ILLUSTRATED S O U R C E B O O K of MECHANICAL COMPONENTS

S E C T I O N 16

12 Ways to Put Springs to Work 16-2

29 Ways to Fasten Springs 16-4
Control depth Primer Tool Employs Coil Springs 16-8
Multiple Uses of Coil Springs 16-10
Compression Spring Adjusting Methods I 16-12
Compression Spring Adjusting Methods II 16-14
Adiustable Extension Springs 16-16
One Spring Returns the Hand lever 16-18
6 More One Spring lever Return Designs 16-20
Springs: How to Design for Variable Rate 16-22
How to Stiffen Bellows with Springs 16-24
Flat Springs in Mechanisms 16-26
Flat Springs Find More Work 16-28
12 Detents for Mechanical Movement 16-30
17 Ways of Testing Springs 16-32
Overriding Spring Mechanisms for low-Torque Drives 16-34
Deflect a Spring Sideways 16-36
Ovate Cross Sections Make Better Coil Springs 16-38
Unusual Uses for Helical Wire Springs 16-40
Optimum Helical Springs 16-42
Machined Helical Springs 16-45
Pneumatic Spring Reinforcement 16-47
Nonlinear Springs 16-48
Friction-Spring Buffers 16-52
New Equations Simplify Belleville Spring Design 16-55
New Springs Do More Jobs 16-58
16-2

12 Ways to Put Springs to Work

Variable-rate arrangements, roller positioning, space saving, and other ingenious ways
to get the most from springs.
L. Kasper

1 VARIABLE RATE with suddcii change from

light load to heavy load is achieved by limiting
the low-rate exterisiori with a spring.
tfeovier spring
7

DIFFERENTIAL-RATE linkage lets actuator .

2 stroke hc under light tcnrion a t start, then grad-
ually heavier tension.
Supporf brocket is attached to
a slide, which operates p/afen
I-
I- Wheel-center -/ -'

5 COMPRESSING MECHANISM has dual rate

for double-action compacting. Id one direction
pressure is high, in reverse pressure is low.

6
SHORT EXTENSION of 5priiig for long move-
ment of rlide keeps tenrioii cliaiigc bctween

-
iii:i\iiiiiiiii arid miiiimurii low.

Tube rec/orocotes
in uperafion

spring/
grps pin Guided wire

9 CLOSE-WOUND SPRING is attached to a

hopper and will not buckle when uwd a5 :I
niovable feed-duct f o r liongranular material.
10
PIN GRIP is spring that hold\ piti by frictioii
against eiitl iiio+ciiieiit or Totation, but lcts pin
be repositioned without toois.
 Springs 16-3

THREE-STEP RATE cli;inge :it 11redeterniiiietl

po\ifions. I lie ligliter qirings w i l l alwaj, com-
first rcg:;trcllcss o f tlieir IioGtion.

4
ROLLER POSITIONING by tight-vouiid spring
on shaft obviates ncccssitj f o r collars. Roller
will slide under excess end tliriist.

7
SPRING WHEEL helps distribute deflection
over more coil5 than if qirirtg rested on corner.
l,e\3 fiitigiie ;ind longer life result.

8
INCREASED TENSION for w i l e n l o ~ c n i e n tis
7i/f/ny lever Other end o f spring
gained by providing a niovable spring niount
attached fo brake lever
arid gearing it t o the other movable lever.

Lever in operating
Lever in
neutral

TOGGLE ACTION lierr i\ iiwd t o make Sure

I1 TENSION VARIES ;it clilfercnt rate when

brahe-applj irig l e \ c r re:bclie\ the p o d i o n shown,
Rate is reduced whcn tilting lercr tilts. 12 the Scar-shift !ever w i l l not inad\ertcntl) be
thrown past ne 11t ral.
16-4

29 Ways to Fasten Springs

Four pages of ingenious attachments for extension, compression and
torsion springs.
Federico Strasser

EXTENSION SPRINGS

0
Screw fits into spring end.

Tab with 3 holes engages 11/2 spring-coils.

Twin-spring setup includes dodble hook and triangular tab.

fight fifhr
permonenf
support

0
Long tab with 2 holes in midsection provides
ample adjustment.

4Em
Sheetmetal, slit and formed, Cross-pin holds spring deep in hole.
suspends spring.
 Springs 16-5

Countersunk hole leaves spring free to turn.

Tension adjustment requires nonrotating screw.

COMPRESSION SPRINGS

0
Unsupported spring-body must have somewhat more resistance
to buckling in fixed supports (9) than pivoted ones (10).
Supported springs are exemplified in push button (11)
and friction clutch (12).

Frtcfionafces- Driven gear

(Aqjusi'iog colla/
16-6

Double guidance i s exemplified by

hole-bottom that centers spring end,
and internal plug that supports
Concealed spring is supported externally by closed-end
spring body.
bushing, which also determines amount of compression.

Active
length

.i
Tight-wound end-coils hold switchboard plug bushing-spring absorbs shock Adjustment vanes have holes thot match
when weighted cable mops entire assembly bock into cavity after operator dis- spring pitch. Spring coils threaded through
connects plug at end of message. vanes become inactive, thus varying effec-
rive spring length.

FLAT TORSION-SPRINGS

4GD Notched dowel provides hook for

Saw-cut slot retains spring positively if slot end is peened hole in spring end.
over or otherwise closed.
 Springs 16-7

Drive
Cenfer-puncb

Chordal shot in shaft is closed tight by displac-

Headed drive-pin through spring hole makes disassembly ing metal with center punch for permanent spring
difficult (19). Standard screw (20) eases disassembly. retention.

meto/

housing

am
Chordal groove holds spring when ears
are formed by chiselling or staking after
assembly.
rcI-$.)
Raised metal, produced by staking,
provides low-cost yet firm hook an shaft.
eD
Slotted spring-housing is simple, but
spring-end can be dangerous if housing
revolves and i s unprotected.

C/earance @/e for r ivef beod / Pin

1-T-)
Lanced tab avoids hazard of external Shoulder rivet provides dustproof Mounting pin an plate may be plain,
spring-end but dirt can enter housing. fastening. or headed-for more positive spring
retention.

Mou/tt/i/gpost

Setscrew and slotted post also provides adiust-

Taper pin allows end adjustment of precision, low- ment feature but may be ineficient if spring-
torque springs. end becomes dimpled.
16-8

Control Depth Primer Tool

Employs Coil Spring
E. E. Lawrence, Inventor
R. 0. Parmley, Draftsman

21
 Springs 16-9

View

r t25

28

r -- 1 IO
J
j

d4

-2
$coil Spring
Coil Spring

1-
- --1 “A”
‘15 7
16-10

Multiple Uses of Coil Springs

R. 0. Parrnley

Coil Spring used to soften

impact of float in teat cup
washing mechanism

5105-1 6818 Coil Spring

Coil Spring used as reinforcement

\
of filter sock in milk filter assembly
. 1 _--J \

- \
I

1 6964
5*06- I 5105- I
Source: Bender Machine Works, Inc.
 Springs 16-11

Coil Spring used stabilizing component in two-way valve assembly

Source: Bender Machine Works. Inc.

BALL-
Coil Spring serve as controls
for bullet valve and ball valve
O-RING -

BULLET
VALVE
16-12

Compression Sprin
Adjustment Metho s I
In many installations where compression springs are used, adiustabili-
3 Slofted or sockef
heod locking screw

ty of the spring tension is frequently required. The methods shown

incorporate various designs of screw and nut adjustment with nurner-
ous types of spring-centering means to guard against buckling. Some
designs incorporate frictional reducing members to facilitate adiust-
ment especially for springs of large diameter and heavy wire.
Henry Martin
FIG.3

,
I

1
.
. &
; '.Spring centerin; seofs
;
\%

\a
I 'For spanner wrench ;
! knur/ if for liqhf duf y
I
Lock nuf

FIG.1
7 "'spring centering seats"

FIG.2

Movable /ever

FIG.4
w
Pin 2iaiionary bosses, AGusting nuts,

Siaf i o h y
Movable f/m+ A@sfoble spring seat-* rod
FIG.7
F16.6
 Springs 16-13

-Less cleoronce

F16.8 FIG.9 FIG.10

Ad u sfmen f for Aajus finq r o d and flange

of& mechonism
+Pin

Locking
pin
‘.

Drifled holes
spring eajusfmen f
Pin spring seof
FIG.12

m - _ _AdJi”fing screw

Sprino

.-Rounded fa
equalize spring
pressure

‘\Plufes may be counferbored

insfead of hollow mi//ed f o Press’
hold springs fif
Hardened ita; AdJusfmenf
ondmnicv/%of screw
FIG.14 FIG.15
 16-14

Compression Sprin
Adjustment Metho s II 1
In this concluding group of adiustable compression springs, several
methods are shown in which some form of anti-friction device is
used to make adjustment easier. Thrust is taken against either single
or multiple steel balls, the latter including commercial ball thrust hg
bearings. Adjustments of double spring arrangements and other
unconventional methods are also illustrated.
Henry Martin

\ A d j h fable nu f Scre w h g nu f in-

fo coil5 makes,’+hem ineffecfive
Guard cas f A.r’justins and sprmq sfiffer
screw,
F I G.18

E?
8
P
P0
3

Washer ,, -,,,Swinging /ever

..
Dri7/ed recess
f o r bo//

Wde-coredslof al/ows FlG.17

for angular d/sp/acemenl’

Peen
,Inserf washer here foreasv FlG.21 0‘1
spin

jFlG.23
Uardenedand
po/ished spring
Frame ’ F16.20 center
 Springs 16-15

fnsert cup washer, A d ’usting Spring - cec f e r i ” y sf u d

here Wneeded nu$,

0 FlG.25
is fo be exposed
FIG.24

4 hardenedund
Spring housing,
Guard.
,
.\ \
HoNow screw
/
/
,,od~usf,ngscm
Tucnedendon

,’,
I

FIG.26
UoNow-ena , \

AdJ’usfable-ouf e r
housing

key

,Ho//ow-sprhy cenfer ‘ ofucfuated

Turned-down end

;
/ i
, Hardened-steeldisk \I member

Boss projecting info counfer ‘support i f

bored hole saves space F16.30 spring hion9 FIG.3i
16-16

Adjustable Extension Springs

Henry Martin

Design of the end of a tension or extension

spring using some form of loop integral with
the spring is often unsatisfactory, since many
FlG.1 spring failures occur somewhere in the loop,
most often at the base of the loop adjacent to

B
the spring body. Use of the accompanying
tested methods has reduced breakage and there-
fore down-time of machinery, especially where
adjustability of tension and length is required

FIG. 1-Spring-end is tapered about a loop made of larger

diameter and somewhat softer wire than that used for the
FIG.4 A ' spring. Upper end of wire is also formed into a loop, larger
and left open to engage a rod-end or eye-bolt A .
f
FIG.2-A loop is formed at the end of a soft steel rod threaded
at the opposite end for a hex adjusting nut. Ordinary threaded
rod-end may be suhstituted if desired.

FIG.&End of adjusting screw is upset in shape of a conical

FIG.5 FIG.7
head to coincide with taper of spring-end. Unless initial tension
of spring is sufficiently great a wrench flat on stem is provided
to facilitate adjustment.
FIG.4-The last coil of spring is bent inwardly to form hoop A
which engages slot in nut. Although a neat and simple design,
all spring tension is exerted on book at one point, somewhat
off-center of spring axis. Not recommended for heavy loads.
FIG.5--.4n improved method over Fig. 4. The nut is shouldered
to accommodate two end coils which are wound smaller than
FIG.6 the body of spring. Flats are provided for use of wrench during
adjustment.
FIG. &When wire size permits, the spring end can be left
straight and threaded for adjustment. Because of the small
size of nut a washer must also be used as shown.
FIG.7-The shouldered nut is threaded with a coarse V-thread
and is screwed into the end of the spring. The point of tan-
gency between the 30-deg. side of thread and wire diameter
should be such that the coils cannot pull off. The end of the
spring is squared for sufficient friction so that nut need not be
FIG.8 held when turning the adjusting screw.
FIG. &For close-wound extension springs, end of rod may be
threaded with a shallow thread the root of which is the same
curvature as that of the spring wire. This form of thread cut
with the crests left sharp provides greater engagement contact.
FIG. 9-For more severe duty, the thread is cut deeper than
that shown in Fig. 8. The whole spring is close-wound, but
when screwed on adjusting roo, me. coils are spread, thereby
creating greater friction for better holding ability. Spring is
FIG.9
screwed against the relieved shoulder of rod.
 Springs 16-17

FIG.10

FIG. 10-When design requires housed spring: adjusting rod is

threaded internally. Here also, the close-wound coils are spread
when assembled. Unless housing bore is considerably. larger
I - than X
shouldered diameter of adjusting rod, or sufficient space is avail-
able for a covered spring, methods shown in Figs. 8 or 9 will be
less expensive.

FIG.11-A thin piece of cold-drawn steel is drilled to exact pitch

of the coils with a series o f holes slightly larger than spring wire.
Three or four coils are screwed into the Diece which has additional
Y
__
I
x
FIG.12 Section X-X
holes far further adjustment. It will be seen that all coils SO en-
gaged are inactive or dead coils.

FIG.12-A similar design to that shown in Fig. 11. except that a

smaller spring lies inside the larger one. Both springs are wound
to the same pitch for ease of adjustment. By staggering the holes
as shown, the outer diameter of the inner spring may approach
closely that of the inner diameter of the outer spring, thereby
leaving sufficient space for a third internal spring if necessary.

FIG.13-When the spring is to be guarded, and to prevent binding

of the spring attachment in the housing, the end is cross-shaped as
shown in the section. The two extra vanes are welded to the solid I
vane. The location of the series of. holes in each successive vane
is such as to advance spring at one quarter the pitch.

FIG.14-This spring end has three vanes and is turned, bored and
milled from solid round stock where welding facilities are not con-
venient. I n sufficient quantities, the use of a steel casting precludes
machining bar stock. The end with the hole is milled approximateIy
'/4 in. thick for the adjusting member.

FIG.15-A simple means of adjusting tension and length of spring.

The spring anchor slides on a plain round rod and is fastened in
any position by a square head setscrew and brass clamping shoe.
The eye in the end of the spring engages a hole in the anchor.

FIG.16-14 block of cold-drawn steel is slotted to accommodate the

eye of the spring by means of a straight pin. The block is drilled
slightly larger than the threaded rod and adjustment and position-
ing is by the two hex nuts.

FIG.17-A similar arrangement to that shown in Fig, 16. The FIG.17 !

spring finger is notched at the outer end for the spring-eye as
illustrated in the sectioned end view. In these last three methods,
the adjustable member can be made to accommodate 2 or 3 springs
if necessary.
16-18

One Spring Returns the Hand lever

These seven designs need only a single spring-compression, extension, flat or torsion.
L. Kasper

0I I
,,,-Slide

/
bor Spring bold7

I
1
S L I D E B A R attached to lever
compresses spring against pres-
sure pins in either direction.
Guide pins in spring holder hit
end of slot to limit movement.

3
CLOSE-WOUND HELICAL SPRING gives almost
2 constant r e t u r n force. Anchor post for spring also
F L A T S P R I N G has initial tension which gives posi- acts as limit stop.
tive return for even a small lever-movement.
 Springs 16-19

\
'--

gear

4
PRESSURE L E V E R returns hand lever because it rotates on a dif-
ferent center. Collar sets starting position.

5
G E A R S extend spring when lever moves
up to 180" in either direction.

Ancho

6
S L I D E B A R rides on guide pins as lever pushes it t o
right. Stretched spring pulls slide b a r against lever to
r e t u r n lever to vertical position.

7
OPEN-WOUND H E L I C A L S P R I N G extends inside shaft
of handle. Coils must be wound in direction of movement
so t h a t spring tightens instend of unwinds as Icrer turns.
16-20

6 More One Spring lever

Return Designs
A flat, torsion or helical spring does the job alone.
L. Kasper

2
H I G H E R S P R I N G R A T E , when the projec-
tion hits t h e flat spring, warns operator he’s
approaching end of travel and assures quick
disengagement.

1
S W I V E L BAR, which slides on fixed pin, returns hand lever. Slot in
swivel bar is limit stop for movement either way.
 Springs 16-21

A//owonce
for spring

-c
conl'rucfion

//I I

4
T O R S I O N S P R I N G must have coil diameter
larger t h a n shaft diameter to allow for spring
contraction during windup.
3
D O U B L E P R E S S U R E - L E V E R returns handle t o center from either
direction by compressing spring. Lever pivots on one pin and comes

il
to stop against t h e other pin.

Spring

6
S E L F - C E N T E R I N G H A N D L E V E R returns
5 t o vertical as soon as it's released. Any
L E V E R flops to stop because of spring pull. S t o p movement lifts spring lever and creates a
pins inside springs limit movement. righting force.
16-22

Springs:
How to Design for Variable Rate
Eighteen diagrams show how stops, cams, linkages and other arrangements can vary
the load/deflection ratio during extension or compression.
James F. Machen

I
,-l
////,,///// /////////,

1 2 3
WITH TAP E R E D - P ITCH S P R l N G S O.D. and pitch (2) combine to pro- I N DUAL S P R I N G S one spring
f l ) ,t h e number of effective coils duce similar effect except spring closes solid before t h e other.
changes with deflection-the coils with tapered O.D. will have shorter
“bottom” progressively. Tapered solid height.

1
S T O P S ( 4 , 5 ) can be used with
either conipression or extension
springs.

4 5

M i
nf

6 7 8
LEAF S P R I N G S (6, 7, 8 ) can be arranged so that their effective lengths change
with deflection.
 Springs 16-23

10
TORSION S P R I N G com-
bined with variable-radius
pulley gives constant force.

9
CAM-A N D-SPR I N G D E V I C E causes
torque relationship to vary during
rotation as moment arm changes.

L I N K A G E - T Y P E AR R A N G E M E N T S
(11, 12) a r e often used in instru-
ments where torque control or anti-
vibration suspension is required. 11

14
M O L D E D - R U B B E R S P R I N G has de-
flection characteristics t h a t vary
with its shape.

13 15
4-BAR M E C H A N I S M i n conjunction A R C H E D L E A F - S P R I N G gives al-
with a spring has a great variety of most constant force when shaped
load/deflection characteristics. like the one illustrated.

16
T A P E R E D M A N D R E L A N D T O R S I O N S P R I N G . Effective
number of coils decreases with torsional deflection.
16-24

How to Stiffen Bellows with Springs

Rubber bellows are an essential part of many products. Here are eight ways to strengthen,
cushion, and stabilize bellows with springs.
Robert 0. Parrnley

INTERNAL COIL SPRING strengthens and

adds vertical stability. To install spring, just
“corkscrew” it into place.

fidnesive bond
2 CUSHION BELLOWS SUPPORT-ROD
with coil spring. Adjustment is provided and
bellows are strengthened by this arrangement.

TOGc a o h Adhesive

5 , COMPRESSlON STRENGTH for bellows is

best obtained with a coil spring, mounted
internally as shown.
INTERNAL RIGIDITY of bellows i s here
pro\ ided by a mating rod and slee\ e in nhieh
a compression spring is fitted.
 Springs 16-25

Connecfton rod Q Adlusfmenf nu?

Rubber beilows

,Coil spring

+
EXTERNAL STABILITY is provided here, ADJUSTMENT WITH TENSION SPRING
with the added advantage of simple assemblj lets bellows he enclosed in casting while ad-
that strengthens bellows, too. justment is provided externatly.

ci BELLOWS STIFFENER AND STABILIZER

are \ometinies comhined by means of a plat-
form and four niounting springs.
HOUSED STIFFENING UNIT gives solid
mount for hose connection, together with
spring action for bellows.
16-26

Flat Springs in Mechanisms

These devices all rely on a flat spring for their efficient actions, which
would otherwise need more complex configurations.
L. Kasper

CONSTANT FORCE is approached be-

cause of the length of this U-spring. Don’t
align studs or spring will fall.

A
SPRING-LOADED SLIDE will always re- INCREASING SUPPORT AREA as the
turn to its original position unless it is load increases on both upper and lower
pushed until the spring kicks out. platens is provided by a circular spring.
 Springs 16-27

Gr/b springs hove prelooded ,fe?sion

S/ide--J Anchor bor Hoidle

siring is
norma/& sfroighf

FLAT-WIRE SPRAG is straight until the EASY POSITIONING of the slide is pos-
knob is assembled; thus tension helps the sible when the handle pins move a grip
sprag to grip f o r one-way clutching. spring out of contact with the anchor bar.

6 CONSTANT TENSION in the spring, and

thus force required t o activate slide, is
(almost) provided by this single coil.

VOLUTE SPRING here lets the shaft be

moved closer to the frame, thus allowing
maximum axial movement.
16-28

Flat Springs Find More Work

Five additional examples for the way flat springs perform important jobs in
mechanical devices.
1. Kasper

RETURN-SPRING ensures that the oper-

ating handle of this two-direction drive
will always return to the neutral position.

lNDEXlNG IS accomplished siniplj, efh-

cientlj. and at low cost h! the flat-spring
arrangcmciil slionu here.
 Springs 16-29

Handre in maximum /' -, ,.__

.
position i !
,I
I !

SPRING-MOUNTED DISK changes ceri-

ter position as handle is rotated to move
friction drive, also acts as hailt-in limit stop.

CUSHIONING device feature4 rapid 111 HOLD-DOWN CLAMP ha5 flat spring as-
crease of spring tension because offhe small hembled with initial twist t o provide clamp-
pyramid ;ingie. Rcbouricl i5 iniiiiiiiuni, too. ing force lor thin iiralcrial.
16-30

12 Detents for Mechanical Movement

Some of the more robust and practical devices for locating or holding mechanical movements
are surveyed by the author.
Louis Dodge

FIXED HOLDING POWER IS CONSTANT

IN BOTH DIRECTIONS ADJUSTABLE HOLDING POWER

WEDGE ACTION COCKS MOVEMENT

IN DIRECTION OF ARROW NOTCH SHAPE DICTATES DIRECTION OF ROD MOTION

4
%& LEAF SPR6NG PROVIDES LIMITED HOLDING POWER LEAF SPRING FOR HQBDlN6 FIAT PIECES
 Springs 16-31

Holding power is R = P tan a;

for friction coeficient. F .
at contact siirface R =
P (tan a +- F)

DOMED PLUNGER HAS LONG LIFE CONICAL OR WEDGE-ENDED DETENT

Py
4 FRICTION RESULTS IN HOLDING FORCE POSITIVE DETENT HAS MANUAL RELEASE

AUTOMATIC RELEASE OCCURS IN ONE DIRECTION,

LEAF SPRING DETENT CAN BE REMOVED QUICKLY MANUAL RELEASE NEEDED IN OTHER DIRECTION
16-32

17 Ways of Testing Springs

C. J. McClintock

Clearance

resf
fengfh
Scafe i
Compression Torsion
spring spring W, should not
Extension touch block touch block
Fig.1 spring Fig. 2
Fig. 1-Dead-weight testing. Weights are directly applied Fig. M r d n a n c e gage incorporates Wo-no-go” principle.
to spring. In the compression spring and the extension Block is bored for specified test length L. Weight Wi is
spring teeters, the test weights are guided in the -re slightly less than the minimum specified load at L and
to prevent buckling. Instead of using a linear scale, the therefore should not touch block W1 plus load tolerance
spring deflection can be measured with a dial indicator. W2 must touch block for the spring to be acceptable.

Ti Tp
,I Weights ,Pivot paint

&ff
b@W / A
46 ,/”

- Compression

I.__- .__
ix
Tension
(Rod ocfs as pivot paint
and fixture for spring
U
I

,/
stop

Coflar -adjusted for test length

for zeroing in

rm/////4
Torsion Fig. 3 .- Ram rod Fig. 4
Fig. 3-Pilot-beam testing. Fractional resistance offered to Fig. 4-Zero-gradient beam. Uses retked pivot-beam
movement of parts is low. These testers are more sensitive principle. Ram rod is pushed up with pedal or a k cylinder.
than those in which the weight is guided in the -re. Beam must not touch contacts A or B. Contacting A
Many of the commercial testers are based on this principle. indicates spring too weak; B indicates spring too strong.

X Y ,Mavobfe
, ,. I

scale -clamped
to plate

Force -

LTesf spring ‘\ “Calibrafed

fcampressianl ‘\ spring
\
Rate

(8)
‘‘rest spring
fextensionl
Fig. S - S p r i n g against spring. (A) spring scales used in Similar results obtained by using calibrated springs. Section
place of dead weights for testing short-run springs. (It) x calibrated for deflection readings; y for load.
 Springs 16-33

Spring dimensions are based on calculations using
empirical-theoretical equations. In addition, allow-
ances are made for material and manufacturing
tolerances. Thus, the final product may deviate t o
an important degree from the original design crite-
ria. By testing the springs: (I)Results can be entered
on the spring drawing, thus including actual per-
formance data; this leads t o more realistic future
designs. (2) Performance can be checked before
assembling spring in a costly unit.
Shown below are I 2 ways, Fig. I t o 5, t o quickly
evaluate load-deflection characteristics; for more
accurate or fully automatic testing, Figs. 6 and 7,
describe 5 types of commercial testers.

,Weighing heads ,Test weighf

_ -- Adjustable
canracrs

Fi 9.6
Detail of
weighing head
Fig. 6-Fully-automatic testing. Continually moving rotary springs that aIlow lower point to make contact are ejected
table with three testing positions. Springs are loaded at position A; springs too strong ejected a t B. All springs
manually but tested and ejected automatically. Weak reaching point C are ejected as acceptable.

Defleciion diol For extension

(Ai 1 J

Fig. 7-Commercial testers: (A) Balanced-beam tester uses dead weights

for loads. Pantagraph linkage keeps weighing head vertical irrespective of
I 7 I beam movement. Load capacity: 10 Ib. Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton Corp. (B)
Calibrated spring tester available in several models for testing loads up
to 1000 lb. Load applied manually through gear and rack; motor-driven
units can be attained for applying heavier loads. Link Engineering Co. (C)
Pneumatic-operated tester uses torque bar system for applying loads and
a differential transformer for accurately measuring displacements. Wide
table permits tests on leaf springs. Load capacity: 2000 Ib. Tinius Olsen
Testing Machine Co. ( D ) Electronic micrometer tester has sufficient sensi-
tivity (0.0001 in.) to measure drift, hysteresis and creep as well as load
deflection. Adjustments made by large micrometer dial; contact indicated
by sensitive electronic circuit. Load capacity: 50 Ib. J W Dice Co.
 16-34

Overriding Spring Mechanisms

for low-Torque Drives
Henry L. Milo, Jr
Extensive use is made of overriding spring mech- incoming motion to override the outgoing motion
anisms in the design of instruments and controls. whose limit has been reached. In an instrument, for
Anyone of the arrangements illustrated allows an example, the spring device can be placed between

Fig. I-Unidirectional Override. The take-off lever of this mechanism can

rotate nearly 360 deg. It’s movement is limited by only one stop pin. In one
Drive_
pin
~. direction, motion of the driving shaft also is impeded by the stop pin. But in
the reverse direction the driving shaft is capable of rotating approximately 270
deg past the stop pin. In operation, as the driving shaft is turned clockwise,
motion is transmitted through the bracket to the take-off lever. The spring
---Bracket
serves to hold the bracket against the drive pin. When the take-off lever has
traveled the desired limit, it strikes the adjustable stop pin. However, the
drive pin can continue its rotation by moving the bracket away from the drive
pin and winding up the spring. An overriding mechanism is essential in
instruments employing powerful driving elements. such as bimetallic elements,
to prevent damage in the overrange regions.
FIG. 1 Driving shaft

Upper drlve Arbor Stop A

Pin,
\
25’’ !
hro
stop
&.I

L
e
I Fig. 2-Two-directional Override. This mechanism is similar to that de-
scribed under Fig. 1, except that two stop pins limit the travel of the take-off
lever. Also, the incoming motion can override the outgoing motion in either
direction. With this device, only a small part of the total rotation of the
driving shaft need be transmitted to the take-off lever and this small part ma);
be anywhere in the range. The motion of the driving shaft is transmitted
through the lower bracket to the lower drive pin, which is held against the
bracket by means of the spring. In turn, the lower drive pin transfers the mo-
tion through the upper bracket to the upper drive pin. A second spring holds
this pin against the upper drive bracket. Since the upper drive pin is attached
im to the take-off lever, any rotation of the drive shaft is transmitted to the lever,
__-_ Lower spring provided it is not against either stop A or E. When the driving shaft turns in
a counterclockwise direction, the take-off lever linally strikes against the ad-
‘Spacer justable stop A. The upper bracket then moves away from the upper drive
pin and the upper spring starts to wind up. When the driving shaft is rotated
in a clockwise direction, the take-off lever hits adjusrahie stop B and the lower
bracket moves away from the lower drive pin, winding up the other spring.
Although the principal uses for overriding spring arrangements are in the
FIG. 2 field of instrumentatioh, it is feasible to apply these devices in the drives of
major machines by beefing up the springs and other members.

Spring A Spr/ng
I I
Take off

Brackef

Take off
/ever
/
/
Arbor’
/ever

Spring B / I
I
..-stop B
I Stop A
I
FIG. 5 Arbor pin Arbor

Fig. 5-Two-directional, 90 Degree Override. This double overriding mechanism

allows a maximum overtravel of 30 deg in either direction. As the arbor turns,
the motion is carried from the bracket to the arbor lever. then to the take-off
lever. Both the bracket and rhe take-off lever are held against the arbor lever by
means of springs A and B. When the arbor is rotated counterclockwise, the take-
off lever hits stop A. The arbor lever is held stationary in contact with the take-
off lever. The bracket, which is soldered to the arbor, rotates away from the arhor
,
lever. putting spring A in tension. When the arbor is rotated in a clockwise di-
rection, the take-off Iewr comes against stop B and the bracket picks up the arbor
II Take o f f Stop
lever, putting spring B in tension. bd lever
FIG. E
 Springs 16-35

the sensing and indicating elements to provide over- shak is free to continue its travel. Six of the mech-
range protection. The dial pointer is driven posi- anisms described here are for rotary motion of vary-
uvely up to its limit, then stops; while the input ing amounts. The last is for small linear movements.

Arbor
Arbor
A ,I’ Spring E
I Y dj *.-Arbor lever d’ Drive pin Spring

A-.
r9 A
m.,
.--Take
lever
OH A,rbor {’ /’
le.v ..p r Adjustable
I \
\ rtop

_... Spring E
U Y

,v---
__Arbor fever
Toke off lever

FIG. 3 , - - Stop E

Take’ o f f
lever Oc----Stap
Fig. %Two-directional, Limited-Travel Override. This mechanism per-
forms the same function as that shown in Fig. 2, except that the max-
imum override in either direction is limited to about 40 deg, whereas the
unit shown in Fig. 2 is capable of 270 deg movement. This device is suited
for uses where most of the incoming motion is to be utilized and only a
small amount of travel past the stops in either direction is required. As the
arbor is rotated, the motion is transmitred through the arbor lever to the
bracket. The arbor lever and the bracket are held in contact by means of
spring B. The morion of the bracket is then transmitted to the take-off
lever in a similar manner, with spring A holding the take-off lever and the
bracket together. Thus the rotation of the arbor is imparted to the take-off
lever until the lever engages either stops A or B. When the arbor is ro-
tated in a counterclockwise direction, the take-off lever eventually comes up
against the stop B. If the arbor lever continues to drive the bracket, spring
A will be put in tension.
A
FIG. 4
Fig. &Unidirectional, 90 Degree Override. This
is a single overriding unit, that allows a maxi-
mum travel of 90 deg past its stop. The unit as
shown is arranged for over-travel in a clockwise
direction, but it can also be made for a counter-
clockwise override. The arbor lever, which is se-
cured to the arbor, transmits the rotation of the
arbor to the take-off lever. The spring holds the
drive pin against the arbor lewr until the take-
off lever hits the adjustable stop. Then, if the
arbor lever continues to rotate, the spring will be
placed in tension. In the counterclockwise direc-
tion, the drive pin is in direct contact with the
arbor lever so that no overriding is possible.

Fig. &Unidirectional, 90 Degree Override. This mechanism operates exactly

the same as that shown in Fig. 4. However, it is equipped with a flat spiral
spring in place of the helical coil spring used in the previous version. The
advantage of the flat spiral spring is that it allows for a greater override and
minimizes the space required. The spring holds the take-off lever in contact
with the arbor lever. When the take-off lever comes in contact with the stop,
the arbor lever can continue to rotate and the arbor winds up the spring.

Fig. 7-Two-directional Override, Linear Motion. The previous mechanisms

were overrides for rotary motion. The device in Fig. 7 is primarily a double
override for small linear travel although it could be used on rotary motion.
When a force is applied to the input lever, which pivots about point C, the
motion is transmitted directly to the take-off lever through the two pivot posts
A and B. The take-off lever is held against these posts by means of the spring.
When the travel is such the take-off lever hits the adjustable stop A, the take-off
lever revolves about pivot post A, pulling away from pivot post B and putting
additional tension in the spring. When the force is diminished, the input lever
moves in the opponire direction, until the take-off lever contacts the stop B.
This causes the take-off lever to rotate about pivot post B, and pivot post A
is moved away from the take-off lever.
FIG. 7
16-36

Deflect a Spring Sideways

Formulas for force and stress when a side load deflects a vertically
loaded spring.
W. H. Sparing

T h e r e arc iiian!. dcsignr in which one end of a

helical spring must lie mo\.ccl laterally rclati\-c to the
other cnd. IIow iiitich force will hc requircd to do
this? \Vhat cleflcctiori \vi11 tlic force cause? \\'hat
.\tress will rcsult from conihincd 1;iteral and .i.crtical
loads? IIerc are forinulas that find the answers.
It is assunicd tlut the spring cncls arc hcld parallcl
h y a \utiea1 forcc P (which docs not appcx in thcsc
formulas), mid that the spring is long cnotigh to allow
ovcrlooking the cffcct of closed cnd-turns. A Working Example

Lateral load for ;I stccl spring '4 spring Iix, tlic follou iiig d i ~ ~ l c ~ ~ h i o111i ~ iiiclics:
.s,
Out,sidc clia. . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Ear dis ( d ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15/16
Free hright ( H ) . . . . . . . . 16 l j 2
- 1.2. D =
whcrc J I = iiunilicr of tnriis = (h'd) Solid hcight ( h ) . . . . . . . I3
incan dia in., A = corrcction factor. 1,oadcd hoight ( L ) . . . . , , I4 5 / l f i
Lateral d(:flcction ( & I , ) , . . 1 1/2
Lateral deflection
Stop helght. . . . . . . . . . . 13 3/4
'4V.rLI) [0.204 .(I,
= ~- ~~ ...
- d;'
~~~~
+ 0.265
. ..
1wa4 From thcsc diinci~sionrcoillputc \.alucs at loaded licight
and stop height.
?'he corrcction factor A caii iic\'cr be unity (sec
chart on continuing page); also P can never be zero. I>oad(YI Stop
position position
This is lxcawc thcrc will always he sonic vertical
deflection, and a sidc load will alaays c;iusc a resultant I ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0625 7.062.5
n... . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.51 5.5 1
\.crtical force if the ends arc held p:i~"llel and at
y (vcrtical
right anglcs to thc original cciitcr linc. drflcction). . . . 2.1873 2.73
Combined stress H - tl. . . . . . . . . . 11.,563 11.5li3
L - tl . . . . . . . . . . .12.375 11.813
( H - d ) / D . . . . . 2.06 2.06
y / ( H - d ) , . . . . . . 0.1.70 0.189
A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.30 1.40
whcrc f = vertical-load strcss. Acciiratc within 10'96, Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9400 Ih 9310 lh
thesc foriiiulas show that thc nearer a spring ap-
proaches its solid position, thc greater tlic discrcpancy
bctwccii calculated and actual load. This results From standard formulas for vertical loads only:
froiii premature closing of thc cnd-tunis. I t is best to
Solid load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,300 lb
provide stops to prevent the spring from being com- Load at stop, . . . . . . . . . . . 28,500 lb
pressed solid. An example shows the combined Stress f when solid. . . . . . . . 111,500 psi
stress at the stop position may cvcn be higher than Stress j at stop, . . . . . . . . . . . I 1 1,200 psi
the solid stress caused by vertical load only.
 Springs 16-37

A - FAC

1
l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l ~l l l l l l
2 3 4 5

From the combined-stress formula Generally, combined strcss under the worst condi-
f, = 111,200 X 1.759 tioii anticipated should not exceed the solid stress
= 195,600 psi caused by vertical load only. A stop at a reasonable
This stress is so high that settling in service would height above solid height is thus desirable-otherwise,
occur. This particular spring should be redesigned. spring may have to be modified.
16-38
Ovate Cross Sections
Make Better Coil Spring
Egg shape proves more efficient that conventional round
configuration while also saving space and weight. Analysis
also casts light on which materials store energy best.
Nicholas P. Chironis
Almost since helical coil springs
were invented, they have conven-
tionally been made of round wire.
Few engineers have been aware that
round wire does not perform as effi-
ciently as it should, and that other
cross sections often used in helical
springs, such as square or rectangular
wire, give even poorer results.
Now, however, the proposal of a
new cross-sectional shape of wire to
bring out the best performance in a
coil spring is focusing attention on
this aspect of spring design. Accord-
ing to H. 0. Fuchs, a Stanford Univ.
professor, the ideal cross section,
based on fatigue tests, is a blend of a
circle with an ellipse (drawing).
Such egg-shaped wire, Fuchs con-
tends, can store more elastic energy
than the conventional round wire in
a spring taking up the same space.
Thus, less spring weight is needed to
absorb or store a given amount of
energy. Moreover, an egg-shaped or
“stress-equalized” spring wire will
have a higher resonant frequency
than a round wire and will be less
subject to flutter.
Egg-shaped wire for coil springs is
not especially costly to make. What-
ever the cross-sectional shape, the
wire is, in smaller diameters, drawn
through dies with an opening of the
desired shape or, in larger diameters,
roll-formed to any configuration.
Anti-surgc auxiliary. Fuchs, work-
ing with John G . Schwarzbeck, a
consulting engineer, has also devel-
oped an auxiliary coil spring (draw-
ing, page 87) that gives anti-surge pro-
tection without requiring any more
space than the main spring takes up.
The turns of the auxiliary coil in-
terlace with those of the main stress-
equalized spring, which is modified
by flattening of its rounded surfaces.
As the turns of the larger coil move
together during compression, they
are frictionally engaged by the turns
of the bumper, or anti-surge, spring.
Being more flexible, the auxiliary
spring contracts as a unit, taking up
the surge energy by bending to a
slightly smaller radius.
Stress peaks. In conventional coil
springs with circular cross section,
efficiency is curtailed by stress peaks
at points on surfaces of the coil turns
during deflection of the spring. At
the inside of the coil, for example,
direct shearing stresses augment the
torsional stresses while the shorter
metal fibers are twisted through the
same angle as the longer fibers at the
outer side of the turn. Thus, total
stresses are higher at the inner side
than at the outer side of the coil.
In a round wire, the increased
stress at the inside of the turn is ap-
proximately 1.6/C times the average
surface stress, where C is the spring
index, equal to the mean coil diame-
ter divided by the wire diameter. A
spring index of 5, therefore, means
there is about 30% greater peak
stress at the inside of the coil turn,
over and above the average surface
stress.
Moreover, spring efficiency is pro-
portional to the square of the per-
missible stress. So the efficiency of
such a spring in fatigue loading,
where maximum stress range is the
determining factor, is only 60% of
the efficiency of the same spring in
static loading, where average stress is
the determining factor.
Differing curvature. In the egg-
shaped cross section, the curvature
on the inside of a coil turn is sharper
than that on the outside. The differ-
ence between the two curvatures is
calculated to equalize substantially
the stresses produced on the surfaces
of the coil during axial deflection.
The centroid of the cross section is
toward the outside of the midpoint
between the inner and outer surfaces.
Overall length and width dimen-
sions of the egg-shaped cross section
are approximately related to the
coil’s inner and outer diameters by
the expression:
Circle blends with ellipse to equalize
stresses during flexing in new wire shape.
- =1+- 1.2
t C
where
w = overall length of the section in
a radial direction normal to
the coil axis
t = overall width thickness of the
section in a direction parallel
to the coil axis
c =Do + DI
2w
D o = outer diameter of coil
D , = inner diameter of coil
The exact equation for the w / t
ratio is a much more involved rela-
tionship, but the error in use of the
above approximate relationship is
slight (graph, page 8 8 ) . For design
purposes, it is important to know the
relationship between the radii of in-
ner and outer curvatures:
f
where - - I
2r
defines the “egginess” of the oval sec-
tion. When t = r, the egginess will, of
course, be zero. For the section shown
in the drawing (above and right), ,t =
0.6, r = 0.15, and w = 0.9, which
works out to an egginess of 1.
Fuchs has also worked out the four
other formulas needed to design an
egg-shaped spring :
Stress equation
S / P = 2.55D/wt2
Loa,d-deflection equation
P / f = Gt4[2.1( w / t ) - 1.1]/8ND3
Area of section
A = .Irwt/4
Coil diameter to centroid
D = O.S(Do +
Di) +
0.152(w-t)
where A = area of cross section, D =
coiI diameter (of centroid of section),
f = deflection, G = shear modulus,
N = number of active coils, P = load,
S = maximum shear stress.
 Springs 16-39

Which material is best? For opti- the weight of a spring will be inverse-
mum energy absorption, it is impor- ly proportional to the square of the Comparing the resilience of spring materials
tant also to employ materials that stress. Conipres-
Modulus. Torsion sion Tension
can absorb and pack kinetic energy In music wire and in hard-drawn Maierial lb.,'in.l x 106 Diameter, springs sprtngs Springs
11,.
in the smallest space possible. The stainless, the decrease in diameter 0, Ro! Ti, Ri. 0, Rz!
L G ksi psi ksi psi ksi psi
key factor in energy absorption is the from 0.10 to 0.05 in. corresponds to
specific resilience, R, of the material an increase in permissible stress of A'loystee' 29 li 0.50 155 410 14G 985 106 515
(iioi-wuunci)
(energy stored per unit mass). Fuchs about 13%, but to an increase in re-
found this factor best determined silience of about 28%. The depen- MUSIC wtre 0.10 212 750 154 1030 114 565
from the equations: dence on the square of the stress also (cold-wound) 30 0.05 240 960 174 1320 128 710
R. = w"/2E explains why springs were among the 302 staiiiless 0.10 lA8 430 106 560 91 415
and first products that utilized the stress hard~diawii 25.5 005 170 565 123 755 105 550
R,= r 2 / 2 E incrcase that was made possible by (cold wound)

depending on the type of stressing, shot peening. Phosphor 0.10 90 270 70 395 55 245
normal or shear. The permissible stress Steel, according to Fuchs, is hard bronze 6'2 0.05 98 320 76 460 60 290
in tension or shear is v or 7 respec- to beat as a spring material. Any (cold-wound)
tively; the corresponding modulus of competing niatcrial will have to be
elasticity is E or G. evaluated on the basis of specific re-
Fortunately for the designer, the silience. Aluminum alloys, whosc
stresses in springs are either pre- moduli of elasticity and density are Variants of coil springs
dominantly normal, as in bending, or about one-third that of sted, will save
predominantly shear, as in torsion; weight only if their permissible Stress-equalized spring can have.
there is no need to be concerned strcsscs exceed one-third of the cor-
about intermediate cases and triaxial respondiny stresses for steel. Glass
states of stress. Fuchs defines R as fiber, which has even lower value of
energy stored per unit volume, main- modulus and of density. seems to be
ly to dodge the nuisance of working worthy of serious consideration only
with pounds force and pounds mass. for special applications, according to
The units of R are inch-pounds per Fuchs.
cubic inch or Ib./in.?. Fuchs also warns that because hol-
Results. Comparing materials, low sections arc theoretically morc
using values of permissible stresses cfficient than are so!id sections, many
recommended in the SAE Manual on engineers are frequently tempted to
Helical Springs, Fuchs calculated the make springs out of tubes instead of
apparent values of resilience with the bars and wires.
moduli given there (table above). This approach, hc says, is reasona-
Some interesting results emerged ble fol- springs that must only maintain
from Fuchs' calculations. For exam- a static load. but it will not work for
ple, there is a big difference in re- springs in fatigue service, because it . interwound anti-surge spring
silience between music wire and is too difficult to shotpeen the inside
some of the steels favored by aero- of small. straight hollow sections and
space designers, such as alloy steel impossible to <hotpeen the inside of
and 302 stainless. In torsion or corn- a coiled tube.
pression springs, the resilience of mu- And. if the surfaces are not shot-
sic wire is almost double that of 302 peened. the permissib!e stress i s so
stainless. much less that it results in a weizht in-
The high values for compression crease instead of a weight saving.
springs are due to the existence of
beneficial self-stresses. According to
Fuchs, in those helical torsion springs
(stressed in bending) that are cold-
wound from small wire, beneficial
self-stresses also exist but are less ef- A 1ti surge spring
fective. In the hot-wound 0.50-in. al-
.and various degrees of egginess
loy steel sprins, the self-stresszs in-
duced by coiling are removed by
heat-treating.
The much higher apparent resil-
ience that can be obtained from the
material in compression springs ex-
plains why weight can be saved by
replacing an extension spring by a
pair of long "hooks" that compress
a spring between their inner ends
when the outer ends are pulled apart
(drawing right).
Permissible stresses. The table also
illustrates the fact that the level of
permissible design stresses is much
more important in springs than in
structural members. That's because
16-40

Unusual Uses for

Helical Wire Springs
Hairn Murro

SPRING BELTING (left). For low

power transmission a t high speeds.
Allows a certain amount of varia-
tion i n the center distance and ab- I 'IIR
sorbs inertia forces. Spring ends
can be joined smoothly by using a
smaller internal spring as shown on
the following page.

ELECTRICAL FITTING (right).

An inexpensive lamp or fuse socket
which insures proper contact even
when subject to moderate vibration.
Small threaded parts also can he
joined i n this same way.

SCREW THREAD INSERTS (left).

Wire with diamond cross section.
For tapped holes in light alloys and
plastics. Are made of stainless steel
for corrosion-free threads. Can be
used to renew worn-out tapped
threads.
ROTATING TYPE OIL SEAL
(right). Uses helical wire spring to
exert a radiaI force on the packing.
Friction is kept to a minimum and
efficiency is high even at high shaft
speeds.

FRICTION RATCHET. Spring rotates shaft when pulled

in the a direction, but turns freely on the shaft when
pulled in the opposite or L direction.

FLEXIBLE SHAFT. Inner springs serves as shaft, outer

WORM GEARING. Used on low power transmissions. one as a casing. For single direction of rotation unless
Allows a certain amount of misaligument between worm shaft consists of two or more springs wound in opposite
and wheel. Wheels a r c best made from laminated plastics. directions.
 Springs 16-41

A selection of practical applications that are characterized by the func-

tions served in each case by the helical wire spring. The spring rate
property is put to use in most cases, but not in the axial loading sense
that represents the more common applications for which these types of
springs are employed in industrial products.

SENSITIVE STICK (left). Round lnsU/oiors

,
conductor bar is mounted within a I
spring fastened to insulators to I
serve as a n electrical switch. Deffect- I
I
ing the spring laterally completes I
the circuit. Can operate relays or I
alarm and can be made with inter- I
I
mediate insulators where consider- I
able length is required. I
I
I
THREAD MEASURING GAGE I
I
(right). Dimension d allows caIcu- I
lating the effective dia of thread. I
Pressing the loops releases the bolt I
I
to be unscrewed. Can be used on I
fluted parts like thread taps.

FLEXIBLE CHUTE (left). For feed-

ing small articles from hoppers to
automatic machines. Spring can be
wound i n different shapes as re-
quired by the articles being han-
dled.

TUBING REINFORCEMENT
(right). Gives plastic or rubber tub-
ing added rigidity as well as protec-
tion against mechanical damage.
Can be cast inside rubber as shown
in lower sketch.

Probe-----

ELECTRICAL CONNECTION for small, light products SMALL SPRING connects ends of larger spring with a
like hearing aids uses a special probe that is easily in- thread-like action. Useful where external projection can-
serted between coils of spring which is a conducting not be tolerated, like the spring-belting on opposite page.
material.

SHIELD FOR ELECTRICAL WIRE AND CABLE. Pro- SMALL DIAMETER SHAFI' COUPLINGS. Allows for
vides wear resistant covering for wires and protection some misalignment and can be used with shafts o r un-
against physical damage. equal diameters. For single direction of rotation only.
16-42

Optimum Helical Springs

How do you go about designing a spring with least weight or
volume? Not sure? Neither were some of experts-until these
formulas were derived.
Henry Swieskowski

AT Springfield Armory we have fre- Case 3-When the spring must pro-
quently been confronted with vide a specific final load at the fully
space, cost, and weight liniita.tions in compressed height. This requirement
spring design. T h e formulas that I pre- frequently occurs in the design of
sent here go well beyond the current latches and linkages.
literature in these respects. They also Because minimum values a r e
tell you what you can d o to further sought, the analysis considers spring
reduce the weight or size of the spring. ends as being plain; in other words,
Separate sets of formulas treat the there are n o inactive coils ( a promi-
nent spring manufacturer has recently
following three Ioad requirements:
warned that most designers unneces-
Case 1-When the spring must pro-
sarily call for square-and-ground
vide a specific load at the assembled
spring ends and thus add to the cost of
height. All retainer-type springs are in
the spring). However, the formulas can
this class, and this is the most coni-
be modified in applications where the
mon spring problem.
spring ends are squared or ground.
Case 2-When the spring must pro-
T h e analyses are based on the fol-
vide a specific amount of energy dur-
lowing conventional formulas (see also
ing its working stroke. T h e stroke is
the list of symbols on next p a g e ) :
the distance from assembled height to
fully compressed height. This require-
ment is called for with springs whose Load-deflection formula
function is to stop a moving mass or
to accelerate a resting mass.

Final-stress formula

)y2 = -8- DP,

--
ad3

Stroke formula

s = Fz - FI
Energy formula
c
 Springs 16-43

Step 2-Find the wire size, Eq 10

SYMBOLS

Step 3 S o l v e for the number of ac-

tive coils, Eq 5
t-2-cCcs+F/+ N = 4 (0.16)
i---4+ I __- = 7.5
i-.+ __j
(0.092)2(132)
Step M a l c u l a t e the active solid
height
C = spring index; C = D / d P I = load a t assembled height, Ib
d = wire diameter, in. P2 = load a t minimum compressed Solid height, H , = ( N + 1) d =
8.5 (.092) = 0.782 in.
D = mean coil diameter, in. heigth, l b
E = energy capacity, in.-lb. R z load-deflection rate, lb/in.; For practical design allow a 10%
F _ ' initial
- ' deflection, in. R =P/F clearance between solid height and
minimum-compressed height. Hence
F, = final deflection, in. s = stroke, in.; s = HI-HL'
G = modulus of torsion, Ib/in.* Sp = stress a t minimum compressed Hs = 1.111, = 0.860 in.
H I = assembled height, in. height, psi H I = H:! + s = 0.860 + 1.16
H, = minimum compressed height,V = volume of spring material, in." = 2.020 in.
in. W = weight of spring material, Ib Step 5-Now compute the load-deflee-
H,, = free height, in. p = density of spring material, tion rate to determine the free height,
N = number of active coils lb/in.:{ Eq 1

R = _(11.5X106)
__ (0.092)4
8 (1.023)-7:5-
= 12.9 lb/in.
Volume formula Wire diameter for a minimum volume Thus
spring (by solving for d):

Formulas for the three cases are de-

rived below, with related charts and
numerical examples to simplify the
design procedure.
Case 1-Minimum spring volume
for given initial load, P I
Combining Eq 1,2,3 and 5 yields
the relationship between the volume of
spring material and the basic spring
parameters:
Substituting the value of the spring
index. C = D / d , into Eq 6 gives:
To determine which values of spring
index produce minimum spring mate-
rial, Eq 7 is differentiated with respect
to C and set equal to 0.
16 PI C? - SSP 11' = 0
This equation now leads to the fol-
lowing design formulas:
Spring index for a minimum volume
spring (by solving for C):
Minimum volume for given initial load Free height
(by substituting Eq 9 into Eq 7): H F == H i + F1 = 2.020 +
1.163 = 3.183 in.
Case 2-LMinimum spring volume
for required energy capacity, E
Thus, for a given mean coil diam- The volume of spring material is
eter, you can design the spring to have obtained by combining E q 1 to 5:
minimum volume by selecting the
spring index according to Eq 9 o r the
wire diameter according to Eq 10.
The relationship is made clear in the
illustration at right. This is a plot of With the aid of the spring ratio C =
Eq 7 with the mean coil diameter D D / d , Eq 12 becomes:
acting as a parameter by assuming the
v = x2 sz D4G
values 0.2 0.5, 0.9 and 1.4 in. For (13)
each D value, there is a C value that 8C3 (SS SzD2-8EC3)
leads to minimum spring volume. Differentiating with respect to C and
Example 1-Design a spring to have letting d V / d C = 0, results in
minimum material-volume with the
following requirements: 1 ~ x -3 Ts szDi = o (14)
I n i t i a l load, P I = 15 Ib As in Case 1 , we obtain the follow-
Mean coil diameter, D = 1.02 in. ing design formulas:
(8) S t r o k e , s = 1.16 in. Spring index for minimum volume:
Final stress, S"3 = 100,000 psi
G (steel) = 11.5 X lo6 psi
Step 1-Calculate rnin volume, Eq 11
Wire diameter for minimum volume:
v .
min -
g(1.16) (15) (11.5X106)
1010

L =0.16 in.3
16-44

Minimum volume for given energy

requirement
0.7
=
vmin 4Ec/szz (17)
Thus, Vn,in is independent of the
mean coil diameter when d is chosen
in accordance with Eq 16. Eq 17
shows the interesting result that Vlilin 0.6
is also independent of the stroke, s.
i?
Case 3-Minimum spring volume ._
c

and required final load, Pz >-

A slightly different approach is
4
..
-
0.5
taken in the analysis of minimum vol- -
0,

ume and final load. Here it is the total

z
-,
c
deflection, FB, rather than the stroke, -
L
a
w
s, that is the important parameter. 0.4
Combining Eq 1, 2, and 5 yields the a,

surprising result: 5
-
9

0.3
In other words, the volume for this
case is independent of the mean coil
diameter, D , and spring index, C .
Thus, when the requirements for Fz, 0.2
G , P2 and S2, are given, equal spring
volumes are obtained regardless of the
values chosen for the coil diameter and
spring index.
Example 2-Design a minimum- 0.1
volume spring with the following re-
quirements:
Final load, Pz = 50 lb
Mean coil diameter, D = 0.95 in.
Total deflection, Fz = 1.0 in. 0 4 0 12 16
Final stress, Sz = 80,000 psi Spring index - C
Modulus of torsion, G = 11.5x IO6
Actually, from the above require- 2. Variations in volume for springs of different diameters. Note that
ments, only one solution is possible. there is an optimum value of spring index for each case. A slight shift
Step l-Compute the minimum vol- in the C-value chosen by the designer boosts the spring weight.
ume, Eq 18:
v mm
, - 2 0 ) (50) (11.5) (IO6)
- --
(80,000)*
~~

= 0.18 in.3
Step 2-Find the wire diameter, Eq 2: = .873 + 1.000 = 1.873 h. For required final load

Designing for minimum weight

Although the findings were in refer-
Step 3 4 a l c u l a t e the number of coils, ence to minimum spring volume, you When springs are ground or squared
Eq 1: can apply the equations equally as well
The study considered spring ends as
to minimum spring weight by relating
being open and not ground. F o r other
N = (11.5)
- (lo6)(0.115)4(1.0)
= 5.9
the spring weight, W , to the density of
end conditions, the minimum spring
8 (0.95)3-(50T spring material, p , in the following
volume will be greater by an amount:
manner:
Step 4-Determine the active solid For squared ends (closed ends) :
height For required initial load
Bmin= +i?d2D
H, = (N + 1) d For ground ends:
= 6.9 (0.115) = 0.794 in.
Again let the minimum compressed vmin= +n"ZD
height be increased by a 10% clear-
ance: For required energy capacity
Hz 1.1H.g
1.1 (.794) = 0.873h.
=
H F = Hz Fz +

Machined Helical Springs
Gives More Precise Performance
The traditional coil spring, made
by winding a wire around a mandrel,
is today confronted by a new con-
tender-a square-section helical
spring machined from solid metal
and ground to close tolerances like
other mechanical components.
Machined springs have always
appealed to designers for the limited
number of applications where pre-
cise requirements are more im-
portant than cost. But regardless of
cost, most methods of manufactur-
ing machined springs were painfully
slow and somewhat unpredictable.
A new method of preyision-
grinding helical elements may get
around the earlier handicaps that
have discouraged interest among
designers. This technique has been
worked out by J. Soehner Div. of
Kinemotive Corp., Lynbrook, N. Y .
Assuring precision. Even with
improved productivity of the manu-
facturing line, the machined springs
won’t compete on price with the
conventionally wound helical coils.
But the spring designer is often
confronted with rigid requirements
as to the spring rate (the load-
deflection rate) or the coil-expan-
A I T TaDered
ing
Ends remain parallel
integral gear ----- N,= total number o f t u r n s
Valve component
Spring can now be designed a s an integral part of another component or to perform a multiple function in a machine.
Springs 16-45
sion rate (when the spring must
serve as a friction brake). Some-
times, too, the spring must be as-
sembled very precisely with other
mechanical components so all work
as a team in a common function.
In such cases, conventional
springs have shortcomings that are
more important than price.
Soehner’s technique is keyed to
the development of special auto-
matic grooving equipment that
speeds up manufacture without sac-
rificing precision. This equipment
can grind precision-squared helical
coils, with slots that can be very
narrow if necessary. In one appli-
cation, Soehner succeeded in grind-
ing slots only 0.015 in. wide by
0.250 in. deep in tubular stock.
Integral designs. Soehner’s springs
usually are ground from prema-
chined and hardened stock in sizes
ranging from 0.125 in. to 6 in. OD
and with load capacities from a few
grams to more than 1000 lb. Any
material that can be machined is
stock for Soehner’s grinding wheels,
including such metals as Ni-Span-C
and Inconel X750.
The designer gains freedom from
W
t Right-a t i d
Ieft-h a n d-
wound coils
Zero twist
when compressed Torsion element
16-46
routine limitations when coils are
ground instead of wound. For ex-
ample, an entire subassembly can
be machined from one solid piece.
Springs can be machined intesrally
with gears, valve seats, threaded
ends, piloting surfaces, tapcrcd
coils, and right- and left-hand coils
in series.
Even with maximum care in de-
sign. a spring may not perform pre-
cisely according to formula. Soeh-
ner finds that its machined springs
can be reground as needed to meet
ultra-precise requirements. The
spring assembly can be measured
for spring rate and other perform-
ance specifications and then re-
mounted on the grinder for mod-
ification. Regrinding of a few
ten-thousandths of an inch from
the spring’s outer diameter, coil
width. or coil height will bring the
rate precisely to the specified meas-
urement.
British formulas. Most US. for-
mulas for helical springs were de-
rived originally from springs that
are wound from coil. Such formulas
employ a curvature factor to allow
for stresses induced in the wire
when it is wound. For machined
square-coil springs, howevcr, Soeh-
ner finds that formulas developed
by the British Standards Institute
provide more accurate designs.
Stiffness factors fi and h are shown for various wire cross-section ratios.
These formulas make use of “stiff-
ness factors,” ,u, and A, that in turn
vary with thc b / h ratio of the coil
cross section. Specifically. for com-
pression and extension springs:
Axial spring rate, K,:
IT- = @c(;b%’
h-2 -- __
AT D”(.I-- I )
Shear stress, S.:
p, =
IT7 (D+b)
.-
(-b f l i )-
b’ 1,‘’
where W=axial load. Ib, G=shear
modulus, psi; N k = number of turns:
and where dimensions D , h and h are
defined in the middle drawing, bot-
tom of facing page.
Values of p and A are given in
the chart below. The machined
springs also can provide a torque
or load at right angles to th? spring
axis:
Torsional spring rate, Kfl:
Fiber stress:
where M = torque. in.-lb.; A k a n -
gular deflection (twist), deg.; E =
Young’s modulus, psi; and S z f i b e r
stress, psi.
 Springs 16-47

Pneumatic Spring Reinforcement

Robert 0. Parrnley, P.E

A typical pneumatic spring is basically a column of trapped air or gas

which is configured within a designed chamber to utilize the pressure
of said air (or gas) for the unit’s spring support action. T h e compressibility
of the confined air provides the elasticity or flexibility of the pneumatic
spring.
There are many designs of pneumatic springs which include: hydro-pneu-
matic, pneumatic spring/shock absorber, cylinder, piston, constant-volume,
constant mass and bladder types. T h e latter, bladder type, is one of the most
basic designs. This type of pneumatic spring is generally composed or rubber
or plastic membranes without any integral reinforcement. See Figure 1.
A cost-effective method to reinforce the bladder membrane is to utilize a
steel coil spring for external support. Figure 2 illustrates the conceptual
design. Proper sizing of the coil spring is necessary to avoid undue stress and
pinching of the membrane during both the flexing action and rest phase.

I’;-\ ,
COIL SPRING
(CROSS-SECTION)

LOADPL. ‘\ l
- ‘. -
/” -_ / ,
I
VIEW
0
z

BLADDER

BLADDER iJ

ELEVATION VIEW 1 %
BASE MOUNT
<-----
MOUNTPIN

Figure 1 Figure 2
 16-48

Nonlinear Springs
Two forms of nonlinear systems offer improved working
characteristics in a wide range of applications. Design
equations are given for each.
William A. Welch

ANY of today's products that use spring sys-

M tems will function better if a nonlinear type is
employed in place of one of the usual linear springs.
springs for valves, latches, escapements), reciprocating
tools.
Let us see why nonlinearity is useful in such appli-
But nonlinear systems require more complex analyses- cations. A suspension system for a vehicle is a good
nonlinearity is a dirty word to some engineers-and example of the first class of applications. It must ease
frequently designers stick to their familiar linear-spring road shocks over a wide range of speeds. T h e effective
types, even when they know better. vertical impact velocity will be essentially a function
Why the increased interest in nonlinearity? Nonlinear of vehicle speed, but the shock attenuation is related
springs, as you know, have a force-deflection rate to the ratio of impact velocity to system natural fre-
(spring rate) which increases-or sometimes decreases quency. Therefore, it is desirable to have the system
-with deflection, Fig 1. Such springs can out-perform frequency increase with the impact velocity. This is
the linear types in two classes of applications: obtainable with a nonlinear spring system. Similar con-
1) Shock-absorbing springs-as in automotive appli- ditions prevail in aircraft landing gear where the spring
cations, aircraft landing gear, fragile product packaging, system must be soft o n ordinary landings, yet stiffen
dynaiiiic stops for machines. rapidly under shock loads during emergency landings
2) Periodic motion mechanisms-as in feed mecha- o r when there is a sudden down draft. Such conditions
nisms, sorting machines, sequence controls (such as occur also in packaging. Examples of the second class

Constonf Decreasing
spring rate

L?
/ncreosmg

Deflection, x Deflection, x

Linearity in springs Nonlinearity Cantilever non-linear leaf spring

1. Spring rate k is t h e amount of deflection produced by a load P. Hence k = P/x.

For most springs, t h e spring rate is constant, giving a straight-line (linear) curve
 Springs 16-49

Symbols
a = displacement at transition for bi-linear L = free length, in.
system, in. rn = mass. inch-pound-second units
C = non-linearity parameter, dimensionless, P = spring force, Ib
which describes the rapidity of the change E = time, sec
of t h e spring rate, k , with changes in de- x = displacement, in.
flection x' = velocity, in./sec
E = elastic modulus, psi x" = acceleration, in./sec2
F = harmonic force amplitude, Ib y = ordinate of spring abutment, in.
Z = cross section moment of inertia, in.4 z = abcissa of spring abutment, in.
k = spring rate, Ib/in. w = circular natural frequency, rad/sec

of application are the vibrating conveyors and sorters,

Fig 2. Such machines are tuned, by proper choice of Link /Trough Direcfion of f/ow
springs, to the operating frequency of the drive motor.
T h e problem is how to maintain such tuning when the
speed of the feeder, and hence the operating frequency
is varied. This is usually done by adjusting the spring
rate o r the mass-or by designing a nonlinear system
to remain "in tune" over a range without adjustment. Curved support frome
Equations of nonlinearity systems 2. Application of cantilever leaf spring with curved sup-
port to a reciprocating conveyor. This arrangement en-
Couple a spring to a mass and you have a vibratory ables t h e driven load to operate close to resonance over
system. If the spring is linear (force exactly propor- a range of motor speeds. It is desirable t o vibrate a t
tional to displacement), behavior of the system is de- resonance, or close to it, t o obtain large amplitudes for
scribed by the very tractable differential equation: feeding and t h u s avoid t h e need for a much larger motor.
mx" +- Icx = 0
(See list of symbols above.)

I
t a

~
~
,
/
~
,,
/
,
/
/
,,
/
,
/
Tapered 0 D spring Dual helical springs

on a force-deflection chart. Others may have an increasing or decreasing spring

rate, and t h e rate may change abruptly or smoothly. This is done in various ways.
 16-50

All manner of useful characteristics are easily derived

3. Pick the degree of nonlinearity. A value Ca = 0 gives
zero nonlinearity (i.e.. a linear spring). Generally, a
high value (much over Ca = 1) is desired.
from this simple relationship: natural frequency, dis-
placement and velocity at any instant, response to dy-
namic loads, and accelerations. However, if the spring
is not linear, the motion is not a simple harmonic but
a cantankerous one indeed.
No general solutions are known for the equations of
nonlinear systems. Only a few successful approximate
solutions have been developed for special cases. The
most useful one is the solution which produces a spring
force in the form of a cubic curve:
p = (z zk c ' x 3 ) (1)
T h e dynamic equation for this nonlinear system is
z"m+lc (X * C' =
T?) F COS w t (2)
Here, k is the basic spring rate at zero displacement
(actually, at the beginning of the deflection), and C2
is the parameter describing the nonlinearity, Fig 3. The
known approximate solution of Eq 2 gives the all-im-
portant design formula:

With this equation you can approximate any spring

rate characteristic you may be seeking. When the C 2
term in this equation is positive the spring stiffens and
the natural frequency increases with increasing deflec-
tion. The opposite is true with a negative C2 term.
This equation can be applied directly to the solution
of two types of applications.
Rate varying with amplitude
T o design a nonlinear system with a specified nat-
ural frequency at a particular amplitude:
1 ) Estimate the required k from the expression w =
( k / r n ) + for a linear system.
2 ) Obtain the corresponding C value from the equa-
tion:

Velocity, x', in./sec

4. Computed natural frequency, w", for the cubic force
spring is compared to the desired frequency (broken
Or you may assume a value of C which reflects the
line.) Note how closely the behavior is-approximated. required degree of nonlinearity. In this case use

u
-
%.
V
e
3' This procedure will suffice for problems in which the
amplitude is known, such as a mechanism driven by a
35 crank. Several trials may be needed to obtain a practical
combination of k and C L ; the design procedure for a
spring with the rrquired characteristic is given later.

3n Rate varying with impact velocity

When the system natural frequency must have a
specified relation to maximum velocity, or impact velw-
2.5 ity, a more complex solution is necessary. Typically, this
requirement occurs in shock attenuating systems. By
equating the stored energy of the spring to the kinetic
encrgy of the mass at impact, it can be shown that

initial velocity, x b , in/sec

5. An example of how a bi-linear spring is almost as
good a s a nonlinear type. Maximum derivation from The solution of x from Eq 4 is substituted back into
specification is only about 4% which benefits tuning. Eq 3b to find k . Roots can be found quickly by means
 Springs 16-51

of the Remainder Theorem and synthetic division ( P E
-Nov 26 ’62, p 1 3 5 ) . Because o is not a linear function
of the velocity, a specified relation can only be satisfied
at two specific points. A good approximaQon can be
attained, however, as shown in the example below, where
the deviation is about 2 % .
If necessary, adjust the parameters until a good match
with desired characteristics is obtained. Increasing the
ratio W ~ / W , will increase the slope of frequency vs
velocity.
Amplitude of the bilinear system is
r 1

Example: Find the initial spring rate for an oscillating

feed system, Fig 2, which must have a natural frequency
which varies with the linear feed velocity. Specifically Natural frequency is
it is desired to have the frequency vary with velocity ac-
cording to the straight-line relationship of rr

The velocity, x’, is expected to vary between 20 and

50 in./sec. The mass of the system is rn = 10 in-lb-sec Example: Find the two spring rates for a bilinear sys-
units. tem with: m = 10 in.-lb-sec units, W ~ / W , = 25, X’O =
20 ips min = 50 ips max, w1 = 0.5 rad/sec.
The value of C” IS tentatively selected as 30.
Evaluating Eq 4, for the average value of x’ = 35 ips F o r x ‘ ~= 35 ips, from Eq 5 and 6, a = 6.7 in.
(3)(1225) (30)
2 (12.25) 12.25
=o
3 0 2 4 - 4500s’ - 200 =0
x = 12.25 in.
= 3.56 rad/sec
Also, for a value of x‘ = 35,

w = -35
20
+ 1.75 = 3.5 rad/sec
kl=wI2m=0.25 (10) =2.5 ib/in.
Substituting the x and o values into Eq 3b gives kz= wz2m= 156.25(10) = 1562.5 lb/iti.
The values of w and x are plotted in Fig 5 for the
k = 12.25 (10) specified range of xo’. Maximum error is about 4%.
= 0.0363 lb/in.
3 (30)(150,
1+ 4-
Cantilever-spring design
Natural frequency can now be verified by substituting A popular method of obtaining the nonlinear spring
x and k into Eq 3. characteristic is to have a cantilever spring, Fig 1,
Note in Fig 4 that if we plot natural frequency and operate over a curved supporting surface (usually a
displacement values for the specified range of x’, we parabolic surface). The surface reduces progressively
obtain a natural frequency which does vary almost the free length of the cantilever as the load increases.
linearly with velocity. This stiffens the spring with deflection.
Bilinear systems The change in free length is

Another form of nonlinear system, which is some-

times more convenient 10 use. is the bilinear system,
Fig I . I n this case, the spring force is Taking z and y as the coordinates of the supporting
P = klx from x = O t o x = a surface (where z = A L ) :
and P
6EI (Lo-z)P 2+2 ( L o - z ) ]
P = lc1a + k2 (x - u )
y = [23-3

from 1: = a to rmaz The bilinear spring can be any of the usual types of
The motion of the system can be treated as two springs, arranged so that one of two springs engages the
separate harmonic motions connected by the condition mass when x = a , Fig 1 . In such an arrangement, the
that their velocities are equal at x = a. If a is chosen spring constant of the second portion, k 2 , is the sum of
smaller than the minimum amplitude, all motions of the the two spring rates acting together.
system in operation will be nonlinear. Both the ratio
w ~ / w and
~ the value of a determine how the system
natural frequency varies with amplitude o r velocity.
The procedure for design is:
1) Select kl from the expression

This is the system frequency for all amplitudes smaller

than a.
2 ) Compute the amplitude and natural frequency f o r
several velocities, using Eq 5 and 6 below.
 16-52

Friction-Spring Buffers
Here’s a new way of teaming springs to dissipate kinetic
energy in rapid, high-impact, reciprocating mechanisms.
Dr. Karl W. Maier

H ERE is a new friction shock ab-

sorber that can successfully ab-
sorb rapid reciprocating forces with a
high damping efficiency. The device is
actually an assembly of two metal
springs-so simple in construction that
it might prompt you to say, “Why
didn’t 1 think of that?’ It can, how-
ever, be classified AS a new machine
element, and as such has received a
US patent.
The Coil-cone Bui/cfer, as it is called
(Fig I ) , is well suited to high-speed
reciprocating mechanisms where, in
addition to a cushioning action, the
application calls for high damping and
a continuous and rapid withdrawal of
kinetic energy. Such applications in-
clude:
Automatic guns, to damp impact
and recoil. One version of the buffer
(in production for two years) is cush-
ioning the impact of the bolts in an
automatic rifle. Another type is under-
going tests at Springfield Armory as
an external recoil mechanism for an
automatic gun installed in aircraft.
0 Power-actuated fastening and
demolition tools to damp the recoil
and ease the operation of the tool.
0 Suspension and cushioning sys-
tems of heavy vehicles, such as freight-
protection devices in railroad cars, and
damping-buffers in trucks, farm equip-
ment and construction machinery.
Rapid-actuating valves to damp
severe surges in the valve springs and
increase spring life.
A new spring arrangement
T h e friction unit of the device has
two coil springs in a n e s t d arrange-
ment-an inner support spring and an
outer brake spring. Fig 2.
The support spring is a typical heli-
cal spring made of round steel wire.
Thus it has a high stiffness in the radial
direction. T h e brake spring, on the
other hand, is coiled from a wire of tri-
angular cross section and cut into
single brake coils to facilitate radial
expansion of its coils.
The outside of the brake coils is
ground cylindrically to fit snugly into
a tubular housing which acts as the
shock absorber body. It is this wall
which acts as a friction surface.
The plane of contact between brake
coils and support spring is inclined
toward the axis of the device by a de-
sired camniing angle a. When the sup-
port sprinp is compressed axially, it
forces the brake coils outward to press
against the friction surface of the
housing.
The buffer assembly
To complete the friction-buffer a$-
sembly, the nested-spring unit of Fig 2

fSfee//
1. Friction buffer assembly contains t w o spring systems in series. The buffer spring takes most of the deflection during
impact, while the friction unit, installed ahead of the buffer spring, absorbs most of the impact energy.
 Springs 16-53

1s inst;tlled between 1 ) a resilient buf-

ter spring supported at the closed end
of the housing and 2) an axially mov-
ahlr plunger for transmission of ex-
ternal forces (Fig I ) . Soppod s p h q Broke coifs End section of coil
Camniing angles of 30 and 36 deg
have been found to be practical
/lsteell [phosphor bronze1 \
choices. With an angle of a = 30 deg,
tests have shown that a brake coil will
rcccive a radial expansion force about
3.5 times the axial force. Therefore a
very high axial braking force is gen-
crated between the brake coils and
inner wall of the buffer housing.
The relationship between the inner
support spring, the brake coils, and
the housing wall is such that the coils
ol' the inner spring cannot be com-
pressed to its solid height. T h e axial
force is propagated through the fric-
tion assembly in zigzag fashion, from
inner coil, to outer coil, to inner coil,
etc.
During the compression stroke, the
buffer force, P,,at the plunger is much
higher than the force felt by the buffer
spring, f,,.For example, the force-
deflection diagram, Fig 3 , shows buffer
units plotted with one, two, or three
brake coils. For the unit with three
hrake coils ( n = 3 ) , P., is about three
\
times P,,. But during the rebound. or
extension stroke, P,, is reduced to about 2. Nested spring friction unit of the buffer assembly has segmented
one-third of P,,. This means that the brake coils which expand radially when a support spring is compressed
device returns only one-ninth of the axially under impact. Phosphor bronze coils are employed for better fric-
cnergy absorbed during its compres- tion characteristics. The damping efficiency of the unit is at its highest
sion stroke. This amount, however, is when t h e surfaces of the housing wall are dry; however, t h e unit operates
well in the lubricated condition. The number of brake coils contained in
sufficient to return the plunger to its
t h e unit influences t h e amount of energy that can be absorbed. This is
original, extended position. illustrated in t h e force-deflection diagram on t h e following page.
T h e friction unit, installed ahead of
the buffer spring, acts as a force multi-
plier or force reducer, depending on
the direction of motion. Considering
its relatively small size, the friction
 16-54

Foi A P3 fbroke shoe of three coJd

3. Force-deflection characteristics of nested-spring fric-
tion buffers. Curves are shown of three different assemblies
having one, two or three brake coils. "The compression
stroke for a threecoil unit is line OP,; its rebound (exten-
S i O n ) stroke is PsO. Hence the kinetic energy dissipated by
the device is quite large-area X ~ P ~ P 'shown
J ~ ' ~ ~in color and
obtained by subtracting area x,x',P,x, from area XaX:,p&n.
For a one-coil buffer, the dissipated energy area is shown
shaded. Note also the curve for the buffer spring if used
alone. It does not dissipate any energy because the r e C U -
peration stroke closely coincides with the COmPreSSiOn
stroke Op,, and t h u s the energy is returned during rebound.

unit does a quite remarkable job.
T h e plunger stroke of the buffer
unit is practically identical with the
stroke of the buffer spring because the
friction unit hardly changes its length
during operation. Since the buffer
spring can be chosen at will, it permits
the development of long-stroke buffers,
the stroke being as high as the solid
height of the buffer or better.
Energy capacity per unit volume
This factor, also called the volume
efficiency, is the ratio of the energy
absorbed to the cylindrical volume
occupied by the buffer assembly when
compressed solid (which includes the
buffer spring and friction unit). Very
high energy capacities are obtainable
i n the range of 300 to 600 in.-lb/in.3.
Competitive devices quite expensive t o manufacture.
0 Metal-rubber devices are even
The all-metal construction of the
more limited in energy capacity, damp-
buffer makes it a rugged device cap-
able of operating without maintenance ing and life.
0 Hydraulic buffers are more expen-
in the dry or lubricated condition.
sive in manufacture and may also re-
When lubricated, its damping effici-
quire maintenance. Also, they are not
ency drops somewhat. However, there
is practically no wear on the friction easily installed in small spaces.
surfaces and thus the devices have long
wear life. The major components are
coil springs which can be produced by
a spring manufacturer at low cost as
compared to machining of parts from
solid stock.
Other types of damping buffers have
these limitations:
Ring springs have only a limited
stroke (15% of solid height), limited
damping (60% ma)-and they are

New E uations Simplify
7
Bellevil e Spring Design
Research has reduced complex mathematics to easy
calculations that help designers to select best dimensions.
Nicholas P. Chironis
As spring designs go, the Belle-
ville is an old-timer-it was patent-
ed back in 1835 by Julien Belleville,
a French engineer-but it seems to
be just coming into its own. Many
applications are cropping up in the
aerospace and automotive indus-
tries, and the way has now been
paved for still wider use.
Equations and graphs worked out
by Gerhard Schremmer of the Roch-
ester Institute of Technology (Roch-
ester, N.Y.) enable a designer to
make sure a Belleville is properly
proportioned, without going through
complex mathematics.
As Schremmer reported at the an-
nual meeting of the American Soci-
ety of MechanicaI Engineers, the
new equations and test data make it
possible to predict accurately the en-
durance strength of a Belleville and
to determine its optimum dimensions
for a given load.
Packed with power. A Belleville
spring is no more than a coned disk
(drawing right), and some design-
ers and manufacturers refer to Belle-
villes as disk springs, cone-disk
springs, or “Belleville washers.”
Whatever name the Belleville
900 Ib.
I the probability of failure at point B
0.18Ib.
1.11 im3
Bellevilles stack compactly (center), compared to equivalent helical spring on right,
easing problem of design when space is a t a premium, a s in brake a t left.
goes by, the spring’s most appealing
feature is its ability to provide a very
high spring force with a very small
deflection. According to Union
Spring & Mfg. Co., the Belleville ac-
complishes this while packed into
about one-quarter the space that a
helical spring needs (drawing below).
Moreover, by stacking Bellevilles
in various arrangements, a designer
can obtain various load-deflection
characteristics.
Failure points. Schremmer of
Rochester Tech says designers have
long been calculating Bellevilles on
the erroneous assumption that the
stress to worry about is the maximum
compressive stress at the upper inner
edge of the spring, point A in draw-
ing on facing page.
Recent tests by Schremmer and
others have proved that fatigue
failure-and in most dynamic appli-
cations, fatigue is the problem-
originates somewhere in the lower
surface. Depending on the dimensions,
and also somewhat on the deflection,
either the inner or the outer edge
(points B or C) is more involved in
damaging stresses.
Although the stress at B or C is
~~
900 lb.
I tion due to the preload, the higher
.-E
.W
LD
0.57 Ib.
4.64in3
Springs 16-55
less than that at A , it is more re-
sponsible for fatigue behavior, be-
cause it is a tensile stress. Schrem-
mer, therefore, derived equations for
tensile stresses at points B and C :
SB D,2C,(l-p)
4Et6 [c4(;-$) -;I
where :
D o= outside diameter
E = modulus of elasticity
h = height of unloaded Belleville
ri = inner radius
ro outer radius
=
t thickness
=
p = Poisson’s ratio (0.3 for most
metals)
6 = spring deflection during use
and where:
c l = l - - T i c2-- - -1-ro CI
1
ro In -
Ti
1 n/r0
ro CI
Ti
In addition to the equations,
Schremmer developed a graph
(right) from experimental data that
helps determine the decisive point
of the spring, dependent on the ra-
tios h / t and D r / D , . The tests cov-
ered a wide range of Belleville
spring sizes, thicknesses, and deflec-
tions. In the central range of the
graph, either point B or point C may
be dominant.
This ambiguity is caused by the
natural scattering of fatigue strength
and also somewhat by the influence
of the actual deflections. In other
words, the smaller the initial deflec-
rather than that at point C .
Enduring the stresses. Based on
3600 fatigue tests on Belleville
springs made of 50 Cr V4, a chrome-
vanadium steel similar to SAE 6150,
Schrernmer was able also to plot a
series of endurance-strength dia-
grams. In these applications, a Belle-
ville spring undergoes continuing
changes in stress from a maximum-
stress value to a minimum-stress
value, as when under cyclic loading.
To get the endurance-strength dia-
grams, Schremmer employed the
equation for S, and S, for which-
ever stress was critical, and the Wei-
16-56

- oD-
l

Fatigue life of dynamically loaded Belleville spring can be pre-

dicted accurately by use of new test data and equations. In
drawing at top left, potential fatigue failure is narrowed down
to point B or point C when ratios of height to thickness and
inside diameter to outside diameter are known (chart at top
right). Until now, the trouble spot has been assumed to be the
top of the inside lip, point A. The other three charts on this page
show endurance-strength curves for three groups of thick-
nesses, leading t o a finding of the maximum number of loading
cycles permissible for an application, based on a 99% con-
fidence level. The right-angled dashed line in the middle chart
at right illustrates how to use the curves. If you compute the
minimum and maximum stresses that occur during operation,
using the equations given on the facing page, you can pick the
permissible number of operating cycles directly off the chart.
For example, a Belleville spring that undergoes a stress varia-
tion from 44 t o 94 k g / r n r n Z will probably last for 2 million
cycles.

Plotting load-deflection curve, F, and stress-deflection curve, S,. gives the safe stress
ranges, a valuable guide in design of reliable Belleville springs.
bull statistical method to evaluate
the points on the curves.
With these methods, three groups
of data were obtained (graphs, page
117) for three groups of thicknesses
with a 99% probability of survival.
The diagrams give figures for lo5,
5x10" and 2x10U cycles. The diago-
nals can be considered as infinite-
life lines, and a certain amount of
interpolation can be done between
the 2x10G lines and the diagonals.
Design for longevity. With the
charts, it is now possible to design
Bellevilles for indefinite life spans
(above 2x10G cycles). For example,
suppose a Belleville spring has di-
mensions of: D,=45 mm (1.77 in.),
D1=22.5 mm, 1 ~ 1 . 7 5mm, h ~ 1 . 3
mm. Then, h l t ~ 0 . 7 4 and
, D,/D1=2.
The spring is preloaded with a force
F.,,,=155 kg (343 lb.). Four steps
lead to the maximum permissible load,
F,,,,,,to assure indefinite life:
Step 1-Determine the load-de-
flection curve. Some spring manufac-
turers provide such data; otherwise
the engineer may employ the equa-
tion below and calculate the loads
for four equal-spaced deflections at
k 0 . 2 5 , 0.50, 0.75, 1.0.
where the value of cx is
and R =
r-l
TO
Plot the resulting load-deflection
curve for the F and 6 values.
Springs 16-57
Step %With the given values of
h/t=0.74 and D./Dl=2 (or
D,/D,,=O.5), determine with the aid
of the chart (middle) that it is the
stress at point C that controls fatigue
failure.
Step S N O W employ the above
equation for S, to solve for S, at
the four deflection points. Plot the
values in the load-deflection chart
(top, page 117).
Step &The deflection at F,.,..=
155 kg is picked off from the chart
as being 6,,,1n=o.325 mm=0.25h.
The stress at this deflection is S.,,.=
45 kg/mm2 (64,000 psi). For t= 1.75
mm, the chart for group 2 is valid.
Employing SI,, ~ 4 kg/mm2,
5 obtain
from the chart the maximum allow-
able stress, S,.,.=94 kg/mm2. Going
back to the load-deflection curve with
S,,,Ix, and knowing that 6,,,,,=0.74 mm
gives a maximum-load value of
F,,,,=300 kg (663 lb).
Thus the spring may be loaded be-
tween 155 and 300 kg for an in-
definite number of times. Moreover,
if Schremmer's theories are correct,
there is a probability of 99% that
there will not be any fatigue failure.
In his tests, Schremmer used up
to eight single-stacked springs. The
tests were made with a sinusoidai-
motion loading applied at approxi-
mately 30 cps. The center guide rods
were hardened, ground, lubricated.
Schremmer recommends that
Bellevilles be made of chrome vana-
dium, with dimension ratios of ap-
proximately D,/D,=0.50 to 0.588
and h/t=0.6 to 0.7. These ratios will
give a maximum energy-absorption
capacity for a minimum space.
16-58
New Springs Do More Jobs
By shaping the coil of the familiar Neg‘ator springs, you can change at
will its constant-load level or gradient.
Nicholas P. Chironis
W E N T developments in pre-
R stressed coil springs and spring
motors now make it possible to
select or adjust the constant-force or
constant-torque levels in an applica-
tion-and even obtain a negative
spring gradient in which the force
decreases with deflection.
These unusual spring character-
istics, developed by Norman E.
Sindlinger and his R & D group at
the Hunter Spring Div of Ametek
in Hatfield, Pa, were obtained by
modifying the shapes of Neg’ator
springs (a trade name of Ametek).
The new constant-force types are
interesting to designers of devices
that require a way to select or dial
in ortho-
a desired load level-as
pedic traction devices, X-ray heads,
and machine counterbalances for
tool interchangeability.
The new negative-gradient types
are also being studied for overcenter
devices (as in the computer window
discussed later in the article) and
for long-deflection retraction de-
vices, where the design calls for
controlled decrease in force during
either extension or retraction. For
instance, a negative-gradient spring
can reduce acceleration and prevent
a jarring ’stop when a retracted
mechanism nears the full-return
position.
Spring motors. The key factor
that changes a strip of spring steel
into a Neg’ator spring is the curva-
ture built into the spring by pre-
stressing during the manufacturing
process. Thus a Neg’ator strip, when
allowed to relax into its newly ac-
quired natural position, will form a
tight coil. If the coil is slipped over
a pencil and its end pulled linearly,
the coil will resist the pull with a
constant force, regardless of the
length extended, because the force
required to uncoil the spring at any
position is a constant.
The spring also can easily be ar-
ranged to produce torque, thus func-
tioning as a motor. In the “type-B
motor,” the spring is coiled on a
storage drum that is free to rotate.
The outer end of the spring is then
extended, secured to, and reverse-
wound on a larger output drum. Re-
lease of the output spool at any
degree of wind-up permits the mate-
rial to revert to its natural curvature
by returning to the smaller drum.
This imparts rotation to the output
drum, and the torque produced can
be held almost constant during the
entire cycle.
Because of the constantly decreas-
ing radius, or lever arm, as the mate-
rial runs off the output drum, a con-
stant-force spring will produce a
spring motor with a slightly positive
gradient. However, a constant out-
put torque is maintained in the type-
B motor by varying the incremental
stresses introduced during forming,
so the force exerted at the periphery
of the output coil will increase dur-
ing run-down. It was this approach
that led to the negative gradient
springs.
Varying output. The linear spring
force produced by a prestressed coil
spring is
Eb$
P=
26.4R2,
where P = load; E = modulus of
elasticity, psi; b = width of mate-
rial, in.; t = thickness of material,
in. and R , = natural radius of
curvature, in.
From this we see that load is di-
rectly proportional to width, thus
any change in the width of the band
will vary the load proportionately.
Thus, by shaping the bands, springs
and spring motors can deliver selec-
tive constant or controllable torques
of any simple mathematical varia-
 Springs
Springs 16-59
16-59

tion. Several shapes have been tried tively long working strokes, each weight of vertical equipment can be
a constant force output. Thus, varied by changing attachments.
-the tion.
stepped-width,
Several shapesthe been triedwithtively
havetapered- long working strokes, each weight of vertical equipment can be
width, one spring can deliver a choice of Single-tapered springs. The Neg'a-
-the andstepped-width,
even a spring with
thc tapered- with a constant force output. Thus, varied by changing attachments.
sinusoidally varying width. Another different loads without involved tor spring is one of the few springs
width, and even a spring with one spring can deliver a choice of Single-tapered springs. The Neg’a-
configuration
sinusoidallythat appears
varying Anothermechanisms
to have
width. different or the need
loads without involved thattorcan
to couple produce a negative gradient
spring is one of the few springs
goodconfiguration
practical value is the double- independently acting springs. (decreasing load with increasing de-
that appears to have mechanisms or the need to couple that can produce a negative gradient
flectIon, Fig 2) without need for an
practical value is the double- This
goodshape.
tapered
type can acting
independently also be mounted
springs. (decreasing load with increasing de-
tapered shape.springs. These are as a motor
Stepped-width in which
This type can the
alsotorque out-
bc mounted auxiliary
flection, linkage system.need
Fig 2) without Usually,
for an
best forStepped-width
applications springs.
that require a put varies in steps. The motor spring theauxiliary
negative linkage
gradient system.
is obtained by
These are ;IS a motor in which the torque out- Usually.
selection of discrete
best for loadsthat
applications con- ain Fig
with require 1 hasinfive
put varies steps.separate
The motor spring heat
widths, thesetting
negativeor by varying the bend-
gradient is obtained by
stant-force
selectionoutput over a loads
of discrete work-con-each
finite with in representing
Fig I has five a discrete widths, ingheat
separatetorque radius during
setting or bythevarying
coiling the
opera-
bend-
ing stroke. They
stant-force haveover
output built-in work- each representing a discrete torque ing radius during the coilinggradi-
steps
a finite with an effective deflection of x tion. This produces negative opera-
ing stroke.
to provide loadThey have(see
changes photostepsturns.
built-in withThus, in use for
an effective orthopedic
dellection of x’ ents of This
tion. up toproduces
2 to I. The new gradi-
negative way
on previous
to provide page),
load and several
changes phototraction
rela-
(see turns.orThus,as a counterbalance,
in use for orthopedic the is ents
to taper
of upthetospring
2 to Iwidth.
. The new way
on previous page), and several rela- traction or as a counterbalance, the is to taper the spring width.
16-60
16-60

A recent application of the nega- 3. At any position below the bal- Fig 4, positive-gradient and nega-
tive-gradient tapered spring
A recent application is the
of the nega- 3. At point,
ance the doorbelow
any position will slide
the closed,
bal- Figtive-gradient springs are
4, positive-gradient andwound
nega- on
tive-gradient tapered spring is rising
counter-balancing of vertically the with the decreasing spring
ance point, the door will slide closed, force tive-gradient springs are wound on so
their respective storage drums
access doors in computer
counter-balancing of verticallycabinets.
rising keeping
with the itdecreasing
from slamming.
spring force that respective
their the ,resultingstoragemoment
drums isso the
The main
access doorsrequirement
in computerhere is that
cabinets. Dual-tapered
keeping spring motors. Two
it from slamming. graphical
that sum" ofmoment
the resulting both characteris-
is the
the doors
The main never be left partially
requirement here is thatopen tapered spring spring
Dud-tapered bands in a spring
mdors. Twomo- tics. If sum
graphical the o gradients are identical
f both characteris-
-they
the doorsshould
never always be eitheropen
be left partially fully tor device
tapered spring produce
bands in aaspring
still mo-
wider andIf output
tics. shafts are
the gradients are identical
locked to-
open orshould
-they fully always
closed.beThe spring
either fullyis variety
tor deviceof output
producecharacteristics;
a still widerBy andgether,
output theshafts
sum ofarethelocked
momentsto- of
mounted
open so that
or fully its maximum
closed. The springforce is changing
variety the direction
of output of coil wind-
characteristics. By each spring
gether, the sum remains
of the constant
momentsasofboth
output slightly
mounted so that itsover,balances
maximum force the ing, the the
changing individual
directionspring
of coilmoments
wind- springs
each springare deflected.
remains constant as both
weight of
output the door
slightly and the friction
overbalances the are the
ing, either cumulative
individual springormoments
opposing. springsIf one
are spring is offset by prewind-
deflected.
of the
in slides.
weight Whendoortheanddoor
the isfriction
raised Both
are versions
either produceorselective
cumulative opposing. con- If oneorspring
ing unwindirig
is offsetrelative to the
by prewind-
in slides.
a'bove theWhen thepoint,
balance door theis raised
spring Both versions produce
stant-torque levels. selective con- ingother
or unwinding
spring, a new relative
sum ofto the
themo-
above the balance
will finish the job point, the spring
of opening, Fig stant-torque levels.
In the cumulative-gradient type, ments
other of the
spring, a new sum of the
individual springs
mo- re-
will finish the job of opening, Fig In the cumulative-gradient type, ments of the individual springs re-
 Springs 16-61

s u l k and this rcniains constant as

both springs are deflected. However. 6. Rotating storage-drum type
the. offset decreases the available
stroke.
I n the opposing-gradient typc, one
spring winds up on. onc output drum
while another spring unwinds from 5iorage drum
the othcr, Fig 5 . Thus, one opposes /free& mounted1 Siorage
withdrawal of the cable whilc the drum crmk
other assists. Whcn the spring mo-
ments ;ire equal zero output forcc
is obtaincd and the force range is Output drum wiih
stepped guide
limited only by the size o f thc device f/onges (fixed
(scc the torque diagram). io shaffl
Load settings. Thc simplest way
to adjust the output torque of sprin2
Stepped widih
motors with stcppetl-width or cloal- lVeg'ofor
tapcrcti springs is to couple ;I clutch
hiltuwn the output drum and cable
pullcy. The otttpLit cable can then be
Cob/e drum /
dcclutchcd from the system, rotated
to its n c w position. a n d once again
cngagcti to ti-ansmit the new torquc
lcvcl to the system. The clutch 7. Orbital output-drum type
maybc n simple slip or positive
engagement typc.
I ! it is necessary, however, that I=I
the outpiit shaft rcmain loaded by
the spring during torqnc adjustment,
onc of thcse more sophisticatcd
mcchanisrns can be cmploycd:
Orbifing the storage drum about
the output driim (Fig 6 ) has thc least
~ tem hysteresis a s it involves n o
gearing, and it is the simplcst and
lowest in cost. Actual operating vol-

w
ume requirementsare lon.er than for
the other two systcrns, but total vol-
unic rcqiiirc'mcnts arc greatest, since gearing
clearance must be provided for the
storage drum to rotate entirely spur'
around the output drum.
9 .Revolving the system around a
set of spur gears whcn .making the
adjustment (Fig 7) requires less 8. Planetary gear .type
ovcr-all space. This method, how-
ever. introduces significant backlash.
0 Coupling a differential gear train
n.
t t ~the system providcs good space
cconomy (Fig 8). but it is the most
cxpcnhivc system at' the ,three.
In any of these systems, Sind-
linger suggests that ; I n acceleration-
scnsitivc hrakc or other mciins of
limiting vclocity be incorporatcd in
iiise thc spring is accidentally re-
Icased during torquc adjustmcnt.
--R/i7g gear'
Also, the systems can .be easily Planet carrier gear
equipped with load-indicating de- urm ondgear -
vices that sensc the built-up diamctcr
of the spring coil wrapped on one of
the drums.