288 An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design

10.7 Kinematic analysis

One of the first stages of suspension design (once the type of suspension has been selected) is
to size the mechanism and ensure it is capable of fitting into the packaging envelope. As part
of this process it is necessary to check the geometry variations of the suspension over its
operating range and ratios of spring and damper travel relative to wheel travel.
Comprehensive analysis of suspension motions requires the inclusion of joint compliances
and the problem then becomes one of force-motion analysis. This requires the use of specialized
computational software (e.g. ADAMS (Ryan, 1990)) and associated modelling skills. A large
number of multibody computer codes, many of which can be used for suspension analysis, are
reviewed in Kortum et al. (1993). If joint compliances are neglected, the problem is simplified
 Suspension systems and components 289

into a purely kinematic one and if, furthermore, the problem can be assumed to be 2-dimensional,
an even more basic analysis can be carried out using graphical or computational methods. The
latter can be aided with general purpose analysis software (e.g. MathCAD 2000 (Mathsoft
2000)). In this relatively brief treatment of suspension design fundamentals, graphical and
computational analysis will be restricted to two-dimensional examples.
In graphical analysis of suspension motion it should be recognized that relationships between
the relative motion of parts of the mechanism can be determined from sets of velocity diagrams.
To cover the full range of suspension travel it is necessary to draw a number of diagrams
corresponding to different positions of the mechanism. This has the advantage of providing a
good ‘feel’ for what is happening, but the downside is the lack of accuracy and the tedium of
drawing many diagrams. For the reader unfamiliar with velocity diagrams there are numerous
texts in engineering dynamics which can be consulted, e.g. Meriam et al. (1993).
If a computational approach is adopted, there can be significant effort required to formulate
the problem, but once this has been done mathematical software can be used to solve equations
and present the results numerically or graphically. The significant benefits of this approach are
improved accuracy and the ability to try out ‘what–if’ scenarios.

10.7.1 Graphical analysis

To illustrate the graphical approach consider the MacPherson strut in Figure 10.14(a). Assume
that the aim is to determine (a) the suspension ratio R (the rate of change of vertical movement
at D as a function of spring compression) and (b) the bump to scrub rate for the given position
of the mechanism.
Begin by drawing the suspension mechanism to scale and assume the chassis is fixed. Let
link AB have an arbitrary angular velocity ωBA = 1 rad/s in a clockwise direction. The velocity
of B has a magnitude VB = ωBArBA, i.e VB = 1 × 331 = 331 mm/s perpendicular to link AB and
represented by the vector VB in Figure 9.14(b). This vector is drawn to some scale from the pole
of the velocity diagram OV. Note a and c are also located at OV since they have zero absolute
velocity.

AC = 331 mm
C BC = 567 mm d
Co-axial spring b
BD = 173 mm VBt
and damper
b′

VB
76° VD, vertical
A VBr

B 6°
v
D
d′ Ov, a, c
VD, horizontal
(a) Position of mechanism
(b) Velocity diagram

Figure 10.14 Example of graphical kinematic analysis

290 An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design

The velocity of B relative to C comprises a component parallel to BC (arising from the

change in length of the equivalent link BC) and a component perpendicular to BC (the tangential
component arising from the rotation of link BC about C). At this stage, magnitudes of neither
of these components can be calculated, but by drawing a line from OV parallel to BC and a line
from b perpendicular to BC the two lines intersect at b′. Hence the magnitudes of the radial and
tangential components of the velocity of B relative to C are established and can be scaled from
r t
the diagram. Their magnitudes are found to be VBC = 311 mm/s and VBC = 113.2 mm/s.
Since DB can be considered to be a rigid extension of link BC, the velocity of D relative to
t
B, VDB consists only of a tangential component VDB . The magnitude of this can be determined
by proportioning as follows:
db = bb ′ and introducing the data, db = 173 113.2 = 34.54 mm/s
DB BC 567
This establishes point d on the diagram. It is then possible to scale the vertical and horizontal
components of d. These are found to be VD,vertical = 311 mm/s and VD,horizontal = 147.6 mm/s.
Then

(a) R = dv = dd ′ = 311 = 1.16

du OV b ′ 267
Oν d ′ 147.6
(b) Scrub to bump = = = 0.47
dd ′ 311

10.7.2 Computational (2-dimensional) analysis

The following example illustrates the computational approach using MathCAD software.
The mechanism shown in Figure 10.15 represents a double wishbone suspension and P is at
the intersection of the tyre centre and the road surface. The primary (independent) variable is

c6 Data (all dimensions in mm):

α c8 c1 = 203
c2 = 102
x c3 = 127
B c9
c4 = 127
c5 c5 = 152
Wheel
c6 = 127
centreline c4 Spring c7 c7 = 267
L axis
C c8 = 102
Wheel c9 = 51
c10 A c10 = 110
axis u c1
c3 S C = 96°
c2
Tyre rolling radius r = 292
r q
y

YP P v

Figure 10.15 Example of computational kinematic analysis

 Suspension systems and components 291

q and the secondary (dependent) variables are A and B. (For details of this terminology and
approach to kinematic analysis see Doughty (1988).)
The objectives are to determine how the camber angle α, and suspension ratio R (as defined
in the previous example) vary for suspension movement described by q varying from 80° to
100°, given that in the static laden position q = 90°.

(a) The solution begins by declaring the data and defining constants. Note: dimensions are not
included in this solution, but MathCAD does allow this if required. Position equations (one
in the x and the other in the y-direction) are written for the four-bar mechanism a, b, c, d
and included in the Given–Find block of the program. This is used to iteratively solve the
two non-linear simultaneous equations for the two secondary variables for each position of
the primary variable (in steps of 1°). Note the angles need to be expressed in radians and
initial estimates are required to initiate the iteration procedure. The solutions for A and B
at each angular position q are contained in the 21 two-element vectors making up the
2 × 21 matrix F. The vertical location Y, of the tyre contact point P, is expressed in terms
of the primary and secondary variables, enabling the deflection v, to be determined from
its mean position. This enables the graph of camber angle α, to be plotted as a function of
v.

Data: c1 := 203 c2 := 102 c3 := 127 c4 := 127 c5 := 152 c6 := 127

c7 := 267 c8 := 102 c9 := 51 c10 := 110 C := 96° r := 292

Constants c12 := c1 + c2 c34 := c3 + c4 k dr := π

180
Solution estimates: A := – 10 B := 10
Given
c12 · sin (q · kdr) – c34 · sin(A·kdr) – c5 · cos(B · kdr) – c6 = 0
c12 · cos(q · kdr) – c34 · cos(A · kdr) – c5 · sin(B · kdr) + c7 = 0
F(q) := Find(A, B)
q := 80..100 i := 0..20
Ai := F(80 + i)0 Bi := F(80 + i)1 qi := 80 + i
Camber angle (degrees) αi := C – 90 – Ai
Express angles in radians
q ri := q i ⋅ k dr A ri := A i ⋅ k dr B ri := B i ⋅ k dr α ri := α i ⋅ k dr

Vertical position of tyre contact point

YPi := c 7 + c 12 ⋅ cos(q ri ) – c 3 ⋅ cos(A ri ) + c 10 ⋅ sin( α ri ) + r ⋅ cos( α ri )

Mean position of tyre contact point: YPO := YP10 , YPO = 432.644 mm

Deflection from mean position: v i := YPi – YPO

292 An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design

Camber angle, deg

–1

–2

–3
–100 –50 0 50
Wheel travel, mm

(b) The second part of the solution begins by expressing the length of the suspension spring
in terms of the primary variable and then proceeds to determine the velocity coefficients
dYP dL K
K YP ( q ) = and K L ( q ) = . These allow the suspension ratio R = YP to be
dq dq KL
determined.

Length of suspension spring

L i := (c 1 ⋅ sin(q ri ) – c 8 ) 2 + (c 7 + c 1 ⋅ cos(q ri ) – c 9 ) 2
Mean position of suspension spring LO := L10 LO = 238.447 mm
Deflection from mean position ui := LO – Li
c 12 ⋅ cos(q ri + B ri )
Velocity coefficients K A i :=
c 34 ⋅ cos(A ri + B ri )
K YPi := c 12 ⋅ sin(q ri ) + K A i ⋅ (c 3 ⋅ sin(A ri ) – c 10 ⋅ cos(α ri ) + r ⋅ sin(α ri )

c 1 ⋅ c 9 ⋅ sin(q ri ) – c 1 ⋅ c 7 ⋅ sin(q ri ) – c 1 ⋅ c 8 ⋅ cos(q ri )

K L i :=
[(c1 ⋅ sin(q r ) – c 8 ) 2 i
+ (c 7 + c 1 ⋅ cos (q ri ) – c 9 ) 2 ] ]
K YPi
Suspension ratio R i := R 10 = 1.607 at static ride height
K Li

1.65
Suspension ratio, R

1.6

1.55

1.5
–50 0 50 100
Wheel travel, X mm
 Suspension systems and components 293

10.8 Roll centre analysis

Roll centre and roll axis concepts are important aids in studying vehicle handling, enabling
simplifications to be made in load transfer calculations for cornering operations.
There are two definitions of roll centre, one based on forces and the other on kinematics. The
first of these (the SAE definition) states that: a point in the transverse plane through any pair
of wheels at which a transverse force may be applied to the sprung mass without causing it to
roll. The second states that: the roll centre is the point about which the body can roll without
any lateral movement at either of the wheel contact areas.
In general each roll centre lies on the line produced by the intersection of the longitudinal
centre plane of the vehicle and the vertical transverse plane through a pair of wheel centres. The
roll centre heights at the front and rear wheel planes tend to be different as shown in Figure
10.16. The line joining the centres is called the roll axis, with the implication that a transverse
force applied to the sprung mass at any point on this axis will not cause body roll.

Rear roll
centre
Front roll
centre Roll axis

Figure 10.16 Roll axis location

As roll of the sprung mass takes place, the suspension geometry changes, symmetry of the
suspension across the vehicle is lost and the definition of roll centre becomes invalid. Therefore,
the limitations of roll centre analysis are:

• it relates to the non-rolled vehicle condition and can therefore only be used for approximations
involving small angles of roll;
• it assumes no change in vehicle track as a result of small angles of roll.

For a given front or rear suspension the roll centre can be determined from the kinematic
definition by using the Aronhold–Kennedy theorem of three centres10 which states: when three
bodies move relative to one another they have three instantaneous centres all of which lie on
the same straight line.
To illustrate the determination of roll centre by this method consider the double wishbone
suspension shown in Figure 10.17. Consider the three bodies capable of relative motion as
being the sprung mass, the left hand wheel and the ground. The instantateous centre of the
wheel relative to the sprung mass Iwb, lies at the intersection of the upper and lower wishbones,

10
For examples illustrating the theorem see (Shigley et al. (1980)).
294 An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design

Iwb

Ibg (RC)

Iwg

Figure 10.17 Roll centre determination for double wishbone suspension

while that of the wheel relative to the ground lies at Iwg. The instantaneous centre of the sprung
mass relative to the ground (the roll centre) Ibg, must lie in the centre plane of the vehicle and
on the line joining Iwb and Iwg, as shown in the diagram.
For a double wishbone suspension, Iwb can be varied by angling the upper and lower wishbones
to different positions, thereby altering the load transfer between inner and outer wheels in a
cornering manoeuvre. This gives the suspension designer some control over the handling
capabilities of a vehicle. Figures 10.18 to 10.23 illustrate the locations of roll centres for a
range of suspension types.

Iwb

Ibg (RC)

Iwg

Figure 10.18 Roll centre location for MacPherson strut

In the case of the MacPherson strut suspension (Figure 10.18) the upper line defining Iwb is
perpendicular to the strut axis. In the case of the trailing arm suspension (Figure 10.20) the
trailing arm pivots about a transverse axis (forward of the wheel centre). In the front view
(Figure 10.20(c)), the wheel is constrained to move in a vertical plane (with no transverse
movement) and hence Iwb lies at infinity along the pivot axis (to the right). The roll centre
therefore lies in the ground plane on centre-line of the vehicle. For the semi-trailing arm
suspension (Figure 10.21) the pivot axis is inclined and intersects the vertical lateral plane
through the wheel centre at Iwb a distance L from the centre plane of the wheel. The roll centre
Ibg lies on the line connecting Iwb with the instantaneous centre of the wheel relative to the
ground Iwg.
 Suspension systems and components 295

Ibg (RC)
Iwb

Iwg

Figure 10.19 Roll centre location for swing axle suspension

(a) Plan view

Iwg Ibg (RC)

(b) Side view (b) Front view

Figure 10.20 Roll centre location for trailing-arm suspension

Figure 10.22 shows the roll centre determination for a four link rigid axle suspension. In this
case the wheels and axle can be assumed to move as a rigid body. The upper and lower control
arms produce an instant centre at A and B respectively. Connecting these together produces a
roll axis for the suspension. The intersection of this axis with the transverse wheel plane defines
the roll centre.
Our final example illustrating roll centre location is the Hotchkiss rear suspension shown in
Figure 10.23. The analysis in this case is somewhat different to the previous examples. Lateral
forces are transmitted to the sprung mass at A and B. The roll centre height is at the intersection
of the line joining these points and the vertical transverse plane through the wheel centres. The
roll centre is of course at this height in the centre plane of the vehicle.

10.9 Force analysis

In this section simple methods of analysing the forces in suspension mechanisms resulting from
vertical, lateral and longitudinal loading are introduced. The relationship between the vertical
296 An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design

Iwb

L (a) Plan view

Vehicle c.l.→

Iwb

Iwg Ibg (RC)

(b) Side view (c) Front view

Figure 10.21 Roll centre location for semi-trailing arm suspension

(a) Plan view

Roll centre
A

B
(b) Side view

Figure 10.22 Roll centre for a four link rigid axle suspension
 Suspension systems and components 297

Roll centre
height

Figure 10.23 Roll centre location for a Hotchkiss suspension

wheel loading and the spring forces is also discussed leading to the selection of suspension
spring characteristics.

10.9.1 Relationship between spring and wheel rates

In general the relationship between spring deflections and wheel displacements in suspensions
is non-linear, so that a desired wheel-rate (related to suspension natural frequency) has to be
interpreted into a spring-rate. Consider the double wishbone suspension shown in Figure 10.24,
where W and S are the wheel and spring forces respectively and v and u are the corresponding
deflections.

Begin by defining the suspension ratio as: R = S (10.2)

W

The spring stiffness is: k s = dS = d ( RW ) = R dW dv + W dR dv (10.3)

du dv du dv du
Using the principle of virtual work [Meriam et al. (1993)], S du = W dv and hence equation 10.2
can be written

R = S = dv (10.4)
W du

u S

Figure 10.24 Notation for analysing spring and wheel rates in a double wishbone suspension
298 An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design

dW
Defining the wheel rate as: kw = (10.5)
dv
Combining equations 10.3, 10.4 and 10.5 gives:

k s = k w R 2 + S dR (10.6)
dv
Equations similar to 6 can be derived for other suspension geometries.

10.9.2 Wheel-rate for constant natural frequency with variable payload

The simplest model for representing vehicle ride is that of a single degree of freedom system
(Section 10.13.4) in which the spring stiffness is that associated with wheel rate kw and the mass
ms is a proportion of the total sprung mass. The undamped natural frequency is then:

kw
ωn = (10.7)
ms
If kw is maintained constant, the natural frequency decreases as the payload (and hence ms)
increases. It is possible to determine a variable wheel-rate which will ensure that the natural
frequency remains constant as the sprung mass increases. Denoting the static displacement as:
ms g
δs = , (10.8)
kw
equation 10.7 can be written in terms of δs, i.e.

g
ωn = (10.9)
δs
From this it is seen that to maintain ωn constant δs must be constant and hence the load/rate
must be constant from equation 10.8, i.e.
W = δ = constant, or dW = dv
dW / dv s
W δs
Integrating both sides gives:

log e W = v + c , (10.10)
δs
where c = constant. Assuming that the wheel load and suspension deflection at a nominal static
load condition are W = Ws and v = vs enables the c to be found, i.e.
vs
c = log e Ws – (10.11)
δs
Substituting into 10.10 and re-arranging gives:
v– vs
W = Ws e δs (10.12)
 Suspension systems and components 299

Equation 10.12 defines the required load-deflection relationship for tyre load as a function
of tyre deflection v. The corresponding wheel-rate can be found by differentiating W with
respect to v giving:
v– vs
W
k w = dW = s e δs
(10.13)
dv δs
Figure 10.25 shows typical graphs of wheel load and wheel rate as function wheel displacement
for a natural frequency of 1.125 Hz. If the suspension ratio R and its derivative dR/dv are
known as a function of wheel deflection, then the spring rate can be calculated, e.g. equation
10.6 can be employed for a double wishbone suspension and the numerical analysis of section
10.7 can be extended to provide R and dR/dv.

3 20

Ws
Wheel rate, kN/m

15
Wheel load, kN

2 kws

10

1
5
Pre-load vs
vs
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Wheel deflection, m Wheel deflection, m

(a) Wheel load v. wheel deflection (b) Wheel rate v. wheel deflection

Figure 10.25 Typical wheel load and wheel rate as functions of wheel displacement

10.9.3 Forces in suspension members

While computer packages are undoubtedly required for a comprehensive force analysis, some
simple first estimates of loading of suspension members and chassis connection points can be
carried out using graphical methods. In performing this analysis, it is assumed that the mass of
the members is negligible compared to that of the applied loading. Friction and compliance at
the joints are also assumed negligible and the spring or wheel rate needs to be known. Some
basic principles of mechanics are employed in the analysis. In particular there is a need to be
familiar with the use of freebody diagrams for determining internal forces in structures and the
conditions for equilibrium of pin-jointed two- and three-force members. These conditions are
summarized in Figures 10.26(a) and (b) respectively. In the case of three-force members,
equilibrium requires the three forces to pass through a common point, i.e. be concurrent, and
the vector sum of the forces must be zero. If one of the three forces is known the magnitudes
of the other two can be found (graphically this involves drawing a triangle of forces).

(a) Vertical loading

As an example consider the double wishbone suspension shown in Figure 10.27. Assume FW
is the wheel load and FS the force exerted by the spring on the suspension mechanism. Links
300 An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design

FA A B FB
For equilibrium: FA = FB and
forces must be collinear

(a)

FB
For equilibrium
B ∑F=0

A
FA
FC
C

(b)

Figure 10.26 Equilibrium of two and three force members, (a) Requirements for equilibrium of a two-
force member (b) Requirements for equilibrium of a three-force member

A
B
FB
P1
Spring FC

FW

C
FS FC FB
FW
FW

(a) (b)

FC FD FD

D
C FS
FS
FC

P2
(c)

Figure 10.27 Force analysis of a double wishbone suspension (a) Diagram showing applied forces (b)
FBD of wheel and triangle of forces (c) FBD of link CD and triangle of forces

AB and CD are respectively two-force and three force members. When the freebody diagram
of the wheel and knuckle is considered (Figure 10.27(b)), the directions of FW and FB are
known and together establish the point of concurrency P1, for the three forces which act on the
body. If the magnitude of FW is known, the magnitudes of FB and FC can be determined from
 Suspension systems and components 301

the triangle of forces. For the freebody diagram of link CD (Figure 10.27(c)), the point of
concurrency is at P2 and with FC known, FD and FS can be found from the second triangle of
forces. The corresponding chassis loadings comprise FA (= FB), FS and FD. An analysis over the
full suspension travel requires the graphical procedure to be repeated at suitable increments of
suspension displacement. In order to define the applied loading at a given suspension position,
it is necessary to know either the wheel or spring rate.
A similar analysis can be carried out for the MacPherson strut shown in Figure 10.28. In this
case AB is a two force member and the point of concurrency of the forces FW and FB is at P.
This means that the force FC exerted on the strut at C acts through P. In analysing the forces
exerted on the upper sliding part of the strut it is seen that the inclined force at C must be
counteracted by a collinear spring force otherwise side forces and a bending moment act on the
member. The solution is to set the axis of the spring coaxial with CP. This has the effect of
reducing wear in the strut, but clearly bending effects are not completely eliminated for all
suspension positions.

Spring

FC FW

A
FB
P B

FW
(a) (b)

Figure 10.28 Force analysis of a MacPherson strut, (a) Wheel loading, (b) Forces acting on the strut

(b) Lateral and longitudinal loading

Lateral loading arises from cornering effects, while longitudinal loadings arise from braking,
drag forces on the vehicle and shock loading due to the wheels striking bumps and pot-holes.
The preceding principles can also be used to analyse suspensions for these loading conditions.

(c) Shock loading

Dynamic loading effects are very difficult to quantify, but experience has enabled a range of
dynamic load factors to be established. These factors when multiplied be the static wheel loads
give reasonable approximations for peak dynamic loads encountered by motor vehicles. Some
typical values used by one manufacturer are given in Table 10.1.
By estimating the frequency of these occurrences over the life-time of a vehicle, it is possible
to investigate possible modes of failure.
302 An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design

Table 10.1 Dynamic load factors

Load case Load factor

Longitudinal Transverse Vertical

Front/rear pothole 3 g, at the wheel 0 4 g, at the wheel

bump affected affected, 1 g at
other wheels
Bump during 0 0 3.5 g at wheel
cornering affected, 1 g at
other wheels
Lateral kerb strike 0 4 g front and rear 1 g at all wheels
wheels on side
affected
Panic braking 2 g front wheels 0 2 g front wheels,
0.4 g rear wheels 0.8 g rear wheels