Chap 14P Semiconductor Devices & Digital Circuits Arvind 2023

Chap 14: Semiconductor Devices & Digital Circuits
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Electronic Device
Any device whose action is based on the controlled

flow of electrons through it is called an electronic
device.
The branch of physics that deals with the study of

these electronic devices is called electronics.

Types of Electronic Device
The electronic devices are of two types (1. Vacuum tubes 2. Solid-state devices)
1. Vacuum tubes: These include vacuum diodes, triode and pentode.
Some of the important features of vacuum tubes are as follows:

 In vacuum tubes, electrons are obtained from a heated cathode and the flow of electrons is
controlled by varying the voltage between its different electrodes.
 A vacuum is necessary in the interelectrode region so that the electrons may not lose their
energy on colliding with air molecules in their path.
 As the electrons can flow only in one direction (from cathode to anode), so vacuum tubes are
also known as vacuum valves.
 Bulky & Consumes high power & operate at high Voltages (=100V)
 They have limited life and low reliability.

Types of Electronic Device
2. Solid-state electronic devices: In such devices, the charge carriers flow through solid-
state semiconductors.
Some of the important features of semiconductor devices are as follows:

 In a semiconductor device, simple excitations like light, heat or small applied voltage can
change the number of charge carriers.
 The charge carriers flow in the solid itself, no vacuum needed for the flow of charges as
required in vacuum tubes.
 Semiconductor devices are small in size, consume low power and operate at low voltages.
 It does not require any cathode heating for the production of charge carriers. So it starts
operating as soon as it is switched on.
 They have long life and high reliability. Click to watch All Chapters  Arvind Academy YouTube Channel
Classification of Solids on the Basis of their Electrical Properties
1. Metals (low resistivity or high conductivity).

𝜌 ≈ 10−2 − 10−8 𝛺𝑚
𝜎 ≈ 102 − 108 𝑆𝑚−1
2. Insulators (high resistivity or low conductivity)

𝜌 ≈ 108 𝛺𝑚
𝜎 ≈ 10−8 𝑆𝑚−1
3. Semiconductors (resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators)

𝜌 ≈ 105 − 100 𝛺𝑚
𝜎 ≈ 10−5 − 100 𝑆𝑚−1

Classification of Semiconductors
Classification on the basis of their Chemical composition
1. Elemental semiconductors: Si (Silicon) and 𝐺𝑒 (Germanium)
2. Compound semiconductors:
(i) Inorganic: 𝐶𝑑𝑆 (Cadmium sulfide), 𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠 (Gallium arsenide)
(ii) Organic: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑦𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑒, 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒, etc.

Classification of Semiconductors
Classification on the basis of the source & the nature of
charge carriers
1. Intrinsic semiconductors: The pure semiconductors

(impurity less than 1 part in 1010 ) are called intrinsic
semiconductors.
2. Extrinsic semiconductors: The semiconductors obtained by

adding or doping the pure semiconductor with small
amounts of certain specific impurity atoms having valency
different from that of the host atoms.

Valence Bond for Intrinsic Semiconductors
Valence bond model of Intrinsic semiconductor: The vacancy of an electron with an
effective positive electronic charge is called a hole.
𝑛𝑒 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝐸𝑔 /2𝑘𝑇
𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛 ℎ = 𝑛 𝑖
𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠

Valence Bond for Intrinsic Semiconductors
Holes as positive Charge Carriers:
The total current is 𝐼 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 + ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐼𝑒 + 𝐼ℎ .

Energy Bands in Solids
(i) If the interatomic spacing of the Si
atoms is very large (i.e. r = d >> a)
there is no interatomic interaction. Each atom in

the crystal behaves as a free atom.
Silicon (Z=14) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
in the silicon crystal, there are 2 N electrons

completely filling 2 N possible 3s levels, all of
which are of the same energy. There are 6 N
possible 3p levels, out of which only 2 N levels are
filled and all the filled 3p levels have the same
energy.
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Channel
(ii) when the interatomic spacing r is less
than d but greater than c (i.e. c < r <d)
there is no visible splitting of energy levels.

Channel
(iii) When the interatomic spacing r is equal
to c (r=c)
the interaction between outermost shell

electrons (3s2 and 3p2) of neighbouring
silicon atoms becomes appreciable. As a
result, the energy of electrons
corresponding to 3s and 3p levels of each
atom starts changing, i.e., the splitting of
these energy levels commences, whereas
there is no change in the energy levels of
electrons in the inner shells.

Channel
(iv) When the interatomic spacing r lies in
between b and c (i.e. b < r < c)
the energy of electrons corresponding to 3s and

3p levels of each atom gets slightly changed.
Instead of a single 3s or 3p level, we get a large
number of closely packed levels (2 N levels
corresponding to a single 3s level and 6 N levels
for a single 3p level of an isolated atom)
This spreading of energy corresponding to 3s and

3p levels reduces the energy gap that existed
between 3s and 3p levels of free atom.
This collection of closely spaced levels is
called an energy band
Channel
(v) When the interatomic spacing r becomes
equal to b but greater than a (i.e. r = b > a)
the energy gap between 3s and 3p levels

completely disappears and the 8 N energy
levels are continuously distributed.
Now, it is not possible to distinguish

between the electrons belonging to 3s and
3p subshells. We can only say that 4 N levels
are filled and 4 N levels are empty

Channel
(vi) When the interatomic spacing r becomes
equal to a
(i.e. r = a, the actual spacing in the crystal)
at absolute zero, the band of 4 N filled energy

levels is separated from the band of 4 N
unfilled energy levels by an energy gap called
energy band gap. Which is denoted by Eg.
The lower completely filled band is called

valence band (V.B.) and the upper unfilled
band is called conduction band (C.B.).

Channel
(vi) When the interatomic spacing r becomes
equal to a
(i.e. r = a, the actual spacing in the crystal)
The positions of energy bands in a

semiconductor at 0 K are shown in Fig.
The lowest energy level in the conduction

band is shown as Ec and highest energy level
in the valence band is shown as Ev. The
separation between top of valence band and
bottom of conduction band is called energy
band gap (Energy gap Eg)
Difference between Valence band, Conduction Band &
Energy Bands
1. Valence band. In the energy band diagram of semiconductors, the valence band is a
lower band belonging to valence electrons of the given crystal. This band may be
partially or completely filled with electrons. This band is never empty. In this band
electrons are not capable of gaining energy from external electric field. Therefore, the
electrons in this band do not contribute to the electric current.
2. Conduction band. In the energy band diagram of semiconductors, the conduction

band is an upper band in which the electrons are not present at 0 K. At room
temperature, this band is either empty or partially filled with electrons. In this band,
electrons can gain energy from external electric field and contribute to the electric
current.

Difference between Valence band, Conduction Band &
Energy Bands
3. Energy band gap (i.e. energy gap). In the energy
band diagram, energy band gap is the separation
between highest energy level of valence band and
lowest energy level in conduction band. Electrons are
not found in this band. This hand is completely empty.
The minimum energy required for shifting electrons
from valence band to conduction band is called energy
band gap (Eg)

Distinction between Conductors, Semiconductors &
insulators on the basis of their Energy Bands
Important point
Fermi energy is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a
material at absolute zero temperature (i.e. 0 K). The value of fermi energy for different
materials is different.
Fermi level in semiconductor It is that energy level in energy-band-diagram of

semiconductor for which the probability of occupancy (i.e., the presence of main
current carriers electrons or holes) becomes half.
For the discussion here the fermi level may be defined as that energy level in energy-
band diagram of semiconductor which corresponds to the centre of gravity of
conduction electrons and holes weighted according to their energies.
Distinction between Metals, Insulators & Semiconductors on the
basis of Band Theory
METALS
Li, Na, K etc.
The energy band diagram for a metal is such that either the
conduction band is partially filled with electrons. Fig(i)
or the conduction and valence band partly overlap each
other and there is no forbidden energy band gap in between.
Fig. (ii). In both the situations, it can be considered that the
metal has a single energy band which is partly filled and
partly empty. Many electrons from below the Fermi level, by
acquiring a little more energy from any source, can shift to
the higher energy levels above the Fermi level in the
conduction band and behave as free electrons. In this
situation, large number of electrons are available for
electrical conduction.
Mg, Zn etc.
INSULATORS
The energy band diagram of insulator is shown in

Fig. Here, the valence band is completely filled, the
conduction band is empty and energy gap is quite
large (Eg > 3 eV).
For example, in case of diamond, the energy gap is

of 6 eV. due to large energy gap, no electron is able
to go from the valence band to the conduction band
even if electric field is applied. Hence electrical
conduction in these materials is impossible and they
behave as insulators.
SEMICONDUCTORS
The energy band diagram of a semiconductor is

shown in Fig. Here also, the valence band is totally
filled and the conduction band is empty but the
energy gap between conduction band and valence
band is quite small. It is less than 3 eV.
For example, the energy gap for germanium is of 0.72

eV & for silicon it is of 1.1 eV. At zero kelvin
temperature, electrons are not able to cross even this
small energy gap and hence the conduction band
remains totally empty. Therefore, the semiconductor
at zero kelvin behaves as insulator.
SEMICONDUCTORS
However at room temperature, some electrons in the

valence band acquire thermal energy greater than
energy band gap less than 3 eV and jump over to the
conduction band where they are free to move under
the influence of even a small electric field. As a result
of it, the semiconductor acquires small conductivity
at room temperature. The resistance of
semiconductor would not be as high as that of
insulator.

Intrinsic Semi-Conductors on Energy Band Theory
At temperature O K, for Ge-structure, the valence band is all full.
The energy gap is 0.72 eV and the conduction band is totally empty.
Fig. . Since no electron is available for conduction therefore, the
Ge-crystal at O K acts as electrical insulator. The conduction is
possible if some of the electrons break away from their covalent
bonds and become free. The minimum energy required to break a
covalent bond is 0.72 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV for Si.
Even at room temperature, the thermal vibrations of the

atoms provide energy to the electrons in valence band to
enable some electrons to cross the energy gap and enter into
the conduction band as free electrons, accounting for some
electrical conductivity of the semiconductor. Higher is the
temperature, larger will be the number of electrons crossing
over to the conduction band, leaving behind equal number of
holes in the valence band. In intrinsic semiconductor at room
temperature, fermi level is about half way in the energy gap.
Intrinsic Semi-Conductors on Band Theory
When an electron breaks away from a covalent bond, the empty place or vacancy left in
the bond is called a hole, shown by a hollow circle in the Fig. . When an external electric
field is applied, these free electrons and holes move in opposite directions and constitute
a current flow through the germanium crystal.
The number of free electrons (in conduction band) and holes (in valence band) are exactly
equal in an intrinsic semiconductor.
Thus in intrinsic semiconductor, 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖
where 𝑛𝑒 , 𝑛ℎ are number density of electrons in conduction band and number density of holes in
valence band, 𝑛𝑖 is the number density of intrinsic carriers (electrons or holes) in a pure
semiconductor.
It is very difficult to make an intrinsic semiconductor because of the difficulty in preparing

extremely pure material.
Formation of Holes in Semi-Conductors
This can be understood in two ways.
(i) From the energy band diagram of the semiconductor.
In the energy band diagram of the semiconductor, there is an

energy gap of about 1 eV between the valence band and the
conduction band. At zero kelvin, the semiconductor behaves as an
insulator, as no electron from the valence band can cross this
energy gap and go to the conduction band. But at higher
temperature, some of the electrons gain energy due to thermal
agitation and move from the valence band to the conduction band.
As a result of it, a vacancy is created in the valence band at a place
where the electron was present before moving to the conduction
band. This vacancy is called a hole. Since the absence of a negatively
charged electron is equivalent to the presence of an equivalent
amount of positive charge, therefore a hole is considered as a seat of
positive charge, having charge equal to that of an electron.
The hole is considered as an active particle in the

valence band as an electron is in the conduction band.
The motion of the electrons in the conduction band
and also the motion of holes in the valence band are
responsible for the electrical conduction in
semiconductors.

(ii) From the valence bond study of the semiconductor.
Consider a semiconductor crystal of silicon or germanium.
We know that the Si or Ge have four valence electrons. The
crystal structure of Ge in two dimensions has been shown in
Fig. Every atom of Ge tends to share one of its four valence
electrons with each of its four nearest neighbouring atoms,
and also to take share of one electron from each such
neighbour. This pair of shared electrons of two atoms of Ge
is said to form a covalent bond or simply a valence bond.
Thus, four valence electrons of a Ge atom form four covalent
bonds by sharing the electrons of neighbouring four Ge
atoms. Due to it, the Ge atoms in the structure are strongly
held by covalent bonds not in a plane as it may appear here
but in space of tetrahedral angles.
At low temperature, in a Ge crystal structure, the two shared electrons in a covalent
bond can be assumed to shuttle back-and-forth between the associated atoms,
holding them together strongly.
When the temperature of Ge is raised, the thermal energy ionises only a few atoms in
the crystalline lattice. Due to it, few valence electrons contributing to covalent bonds
break and become free to move in whole of the crystal lattice. While coming out of a
covalent bond, the electron leaves an empty space which is having positive charge
equal to that of the electron which is shown in Fig. as an open circle. It is called a hole.
An electron from a neighbouring atom can break away and can be attracted by the
missing electron (or hole), thus completing the covalent bond there and creating a
hole at another place. In our two dimensional example, we see that an electron from
any of four neighbouring atoms can come to complete the bond and hole can move to
any of these atoms. It is to be noted that breakage of each covalent bond produces
one free electron and one hole in a crystalline lattice.
in Order to creat the free electron and hole in a crystalline lattice a certain amount of
ionisation energy 𝐸𝑔 would be involved. This ionistion energy is least for Ge, more for
Si and highest for C. Theoretically, it is found that the number of free electrons 𝑛𝑒 or
holes 𝑛ℎ produced as a result of an ionisation is given by
𝒏𝒆 = 𝒏𝒉 = 𝒏𝟎 𝒆−𝑬𝒈/𝟐𝒌𝑻
Where 𝑛0 (C) is a constant, 𝑘 is a Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute

temperature. For a given 𝐸𝑔 , as the temperature T increases, 𝑛𝑒 increases.

Holes
The vacancy or absence of an electron in
the bond of a covalently bonded crystal
is called a hole.
A hole is not a physical entity. A hole is a

convenient way of describing charge
motion, though the motion can be
described entirely in terms of electrons.

Holes
Characteristics of holes:
 A hole is just a vacancy created by removal of an electron from a

covalent bond of semiconductor.
 It has the same mass as the removed electron.
 It is associated with the positive charge of magnitude 𝑒
 The energy of hole is higher, the farther below it is from the top of the
valence band.

Q. In a pure semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is
6 × 1018 per cubic metre. How many holes are there in a sample of
size 1 𝑐𝑚 × 1 𝑐𝑚 × 1 𝑚𝑚 ?

Q. Find the maximum wavelength of electromagnetic radiation
which can create a hole-electron pair in germanium. The band
gap in germanium is 0.65 𝑒𝑉.

Electrical Conduction In Semi-conductors
The electrical conduction in semiconductors is caused by the motion of the
electrons in the conduction band and also by the motion of the holes in the
valence band.
When an electric field is applied across a semiconductor, the electrons in the

conduction band travel in opposite direction to that of the applied electric
field and consitute a flow of electronic current 𝐼𝑒 . At the same time, the
holes in the valence band travel in the direction of the applied electric field
and constitute a hole current 𝐼ℎ . It means there are two streams of current
inside a semiconductor; namely the electronic current in the conduction band
and the hole current in the valence band. The effective current (I) in the
semiconductor is the sum of these two streams of current.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒆 + 𝑰𝒉
For a pure semiconductor at room temperature, the current strength is weak.
Intrinsic Semi-Conductors
Important points (Intrinsic Semi-Conductors)
1. In an intrinsic semiconductor
(i) there are two types of current carriers (i.e., free electrons and holes)
(ii) number of electrons is equal to number of holes.
2. An intrinsic semiconductor is electrical neutral as a whole.
3. In a semiconductor the total current is due to the movement of both the free electrons
and holes, whereas in a metal conductor the current is due to flow of electrons only.

Limitations of Intrinsic (pure) Semi-Conductors based devices
Limitations of developing pure semiconductor based devices
1. Intrinsic semiconductors have low intrinsic charge carrier concentration (of hole and
electrons) as 106 m-3. So they have low electrical conductivity.
2. As intrinsic charge carriers are always thermally generated, so flexibility is not available
to control their number.
3. For intrinsic semiconductors, 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ . They cannot have predominant hole or electron

conduction. This puts a limit to the usefulness of such materials.

Doping
Doping is a process of deliberate addition of a desirable impurity atoms to a pure
semiconductor to modify its properties in a controlled manner. The impurity atoms
added are called dopants.
The impurity added may be ≃ 1 part per million (ppm). In a doping process, it is
required that
(i) the dopant atom should take the position of semiconductor atom in the lattice.
(ii) the presence of the dopant atom should not distort the crystal lattice.
(iii) the size of the dopant atom should be almost the same as that of the crystal atom.
(iv) the concentration of dopant atoms should not be large (not more than 1 % of the
crystal atoms).
It is to be noted that the doping of a semiconductor increases its electrical conductivity

to a great extent
Methods of Doping
Doping is achieved in many ways
1. Add the impurity atoms in the melt of the semiconductor.
2. Heat the crystalline semiconductor in an atmosphere containing dopant

atoms or molecules so that the latter diffuse into the semiconductor.
3. Implant dopant atoms or molecules by bombarding the semiconductor

with them.

Extrinsic Semi-Conductors
A doped semiconductor or a semi-conductor with suitable impurity atom

added to it, is called extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semi conductors are of two types :
(i) 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 semiconductors (ii) p-type semiconductors

(i) n-type semiconductor. (Valence Bond explanation)
When a pure semiconductor of silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge) in which

each Si or Ge atom has four valence electrons, is doped with a
controlled amount of pentavalent atoms, say arsenic or phosphorous
or antimony or bismuth, which have five valence electrons, the
impurity atom will replace the Si or Ge atom as shown in Fig. The four
of the five valence electrons of the impurity atoms will form covalent
bonds by sharing the electrons with the adjoining four atoms of
silicon, while the fifth electron is very loosely bound with the parent
impurity atom and is comparatively free to move. Thus, each impurity
atom added donates one free electron to the crystal structure. These
impurity atoms which donate free electrons for conduction are called
donor atoms.

Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (n-type, Valence Bond explanation)
Since the conduction of electricity is due to the motion of
electrons i.e. negative charges or n-type carriers, therefore, the
resulting semiconductor is called donor-type or n-type
semiconductor.
On giving up their fifth electron, the donor atoms become

positively charged. However, the matter remains electrically
neutral as a whole. The extra electron of the donor atom orbits
around the donor nucleus, in a hydrogen like manner.
It has been found that 0.045 eV energy is required to remove this

electron from the impurity atom of silicon semiconductor and
make it a free electron.

Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (n-type, Valence Bond explanation)
At room temperature, some of the covalent
bonds may get ruptured, producing thereby free
electrons and an equal number of holes in the n-
type semiconductor. But overall, the total number
of holes in n-type semiconductor is relatively
small than the electrons.
Hence in n-type semiconductor, electrons are

majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.

Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (n-type, Energy Band explanation)
Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor is shown
in Fig. For a silicon semiconductor with impurity atoms of
arsenic or phosphorous, the energies of the free electrons are
slightly less than the energies of the free electrons in the
lowest energy level of conduction band. As a result of it, these
electrons occupy discrete energy levels (called donor energy
levels) between the valence band and conduction band and
the lowest donor electron energy level lies at 0.01 eV for Ge
and 0.045 eV for Si below the bottom of the conduction band.
When we add pentavalent impurity in a pure semiconductor of
Ge or Si, the Fermi level in energy gap shifts very close to
conduction band. If doping is very large, the Fermi level may
move into the conduction band.

It is to be noted that this energy is comparable to
the thermal energy of electron at room
temperature (= 0.03 eV)
Thus, a very small energy supplied can excite the

electrons from donor levels to conduction band.
Due to it, the conductivity of semiconductor is
remarkably improved.

(ii) 𝑝 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 Semiconductor. (Valence Bond Explanation)
When a pure semiconductor of Germanium (Ge) or Silicon (Si), in

which each atom has four valence electrons is doped with a
controlled amount of trivalent atoms say gallium, or Indium (In)
or Boron (B) or Aluminium (Al) which have three valence
electrons, the impurity atom will replace the Ge or Si atom as
shown in Fig. The three valence electrons of the impurity atom
will form covalent bonds by sharing the electrons of the
adjoining three atoms of Ge, while there will be one incomplete
covalent bond with a neighbouring Ge-atom, due to the
deficiency of an electron. This deficiency is completed by taking
an electron from one of the Ge-Ge bonds, thus completing the
In-Ge bond. This makes Indium ionised (negatively charged) and
creates a ‘hole’.

Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (p-type, Valence Bond explanation)
An electron-moving from a Ge-Ge bond to fill a hole, leaves a
hole behind. That is how, holes move in the semi-conductor
structure.
The trivalent atoms are called acceptor atoms and the

conduction of electricity occurs due to motion of holes, i.e.,
positive charges or p-type carriers. That is why the resulting
semiconductor is called acceptor type or p-type semiconductor.
Also, at ordinary temperature, some of the covalent bonds may
get ruptured, releasing equal number of holes and electrons.
Therefore, the total number of electrons is relatively small as
compared to the number of the holes in the p-type semi-
conductor.
Hence in the p-type semiconductor, electrons are minority

carriers and holes are majority carriers.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (p-type, Energy Band explanation)
Energy band diagram of 𝑝 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 Semiconductor is shown

in Fig. For a Ge or Si semiconductor, the doping of impurity
atoms of Indium or boron having valence three, produce
some allowed energy levels which are situated in the
energy gap slightly above the valence band. These levels
are called acceptor energy levels. When we add a trivalent
impurity in a pure semiconductor of Ge or Si, the Fermi
level in energy gap shifts very close to valence band. If
doping is very large, the Fermi level may move into the
valence band.

At room temperature, due to thermal energy, the

electrons from the valence band are easily transferred
to the acceptor level ( Since the effective gap is reduced
to about 0.045 ev for Si & 0.01 ev for Ge) until these
levels are filled. This produces a large number of holes
in the valence band and thereby the valence band
becomes a hole conducting band.
When an external electric field is applied to a p-type

semiconductor, these holes will act as carriers of
current. Due to it, the p-type semiconductor shows its
electrical conductivity much improved than what it was
for pure semiconductor.

Points to be Noted
1. In a doped semiconductor, the number density of electrons and holes are
not equal. Under thermal equilibrium, the product of the free negative and
positive concentrations is a constant quanatity, independent of the amount
of donor and acceptor impurity doping. This relationship is known as mass-
action law and is given by
𝒏𝒆 × 𝒏𝒉 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊
Where 𝑛𝑒 , 𝑛ℎ are the number density of electrons and holes respectively and
𝑛𝑖 , is number density of intrinsic carriers (i.e. electrons or holes) in a pure
semiconductor.

Points to be Noted
2. In n-type semiconductor, the number density of electrons is nearly equal to
the number density of donor Atoms 𝑁𝑑 and is very large as compared to
number density of holes. Hence 𝑛𝑒 ≈ 𝑁𝑑 ≫ 𝑛ℎ
3. In p-type semiconductor, the number density of holes is nearly equal to the

number density of acceptor atoms 𝑁𝑎 and is very large as compared to
number density of electrons. Hence 𝑛ℎ ≈ 𝑁𝑎 ≫ 𝑛𝑒
4. The number density of intrisnic current carrier 𝑛𝑖 of a semiconductor

−𝐸 / 2𝑘𝑇
varies with temperature T K according to relation 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛0 𝑒 𝑔
where 𝑛0 is a constant, k is the Boltzmann constant and Eg is the energy gap of
the given semiconductor.

Points to be Noted
5. Both n-type and 𝑝 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 semiconductors are neutral.
6. The fermilevel in 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 semiconductor lies in the forbidden energy gap

near the conduction band.
7. The fermilevel in 𝑝 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 semiconductor lies in the forbidden energy gap

near the valence band.

Difference between Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductors
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
1. These are pure semiconducting These are semiconducting tetravalent
tetravalent crystals. crystals doped with impurity atoms of
group III or V
2. Their electrical conductivity is low Their electrical conductivity is high
3. There is no permitted energy state in There is permitted energy state of the
between valance and conduction bands. impurity atom between valance and
conduction bands.
4. The number of free electrons in the The electrons are majority charge carriers
conduction band is equal to the number in n-type while holes are majority charge
of holes in valance band. carriers in p-type.
5. Their electrical conductivity depends on Their electrical conductivity depends on

temperature. temperature as well as on dopant
Clickconcentration.
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Difference Between 𝒏 − 𝑻𝒚𝒑𝒆 & 𝑝 − 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒 Semiconductors
𝒏 − 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 SEMICONDUCTORS 𝒑 − 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 SEMICONDUCTORS
1. These are extrinsic semiconductors These are extrinsic semiconductors obtained
obtained by doping impurity atoms of by doping impurity atoms of group 𝐼𝐼𝐼 to
group V to Ge or Si crystal. Ge or Si crystal.
2. The impurity atoms added provide free The impurity atoms added create vacancies
electrons and are called donors. of electrons (or holes) and are called
acceptors.
3. The donor impurity level lies just below The acceptor impurity level lies just above
the conduction band. the valance band.
4. The electrons are majority charge The holes are majority charge carriers while
carriers while holes are minority charge electrons are minority charge carriers.
carriers.
5. 𝒏𝒆 ≫ 𝒏𝒉 𝒐𝒓 𝒏 ≫ 𝒑 𝒏𝒆 ≪ 𝒏𝒉 𝒐𝒓 𝒏 ≪ 𝒑
𝒑 − 𝒏 Junction
It is a single crystal of 𝐺𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑖 doped in such a
manner that one half portion of it acts as p-type
semiconductor and other half as n-type
semiconductor.
The term junction implies the boundary or

region of transition between n-type and p-type
semiconductor materials.
The two separate semiconductors cannot have a

continuous contact at the atomic level.
A p-n junction is the key, to all semiconductor

devices. Example p-n junction used as a
rectifying diode. Click to watch All Chapters  Arvind Academy YouTube Channel
𝒑 − 𝒏 junction (Depletion region & Potential barrier)
Two important processes involved during
formation of p-n junction are diffusion & drift.
The small region in the vicinity of the junction

which is depleted of free charge carriers and has
only immobile ions is called depletion region.
The accumulation of negative charges in the

𝑝 −region and positive charges in the 𝑛 −region
sets up a potential difference across the
junction. This acts as a barrier and is called
barrier potential(𝑉𝐵 ).

𝑝 − 𝑛 Junction
This diffusion of majority charge carriers across the
junction gives rise to an electric current from 𝒑 → 𝒏
side and is called diffusion current.
The current set up by the barrier field from 𝒏 → 𝒑

side is called drift current.
Circuit Symbol for a p − n Junction

p-n Junction (depletion Layer & barrier potential)
The barrier potential VB depends on
(i) the nature of the semiconductor
(ii) temperature
(iii) amount of doping
At room temp (300K) The value of VB is 0.3 V

for Ge & 0.7 V for Si
If doping concentration is small depletion layer

width large & EB(barrier field) weak
If doping concentration is large depletion layer

width small & EB (barrier field) strong
𝐸 = 𝑉ൗ𝑙
Working of a 𝒑 − 𝐧 Junction
Forward Biasing: If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-side and the
negative terminal to the n-side, then the p-n junction is said to be forward biased.

Forward biasing of a 𝒑 − 𝐧 Junction
As shown in Fig., here the applied voltage 𝑉 opposes the barrier
voltage 𝑉𝐵 . As a result of this
1. The effective barrier potential decreases to (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉) and

hence the energy barrier across the junction decreases.
2. The majority charge carries i.e., holes from p-side and
electrons from n-side begin to flow towards the junction.
3. The diffusion of holes and electrons into the depletion layer
decreases its width, and
4. The effective resistance across the 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction decreases.
When V exceeds VB, the majority charge carriers start flowing

easily across the junction & set up large current (in mA), called
forward current.
Working of a 𝒑 − 𝐧 Junction
Reverse Biasing: If the positive
terminal of a battery is connected to the
n-side and the negative terminal to the
p-side, then the p-n junction is said to
be reverse biased.

Reverse biasing of a 𝒑 − 𝐧 Junction
As shown in Fig., here the applied voltage 𝑉 and
the barrier voltage 𝑉𝐵 are in the same direction. As
a result of this
1. The barrier potential increases to (𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉) and
hence the energy barrier across the junction
increases.
2. The majority charge carries move away from
the junction, increasing the width of the
depletion layer,
3. The resistance of the p-n junction becomes
very large, and
4. No current flows across the junction due to
majority charge carriers.
Reverse biasing of a 𝒑 − 𝐧 Junction
However at room temp. there are always some
minority charges carriers which will be pushed by
reverse biasing towards the junction & setting a
reverse or leakage current.
Minority charge carrier current will be very small &

of the order of 𝜇𝐴

𝑉 − 𝐼 Characteristic of a 𝒑 − 𝒏 Junction Diode
These are the graphical relations between voltage applied to p-n junction and the
current through the p-n junction (both when it is forward and reverse biased) is
called the voltage-current or 𝑉 − 𝐼 characteristics of a p-n junction.

Forward Bias Characteristic
These are the graphical relations between

forward bias voltage applied to p-n junction
and the forward current through the p-n
junction.

Forward Bias Characteristic
Important Features of graph:
1. The V-I graph is not a straight line (does not obey

Ohm’s law)
2. Initially current increases very slowly, till the
voltage crosses a certain value, called threshold-
voltage/cut-in voltage or knee voltage. (ex. 0.3 V
for Ge diode & 0.7 V for Si diode)
3. After the cut-in voltage, diode current increase
rapidly (exponentially). Here majority charge
carriers feel negligible resistance at the junction.

Reverse Bias Characteristic
These are the graphical relations between the

reverse bias voltage applied to the p-n Junction
and the reverse current across the p-n Junction

Reverse Bias Characteristic
Important Features of graph:
1. Reverse bias voltage produces a very small
current few 𝝁𝑨 which almost remains
constant with bias. This small current is
called reverse saturation current. It is due
to drift of minority charge carriers.
2. When reverse voltage reaches sufficiently
high value, the reverse current suddenly
increases to a large value. This voltage is
called Zener breakdown voltage of the
diode. ( this property is used to convert a.c.
to d.c., called rectification)

Dynamic Resistance of a Junction Diode
It is the ratio of the small change in applied voltage ∆𝑉 to the
corresponding change in current ∆𝐼
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (∆𝑉) ∆𝑉

𝑟𝑑 = =
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (∆𝐼) ∆𝐼
Above the threshold voltage (cut-in voltage), the diode characteristic is

linear. In the linear region Ohm’s law is obeyed.

Q. If each diode in fig has a forward bias resistance of 25 Ω
and infinite resistance in reverse bias, what will be the values
of current 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼4 ?

Junction Diode as a Rectifier
Rectifier: Rectifier is a device which is used for converting alternating
current/voltage into direct current/voltage.

Junction Diode as a Rectifier
Principle: When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, it offers less
resistance and a current flows through it; but when it is reverse biased, it
offers high resistance and almost no current flows through it. This
unidirectional property of a diode enables it to be used as a rectifier.
The 𝑝 − 𝑛 junctions can be used as

A half-wave rectifier
A full-wave rectifier

Junction Diode as a Half Wave Rectifier
Half Wave rectifier

Junction Diode as a Full Wave Rectifier
Full Wave rectifier

Filter Circuits
Series Inductor Filter:
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
blocking high frequency a.c component
allowing low frequency d.c. component
Shunt Capacitor Filter:
1
𝑋𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
allowing high frequency a.c component
blocking low frequency d.c. component

Chap 14P Semiconductor Devices & Digital Circuits Arvind 2023

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Chap 14: Semiconductor Devices & Digital Circuits

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Any device whose action is based on the controlled

The branch of physics that deals with the study of

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Some of the important features of vacuum tubes are as follows:

 They have limited life and low reliability.

Some of the important features of semiconductor devices are as follows:

1. Metals (low resistivity or high conductivity).

2. Insulators (high resistivity or low conductivity)

3. Semiconductors (resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators)

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1. Elemental semiconductors: Si (Silicon) and 𝐺𝑒 (Germanium)

(i) Inorganic: 𝐶𝑑𝑆 (Cadmium sulfide), 𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠 (Gallium arsenide)

(ii) Organic: 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑝𝑦𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑒, 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒, etc.

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1. Intrinsic semiconductors: The pure semiconductors

2. Extrinsic semiconductors: The semiconductors obtained by

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there is no interatomic interaction. Each atom in

Silicon (Z=14) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

in the silicon crystal, there are 2 N electrons

there is no visible splitting of energy levels.

Click toFormation of energy

the interaction between outermost shell

Click toFormation of energy

the energy of electrons corresponding to 3s and

This spreading of energy corresponding to 3s and

the energy gap between 3s and 3p levels

Now, it is not possible to distinguish

Click toFormation of energy

at absolute zero, the band of 4 N filled energy

The lower completely filled band is called

Click toFormation of energy

The positions of energy bands in a

The lowest energy level in the conduction

2. Conduction band. In the energy band diagram of semiconductors, the conduction

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Fermi level in semiconductor It is that energy level in energy-band-diagram of

The energy band diagram of insulator is shown in

For example, in case of diamond, the energy gap is

The energy band diagram of a semiconductor is

For example, the energy gap for germanium is of 0.72

However at room temperature, some electrons in the

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Even at room temperature, the thermal vibrations of the

It is very difficult to make an intrinsic semiconductor because of the difficulty in preparing

In the energy band diagram of the semiconductor, there is an

The hole is considered as an active particle in the

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Where 𝑛0 (C) is a constant, 𝑘 is a Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute

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A hole is not a physical entity. A hole is a

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 A hole is just a vacancy created by removal of an electron from a

 It has the same mass as the removed electron.