Ms.

Nurazrin Jupri

DATA COLLECTION &

DATA PRESENTATION
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Sources of Data
• Primary data
• Specific information collected by the person
who is doing the research

• Secondary data
• Any material that has been collected from
published records
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Types of Data and Variables

Data/
Variables

Quantitative Qualitative
(Numerical) (Categorical)

Examples:
• Colour
• Flavour
Discrete Continuous • Gender
(Defined categories)
Examples: Examples:
• Number of cars • Profits
• Defects per hour • Weight
• Accidents • Speed
(Counted items) (Measured characteristics)
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Scale of Data Measurement

• Data can be divided into numerical and categorical data.
• Numerical data contains numbers that we can manipulate
using ordinary arithmetical operations.
• Categorical data can be sorted into categories.
• Data is classified as nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Sampling
is the process of selecting a small number of
elements from a larger defined target group
(Population) of elements such that the information
gathered from the small group will allow judgments
to be made about the larger groups.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Sampling

is the act, process, or technique of selecting a

suitable sample, or a representative part of a
population for the purpose of determining
parameters or characteristics of the whole
population
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Purpose Of Sampling
To draw conclusions about populations from samples,
which enables us to determine a population`s
characteristics by directly observing only a portion (or
sample) of the population.

We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a

census ) of the population for many reasons.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Main Reasons for Sampling

● Economy

● Timeliness

● The large size of many populations

● Inaccessibility of some of the population

● Accuracy
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

● Economy - taking a sample requires fewer resources than a census.

● Time factor -a sample may provide you with needed information quickly.
● The very large populations -many populations about which inferences must
be made are quite large

● The partly accessible populations- There are some populations that are
so difficult to get access to that only a sample can be used.

● Accuracy and sampling- A sample may be more accurate than a census. A

sloppily conducted census can provide less reliable information than a carefully obtained
sample.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Important terminologies
●. Population

●. Element

●. Sample

●. Sampling Unit

●. Subject
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Population
The population refers to the entire group of people,
events or things of interest that the researcher wishes
to investigate.

Example:
● If an organizational consultant is interested in studying the effects of
a four-day work week on the white-coller workers in a telephone
company in Ireland. Then all white-coller workers in that company will
make up the population.
● If regulators wants to know how patients in nursing homes run by a
company in France? Population: All the patients in all the nursing
homes run by them.

● If however, the regulators are interested only in one particular nursing

home run by that company ? then only the patients in that particular
nursing home will make the population.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Element
An element is the
single member of the population.

Example:
●If 1000 blue-coller workers in a particular organization are working and
an researcher is interested to know the satisfaction level of these
workers then each member (blue-coller) of the particular organization
will be considered as element.
●Census is a count of all elements in the human population.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Sample
A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some
members from it.

Example:
● . If 200 members are drawn/selected from a population of 1000 blue-coller workers to

study the desire outcome, then 200 members form the sample for the study.

● . If there are 145 patients in a hospital and 40 of them are to be surveyed by the hospital
administrator to assess there level of satisfaction with the treatment received. Number
of sample? 40 members will be called the sample

● A sample is thus a subgroup or subset of the population. By studying the sample, the
researcher should be able to draw conclusions that are generalizable to the population of
interest.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Sampling Unit
The sample unit is the element or the set of elements
that is available for selection in some stage of the
sampling process.

Example of sampling units in a multi stage sample are city blocks,

house hold, and individuals with in the households.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Subject
A subject is a single member of the sample just as
an element is a single member of the population.

Example:
● . If 200 members from the total population of 1000 blue-coller workers form the
sample for the study. Then each blue-coller worker in the sample is a subject.
●. If there are 145 patients in a hospital and 40 of them are to be surveyed by
the hospital administrator to assess there level of satisfaction with the
treatment received, then each member from sample of 40 will be called the
subject.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Representative of Sampling
● Choosing the right sample cannot be overemphasized.
● If we choose the sample in a scientific way, we can be reasonably
sure that sample statistics (Mean, Standard Deviation, (S) Variation in the sample ) and
population parameters (Mean (u), Standard Deviation, Variation in the sample ) are close to
each others.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

What is a Good Sample?

● Accurate: absence of bias

● Precise estimate: sampling error

Sampling error is any type of bias that is

attributable to mistakes in either drawing a
sample or determining the sample size.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Sampling Process

Define the Population

Determine the Sampling Frame

Select Sampling Technique(s)

Determine the Sample Size

Execute the Sampling Process

 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Defining Population of Interest

Population of interest is entirely dependent on
Management Problem, Research Problems, and
Research Design.

Some Bases for Defining Population:

● Geographic Area (Pakistan, Punjab, Banking sector, Our Institute etc.)

● Demographics (Gender, Age, Color, Height etc.)

● Usage/Lifestyle
● Awareness
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Sampling Frame
A list of population elements (people, companies, houses,
cities, etc.) from which units to be sampled can be
selected.

● Difficult to get an accurate list.

●Sample frame error occurs when certain elements of the
population are accidentally omitted or not included on the
list.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Sampling Methods/Techniques

Probability Nonprobability
Sampling Sampling
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Sampling Methods/Techniques/Types
Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Systematic Stratified Cluster Other

Random Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling
Sampling Techniques
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Probability Sampling Designs

A probability sample is one that gives every member of
the population a known chance of being selected.

All are selected randomly.

● Simple random sampling - anyone

● Systematic sampling

● Stratified sampling - different groups (ages)

● Cluster sampling - different areas (cities)

 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Nonprobability Sampling
Nonprobability sample is an arbitrary grouping
that limits the use of some statistical tests. It is not
selected randomly.

Classifications of Nonprobability Sampling

● Convenience Sampling

● Judgment Sampling

● Quota Sampling

● Snowball Sampling
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Factors to Consider in Sample Design

Research objectives Degree of accuracy

Resources Time frame

Knowledge of
target population Research scope
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Determining Sample Size

● How many completed questionnaires do we need to have
a representative sample?
● Generally the larger the better, but that takes more time
and money.

●Answer depends on:

●How different or dispersed the population is.

● Desired level of confidence.

● Desired degree of accuracy.
Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Acknowledgments to Uma Sekaran

 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Data Collection Methods

How to reach respondents in order to obtain the required
data?

1. Observation
Example
2. Experimentation

3. Simulation

4. Interviewing

5. Panel Method

6. Mail Survey
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Data Collection Methods

• Types of Tools
Observation
schedule
Example Interview guide
and schedule

Questionnaires

Checklists

Data sheet
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Data Presentation
• An essential step before further statistical analysis is
carried out
• Data are summarized and displayed enabling
researchers, managers and decision-makers to observe
important features of the data and provide insight into the
type of model and analysis that should be used.
 Ms. Nurazrin Jupri

Data Presentation
• Frequency table
• Bar chart
• Pie chart
• Histogram
• Frequency curve
• Line graph
• Pictograph
• Stem-and-leaf display
• Box plot
• Ogive