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from
the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made.
Mechanical
A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer and they
require drivers. Other examples of them are doorbells.
Piezoelectric

Piezoelectric disk beeper

A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic
circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio
amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been
pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.

xxxi
Interior of a readymade loudspeaker, showing a piezoelectric-disk-
beeper (With 3 electrodes ... including 1 feedback-electrode ( the
central, small electrode joined with red wire in this photo), and an
oscillator to self-drive the buzzer.
A piezoelectric buzzer/beeper also depends on acoustic cavity
resonance or Helmholtz resonance to produce an audible beep[4

BREAD BOARD:

A breadboard is a solderless device for temporary prototype with

electronics and test circuit designs. Most electronic components in
electronic circuits can be interconnected by inserting their leads or
terminals into the holes and then making connections through wires
where appropriate
Connecting wires:
Wire used to extend the firing line or leg wires in an electric blasting
circuit

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12.OUTPUT:

REFERENCE: It requires virtually no set up, and may be

simply placed within the line-of-sight of almost any light source
including ambient day light or fluorescent electric light. The beep
generated from the circuit will be loud enough to detect the entry of
a person in the room or the protected area being guarded.

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