Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
(PRELIMS)
UDM VISION
Universidad de Manila promotes free and quality
tertiary education for the underprivileged youth,
relevant curricular and research programs, and
responsive extension services- all these benefiting
the City of Manila and the country
UDM MISSION
Universidad de Manila promotes free and quality
tertiary education for the underprivileged youth,
relevant curricular and research programs, and
responsive extension services- all these benefiting
the City of Manila and the country
CORE VALUES
- Quality and Excellent
- Education Academic Freedom
- Highest Ethical Standard
- Empowerment
- Pro People
CAS VISION
The College of Arts and Sciences envisions to create
a balance between the body and soul, and spirit
among the youth of Manila and shall help build a
livable community.
CAS MISSION
The College of Arts and Sciences commissions to
provide students with a liberal education that
promotes social awareness and involvement and by
introducing them to basic and advanced scientific
academic pursuits.
MODULE 1: LEARNING THEORIES
LEARNING: relatively permanent change that
happens to behavior and/or knowledge due to
experience.
: This includes changes that happen intentionally,
and those that happen unintentionally.
: In order for learning to be said to have taken
place, there should have been some interaction of
some kind between a learner and his/her
environment.
I. BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
(IVAN PAVLOV)
IVAN PAVLOV: Russian behaviorist and considered
as one of the founders of behaviorism.
Major principle governing classical conditioning -
THE PRINCIPLE OF CONTIGUITY.
Under the contiguity principle, learning is explained
by association; when two events repeatedly occur
together, they tend to become associated.
3 PHASES IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Phase 1: Pre-conditioning Phase
Neutral stimulus leads to - no response (sound of
bell)
Unconditioned stimulus leads to - Unconditioned
response (Meat powder)
Phase 2: Conditioning Phase (pairing)
Neutral stimulus (Sound of Bell) + Unconditioned
stimulus leads to - Salivation (meat powder) (after
several pairings)
Phase 3: Post-conditioning Phase
Conditioned stimulus triggers (salivation) (sound of
bell) (conditioned response)
3 MAJOR PROCESSES
GENERALIZATION - The dog also salivated at the
presentation of a range of similar sounds.
DISCRIMINATION - able to teach his dogs to
respond only to one particular sound of the bell.
He did this by presenting the dog with meat powder
only when that desired sound was given. Stimulus
discrimination (dog was able to determine the
particular stimulus which yielded reinforcement.)
EXTINCTION: when repeatedly presented the
conditioned stimulus (sound of bell) alone without
the accompaniment of the meat powder, the dog
eventually stopped salivating altogether.
 SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: reappearance /
resume of a conditioned response that has
been extinguished.
Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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LITTLE ALBERT 2 CATEGORIES

(JOHN WATSON)
 CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
: Little Albert was not afraid of rabbits, rats, or  INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT
woolen things. The only thing that seemed to SCHEDULE
trigger fear in little Albert were loud banging noises.
 RATIO SCHEDULE: number of responses a
: Watson started the contiguous pairing of the rat
learner gives before they can be rewarded
(neutral stimulus), with the banging of a hammer on
 INTERVAL SCHEDULE: amount of time that
a steal bar.
passes between reinforcers.
: Each time Watson presented the rat to little
RATIO INTERVAL
Albert, he would strike a hammer on a metal bar. reinforcement is
This led to little Albert exhibiting fear through FIXED presented after a
screaming. fixed number of
desired
: After a number of trials, the presentation of the responses
rabbit alone was able to trigger a conditioned
response of fear. Thus, the rat changed from being
varying numbers
a neutral stimulus, to being a conditioned stimulus. VARIABLE of behavior.

 OPERANT CONDITIONING
(B.F SKINNER)

SKINNER BOX

: At first, the rat wandered about in the box until it

accidentally stumbled upon the lever, an action PUNISHMENT: a stimulus which diminishes the
which gave the rat access to food pellets. : The probability or strength of a response preceding it.
hungry rat ate the food pellets and soon made a
connection between the pressing of the lever and REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT
gaining access to the food pellets. : For this
ADD pleasant ADD unpleasant
reason, the rat increased the frequency of pressing
POSITIVE stimulus to stimulus to
the lever. : This led Skinner to (add increase the decrease the
study the effects of consequences on preceding stimulus) desired behavior undesirable
behavior. to happen again. behavior to
happen again
REINFORCEMENT: same thing as reward. In REMOVE REMOVE
psychology, however, the term refers to any NEGATIVE unpleasant pleasant
consequence the application or removal of which (remove stimulus to stimulus to
increases the likelihood of the behaviour preceding stimulus) increase the decrease
desired behavior undesirable
it reoccurring in future. :
to happen again behavior to
Positive reinforcement and negative
happen again
reinforcement. Both types of reinforcement
increase the likelihood of the preceding behavior.
II. SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
 BOBO DOLL (ALBERT BANDURA)
: ‘the accepted rules that are used to present (or to
remove) reinforcers (or punishers) following a : Albert Bandura, a Canadian psychologist. Bandura
stipulated operant behavior’. argued that in order for behavioral theories to
: Depending on the type of reinforcement schedule explain learning more comprehensively, they need
used, different effects on the enacted behavior will to take into account the important role played by
be yielded. the social environment on learning.
: Bandura argued that through day-to- day
interactions in life, people (children and adults
alike), observed and modelled behavioral patterns
enacted by people who they regarded as significant
others.
Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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BOBO DOLL III. COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

: The children who had watched the model being
rewarded in the movie for aggressive behavior
toward the doll, tended to be the most aggressive
when playing with the doll. : Those
children who had watched the model being
punished for aggressive behavior in the movie,
exhibited the least aggression toward the doll.
: INCENTIVES (reward / punishment) can influences
performance.
 Cognitive-developmental Model (JEAN
PIAGET)
: PIAGET viewed children as active explorers and
thinkers who are constantly trying to find ways and
means of adapting to the environment.
4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL

RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM: how humans act is

influenced by three factors: environment, individual
characteristics, and behavior.

VICAROUS LEANING / OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

: individual can successfully learn by observing
another person taking an action, understanding the
reason behind that individual's success or failure,
and then imagining themselves taking the correct
course of action, without needing to actually do the
action themselves.

The mode of learning in the social cognitive learning
theory is through observation and modelling the
observed behavior.
4 PHASES OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING
INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESSES: Later, at about the
onset of adolescence, children begin to deal with
their environment through the use of their
cognition.

 ATTENTION: learners cannot learn from a

model that they have not paid attention to. IV. THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL
Learners are more likely to pay attention to
Like a computer, the human mind processes
models who are significant in their lives
information in three stages:
 RETENTION: storing the modelled behavior
so that it can be used in future. Once a 1. ENCODING (paying attention and perceiving);
learner has successfully encoded the
targeted behavior, he/she can then begin 2. STORAGE (organizing information); and
rehearsing it in the mind through visualizing
3. RETRIEVAL (gaining access to stored
and imagining him/her performing what has
information).
been observed
 REPRODUCTION: learner makes an attempt Information is best remembered when it is stored
to re-enact the learned behavior in such a manner that it is linked to what is already
 MOTIVATION: learners decide whether to known.
perform or not to perform what they have
modelled
Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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V. HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
(ABRAHAM MASLOW)

MAIN PRINCIPLES

1. Takes a positive or optimistic view of all

people. It assumes that each and every
human being possesses some inner
propensity to grow and develop. Human
beings have the ability to move toward self-
actualization (Maslow).
2. Views each human being as a unique
whole. While human beings are made up of
3 components namely; body (, mind, and
emotions, in practice, these three parts are II. DIRECT INSTRUCTION (DI) MODEL
inseparable. Thus, humanistic psychologists
: Model for teaching that emphasizes well-
believe in a holistic perspective of people
developed and carefully planned lessons designed
3. Humanistic psychologists believe each
around small learning increments and clearly
person’s perspective or point of view
defined and prescribed teaching tasks. It is based on
should be respected. Part of the uniqueness
the theory that clear instruction eliminating
of individual people lies in the different
misinterpretations can greatly improve and
ways in which they view and interpret
accelerate learning.
reality.
: enables practitioners to identify and focus on what
4. Humanistic psychologists respect choices
students know, what they don’t understand yet,
that are made by each individual person.
and where they need additional practice or support.
Since people possess the inner drive to
become whatever it is they desire to INTRODUCE NEW CONCEPT/REVIEW PRIOR
become (to be self-actualized), the choices LEARNING: Make these faultless through
that they make as they move towards that communication that is logically flawless
self fulfilment must be respected. Thus,
humanists view each person as an expert in PRESENT CONTENT WITH EXAMPLES/NON-
choosing what he/she desires to do. EXAMPLES: Predict that the learner will learn the
concept conveyed by the faultless presentation.

STUDENT RESPONSE: Observe whether the learner

MODELS FOR TEACHING
I. BSCS 5E INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL
: The five phases of the BSCS 5E Instructional Model
are designed to facilitate the process of conceptual
change.
: this model brings coherence to different teaching
strategies, provides connections among educational
activities, and helps science teachers make
decisions about interactions with students.
actually learns the intended concept or whether the
learner has difficulty
TEACHER FEEDBACK: The extent to which the
learner does or does not possess the mechanisms
necessary to respond to the faultless presentation
of the concept.
INDEPENDENT PRACTICE: Design instruction for the
unsuccessful learner that will modify the learner's
capacity to respond to the faultless presentation.

ENGAGEMENT - students' prior knowledge accessed

and interest engaged in the phenomenon
EXPLORATION - students participate in an activity
that facilitates conceptual change
EXPLANATION - students generate an explanation
of the phenomenon
ELABORATION - students' understanding of the
phenomenon challenged and deepened through
new experiences
EVALUATION - students assess their understanding
of the phenomenon
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III. Explicit Direct Instruction

: an approach to learning based on the best

research available, helps teachers deliver effective
lessons that can significantly improve achievement
for all learners, including English language learners
and students with special needs.

: EDI was developed by DataWORKS founders, Dr.

Silvia Ybarra and John Hollingsworth. EDI focuses on
improving education at the lesson level by
incorporating a strategic collection of instructional
practices from the work of educational and
cognitive researchers such as Hattie, Rosenshine,
Hunter, Sousa, and Marzano. V. FIVE EPISODES OF INSTRUCTION

: In its most basic terms EDI teaches explicitly in
small steps ensuring that pupils achieve success.
EPISODE 1: Preparing Students for New Learning:
Learning begins with attention. Therefore, during
this episode, teachers capture students' attention
and help students activate prior knowledge.
Teachers also direct students' attention to the
learning to come by establishing clear learning
targets

Episode 2: Presenting/Acquiring New Learning:

Learning requires focus. Teachers do more than
present content during this episode; they help
students actively process the content and assemble
information into big ideas and important details.

EPISODE 3: Deepening and Reinforcing Learning:

IV. Kolb's Experiential Learning style
theory
: represented by a four-stage learning cycle in
which the learner 'touches all the bases’:
CONCRETE EXPERIENCE: a new experience or
situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of
existing experience.
REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION OF THE NEW
EXPERIENCE - of particular importance are any
inconsistencies between experience and
understanding.
ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION: reflection gives
rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing
abstract concept (person learned from their
experience).
Learners need opportunities to consolidate
learning. Therefore, during this episode, teachers
engage students in strategic practice to help them
solidify their understanding of key content and
increase their mastery of new skills.
EPISODE 4: Applying and Demonstrating Learning:
Learners further consolidate and extend learning by
applying it. Therefore, during this episode, teachers
challenge students to demonstrate, synthesise, and
transfer their learning.
EPISODE 5: Reflecting on and Celebrating Learning:
This entire process is enhanced through active
reflection. Teachers’ help students look back on,
learn from, and celebrate their learning—and their
learning process.

ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION: the learner applies

their idea(s) to the world around them to see what
happens.
Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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VI. GRADUAL RELEASE OF RESPONSIBILITY

MODEL OR (GRR)

: particular style of teaching which is a structured

method of pedagogy framed around a process
devolving responsibility within the learning process
from the teacher to the eventual independence of
the learner.

: requires that the teacher, by design, transitions

from assuming "all the responsibility for performing
a task...to a situation in which the students assume
all of the
responsibility".
: The ideal result is a confident learner who accepts
responsibility for their own learning and directs this
learning through the cognitive processes involved,
moving through the academic spectrum, to
independent choice (personalised
learning).
As Buehl (2005) "emphasizes instruction that
mentors students into becoming capable thinkers
and learners when handling the tasks with which
they have not yet developed expertise". VIII. MAKING EVERY LESSON COUNT

VII. GREAT TEACHING TOOLKIT
:The aim is to help teachers make better decisions
about what they can best do to improve their
effectiveness. Four priorities are stated for teachers
who want to help their student learn more:
1. Understand the content they are teaching
and how it is learnt.
2. create a supportive environment for
learning
3. manage the classroom to maximize the
opportunity to learn
4. present content, activities and interactions
that activate their students’ thinking
: A model that comprises these four overarching
dimensions, with a total of 17 elements within
them. An ‘element’ is defined as something that
may be worth investing time and effort to work on
to build a specific competency, skill or knowledge,
or to enhance the learning environment.
: There is no implication that the complexity of
teaching can be reduced to a set of techniques, but
evidence suggests the best route to expertise is
likely to involve a focus on developing
competencies, guided by formative feedback in a
supportive professional learning environment.
: bridges the gap between research findings and
classroom practice. Shaun Allison and Andy Tharby
examine the evidence behind what makes great
teaching and explore how to implement this in the
classroom to make a difference to learning. They
distil teaching and learning down into six core
principles: challenge, explanation, modelling,
practice, feedback and questioning, and show how
these can inspire an ethos of excellence and
growth, not only in individual classrooms but across
a whole school.
: Combining robust evidence from a range of fields
with the practical wisdom of experienced, effective
classroom teachers, the book is a complete toolkit
of strategies that teachers can use every lesson to
make that lesson count. There are no gimmicky
ideas here just high impact, focused teaching that
results in great learning, every lesson, every day.
: offers an evidence-informed alternative to
restrictive definitions of great teaching,
empowering teachers to deliver great lessons and
celebrate high-quality practice.
Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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X: NEW TEACHER'S COMPANION

PHASE 1: INTRODUCTION

- Set a purpose. Introduce the key concepts,

topic, main idea.
IX. MASTERY TEACHING
- Pull students into the excitement of
: A number of direct instruction strategies have learning.
been combined by Madeline Hunter into a single, - Make the learning relevant.
relatively comprehensive approach that she calls
PHASE 2: FOUNDATION
mastery teaching (not to be confused with the
related term 'mastery learning'). - Check on previous knowledge.
- Clarify key points.
: What happens even before a lesson begins? Like
- Focus on specific standards, objectives,
many forms of teacher-directed instruction, the
goals.
model requires curricula and learning goals that are
- Check for correctness and add to
tightly organized and divisible into small parts,
background knowledge.
ideas, or skills.
- Introduce key vocabulary.
: Once this analysis of the curriculum has been
PHASE 3: BRAIN ACTIVATION
done, the Hunter's effective teaching model
requires making the most of the lesson time by - Ask questions to clarify ideas and to add
creating an anticipatory set, which is an activity that knowledge.
focuses or orients the attention of students to the - Brainstorm main ideas.
upcoming content. - Clarify and correct misconceptions.

: Throughout a lesson, the teacher repeatedly PHASE 4: BODY OF NEW INFORMATION

- Provide teacher input.

PHASE 5: CLARIFICATION

- Check for understanding with sample

problems, situations, questions.

PHASE 6: PRACTICE AND REVIEW

checks for understanding by asking questions that - Provide time for practice and review.
call for active thinking on the part of students.
PHASE 7: INDEPENDENT PRACTICE
: As a lesson draws to a close, the teacher arranges
- Supervise students' independent practice.
for students to have further independent practice.
The point of the practice is not to explore new PHASE 8: CLOSURE
material or ideas, but to consolidate or strengthen
the recent learning. - Bring the lesson to closure.
Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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XI: NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

By: Robert Gagne (educational psychologist)

: Systematic process that helps educators and

instructional designers develop strategies and
create activities for training sessions.

XIII. STUDENT LEARNING THAT WORKS

: A learning model would describe the learning

XII. Rosenshine’s Principles of Instruction
- Begin a lesson with a short review of
previous learning.
- Present new material in small steps with
student practise after each step.
- Ask a large number of questions and check
the responses of all students.
- Provide models.
- Guide student practice.
- Check for student understanding.
- Obtain a high success rate.
- Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks.
- Require and monitor independent practice.
- Engage students in weekly and monthly
review.
process from beginning to end—from the moment
a new bit of knowledge first enters a student’s
consciousness through the long and perilous
journey it must take before finding a permanent
home in their long-term memory (Sousa, 2011).
Such a model would help us to design effective
learning experiences for all students. And, just as
important, if they’re not learning, the model can
help us figure out where the blockage or
breakdown may be occurring—where the
knowledge is getting lost on its journey.
: McREL propose not another framework, but a
synthesis of the science of learning into a model you
can follow and apply right away in your classroom.
Not offered as the only way to teach, but rather as
one way to develop more expert practice in your
classroom.
: An important 'flip' happens when we design
lessons around

Do the principles all apply to every lesson?

It is very important not to think of the Principles as

some kind of lesson plan. Different lessons in a
learning sequence will require a different focus:
some might have more explanatory modelling;
more questioning or more independent
practice. You might have whole lessons of practice
and whole lessons of teacher modelling and
questioning. You might not literally do ‘daily
review’ every day. However, over a series of
lessons that relate to a secure sequence, you might
expect all elements of the Principles to feature in
some form.
Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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AN INCLUSIVE COURSE CLIMATE MATTERS FOR
LEARNING!
Perceptions of a “chilly” climate affect student
learning, critical thinking, and preparation for a
career (Pascarella et al. 1997; Whitt et al. 1999).
CLIMATE (intellectual, social, emotional, and
physical environments in which our students learn)
- Climate regulates the circulation and
construction of knowledge.
- Climate impacts meta-curricular and
citizenship skills. (Brookfield & Preskill
2005).
- Climate engenders emotions that impact
learning. (Ford, 1992).
- Climate can channel energies away from
learning or toward it. (Renn, 1998).
- Climate communicates expectations placed
upon students. (Rosenthal & Jacobson,
1992; Steele & Aronson, 1995).
- Climate communicates power dynamics.
(Kohl, 1994).
- Climate impacts student persistence. (Tinto,
1993).
This is true even for supposedly content-neutral
disciplines.
DYNAMICS OF INCLUSION IN THE TEACHING AND
LEARNING PROCESS
4 DIMENSIONS MATTER:
1. KNOW YOURSELF
 Examine your assumptions
 Investigate your feeling, both energizing
and anxiety-producing
 Evaluate your expertise
 Be mindful of your intersectional privilege
profile (e.g. white, male, cisgender,
heterosexual, English-speaking, highly
educated, etc.)
 Cultivate empathy
2. KNOW YOUR STUDENTS
Complete one or more of the following prompts:
 Consider the impact of your students
identity, history, and experience:
 Prior knowledge/skills
 Beliefs
 Motivation
 Socialization of marked identities (possible
alienation, invisibility/tokenization,
victimization)
 Socialization of dominant identities (culture
shock, disintegration)
3. INTERROGATE YOUR CONTENT (COURSE
CONTENT)
- Do students see themselves in the
curriculum?
 The Exclusive Curriculum
 The Exceptional Outsider.
 Understanding the Outsider
 Getting inside the Outsider
 The Transformed Curriculum
4. INTERROGATE YOUR TEACHING METHODS
(PEDAGOGICAL METHODS)
 Language (preferred names; pronouns;
gendered language)
 Tone (punitive vs. encouraging)
 Interactions (faculty to students; students;
microaggressions; stereotypes)
 Pedagogies (encouraging participation and
multiple perspectives; well-structured
collaborative activities; varied examples;
ground rules; “dialogic pedagogy”)
THINK-PAIR-SHARE
1. Individually, reflect on the 4 dimensions of
inclusion and…
 One way in which you might be
involuntarily exclusionary when teaching
 One strategy you can do to make it more
inclusive
2. Pair up with a neighbour and discuss your
reflections
3. Share with the large group
INCLUSIVE TEACHING MANIFESTO
- As an inclusive teacher, I am…
- Students in my course feel included when…
- My course content is inclusive when…
- Inclusive pedagogical methods look like…
- I believe inclusive teaching is…
Take 2 minutes
Write legibly
Others will read your work out loud
Read out the most memorable
point
Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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INCREASING STUDENT’S PERFORMANCE
THROUGH THE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS
LEARNING
: Permanent change in behavior potentiality
: To gain knowledge, comprehension, or mastery
through experience or study (American Heritage
Dictionary)
PERFORMANCE
: refers to the translation of this potentiality into
behavior.
MY LEARNING
 What makes me think?
 How do I Learn?
 What is the best learning style for me?
 How do I know that I have learned
something?
 Did I enjoy while I was learning?
“To teach is to help a child become more human.”
“PROFESSIONAL” is one of the most exalted in the
English language, denoting as it does, long and
arduous years of preparation, a striving for
excellence, a dedication to the public interest, and
commitment to moral and ethical values. – Hon.
Hermogenes Pobre, PRC
 Why do we need to have a long
preparation for teaching?
- “We cannot give, what we do not have.”
MEDIOCORITY
: “Pwede na” Mentality vs. Excellence in Teaching
SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
1. Learning is an ACTIVE process
2. The more senses are involved in learning the
more effective is the learning.
75% sight 13% hearing 6% touch
3% taste 3% smell

L-A-P : Learning is an Active Process 3. A non-threatening atmosphere enhances

learning.
TEACHING
4. Emotion has the power to increase retention and
: Imparting of knowledge and mastery not just learning.
cognitive but also psychomotor and affective.
5. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to
 OBJECTIVES students’ everyday life.
 3M’s: Moment, Material, Man
 PLAN 6. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information.
 MEDIA 7. Good teaching considers learner’s varied learning
 TEACHING STRATEGY styles and MIs.
 ASSESSMENT
METHODS/ STRATEGIES OF TEACHING
FOUR PILLARS OF EDUCATION
DIRECT METHOD
: given as objectives by UNESC.
: Teacher dominated
1. Learning to KNOW
: Subject-specific content
2. Learning to DO
3. Learning to LIVE TOGETHER INDIRECT METHOD
4. Learning to BE
: Collaborative
EDUCATION COMES from the Latin word, : Teacher is more of a questionnaire, facilitator, and
“educare”, which means “to bring up/out.” a thought synthesizer

Teaching as Your Vocation, Mission & Profession

VOCATION - etymology: “Vocare” (Latin) which

means “to call.”

MISSION - etymology: misio (Latin) which means

“to send.”

Webster Collegiate Dictionary: “task assigned”

Pon_TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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METHOD TARGET WHEN IS IT

USED?
When
EXPOSITORY Facts, knowledge is
(Arends, 1994) concepts, essential
principles and When
generalizations information is
not available
DEDUCTIVE Reasoning When testing a
TEACHING approach from rule
(Lardizabal, 1996) whole to part When
answering
questions or
solving
problems
Process of Concept
CONCEPT teaching development
TEACHING students how Organization
(Arends, 1994) to think of Information

Acquisition of Performance
basic skills and Skill
DEMONSTRATION information components of
(Arends, 1994) subjects
Step-by-step
manner of skill and
knowledge
formation
Students For Sciences,
INQUIRY OR become History, etc.
DISCOVERY builders of High-level
TEACHING knowledge thinking topics

Sharpen Developing of
PROBLEM thinking, thinking skills
SOLVING reasoning and For situational
METHOD creativity purposes

Both For real-life

PROJECT intellectual and problems/
METHOD physical situations
solutions Imposed tasks
When time
and materials
are available

Experiments For firsthand

and experience
investigation In Sciences,
LABORATORY/ English,
RESEARCH Mathematics,
METHOD Vocational and
Commercial
subjects.
Learners are For monitoring
trained to learning
become aware “knowing
of and to exert about
METACOGNITIVE control over knowing”
their own
learning.

Social goals and Improvement

objectives of race
COOPERATIVE through relations
LEARNING teacher’s Social skills
guidance Improve
objectives and
sets