Macro to Micro: The Story of Higgs Boson

We, the human being, are always curious to know the origin of universe. What can we feel (touch, sight,
sound, and smell, taste), we seek the reason of that sensation. The major sensation for our nervous system is
'touch'. So what can we touch? Answer: objects that made of matter. We can touch solids, liquids even we
can feel the air flow. Although the feelings are different for these different stages of matter, we succeeded to
discover that fundamental building blocks of matter are unique. At microscopic level the structural diversity
comes to a unity. We can observe molecules or lattices, then atoms, and then the tiny nucleus and electrons
orbiting around it. We reached 10^-13 cm then but still we did not stop! Scientists split the nucleus of U238
using a charge less beam (possessing mass, not gamma ray) and discovered the fundamental building blocks
of atom i.e. -ve charged electrons outside, +ve charged protons and another is the charge less beam itself,
neutron. Now we are going to enter inside (split) H+ ion i.e. proton (easier than electron). For that we need to
use smaller wavelength (λ) ray. Smaller the wavelength, more micro-structures can be seen. Light > X-Ray >
Gamma ray > e.t.c. Smaller the wavelength means higher frequency i.e. higher energy ( E = h ν). For this
reason study of micro structure is called Higher Energy Physics. So we need to build up new machines that can
generate extremely high energy to look into the finest micro-structure. This can be done using particle
accelerators/cyclotron or colliders. The biggest collider is LHC of CERN having 27 km ring in Switzerland that
cost $4.75 billion to construct is really expensive. About 938 Mega Electron Volts is required to split a proton.

Before splitting the fundamental particle into more micro-structures we should be aware about the Laws of
Elementary particles. We know Classical or Newtonian Mechanics is invalid for this scale. That's why Quantum
Mechanics and Special Relativity Theory are introduced. The base of Quantum Theory was built by Bohr,
Schrodinger and Heisenberg. It tells that at microscopic level the nature can only be described statistically
with some inherent uncertainties like Δ p Δ x >= h /4 兀; i.e. position and momentum both cannot be
measured exactly at same time, even in theory.

Einstein's S.T.R: On the other hand we have Einstein’s Special Relativity Theory to describe the nature. It tells
us a lot about the mysterious time. From Newtonian view 'time' is universal and unique for all observers. But
from Einstenian view there is no Universal Clock, just as every event has their own position in space each of
them has their own time! 'Time' is like a co-ordinate just as position in space is relative. Flow of Time is also
relative!!

Consider two objects A and B is moving towards each other with velocities V1 and V2 with respect to a
standing observer. Relative velocity of B as measured by A is Vr = V1 + V2 ; this is the prediction of Newton's
Law. But if B travels with the speed of light i.e. C= 3 * 10^8 m/s w.r.t observer the relative velocity of 'B' w.r.t
'A' should be = V1 + C; but is equal to C!! Speed of light is constant(c)!!

Einstein's Explanation: Speed = Distance/Time; Einstein proposed- Distance (or Length interval) and time
interval both depend on motion of the observer.
Time flows differently for the observer and objects 'A' and 'B'. Flow of Time depends on velocity!!
t = t0 / [1 - (V^2 / C^2)] ^ ½ ......eqn(1) ; So Moving Clock (t0) runs slower than Steel observer’s clock (t)!!
Limit of Speed: But this means there is a limit of speed everything. t= t0 / [1 - (V^2 / c^2)]^0.5; Speed V > C
implies imaginary time....meaningless! So nothing can move faster than light. But if we apply force (F) on a
mass 'm' it accelerates; a = F/m . So why the object will not overtake light if we continuously apply force? Is
there any resistive force that gives the mass 'm' terminal velocity(c)?

Mass is not Constant: To resolve this contradiction Einstein proposed that mass is also variable, it changes
with velocity as; m = m0/ [1 - (V^2 / C^2)]^ ½ …..eqn(2)
m0=Rest Mass, Velocity = C implies mass 'm'= infinity!
Acceleration a = F/m = (F / infinity) = 0
'C' is the maximum possible speed. For all massive particles speed is less than speed of light. So further Energy
supplied by the force goes into increasing the mass of the body; i.e. you become fat when you move at the
speed of light! So Energy is converted into Mass. Similarly Mass is also convert able into Energy. So Energy
and Mass are Equivalent. Einstein showed: E = m C^2 ......eqn(3)
For m0 = 0, Speed V must be equal to 'C'.
So all mass less particles travel with speed of light (C) like photon, neutrino e.t.c. So from this famous
equation E = m C^2, we conclude that particles can be created and destroyed (Nuclear Fission/ Fusion).

Birth of Particles: We see creation of new particles (Quarks, Leptons) in high energy collision in colliders. But
how the initial fundamental particles take birth? Universe consists of many galaxies. Let ‘s’= Distance between
any two galaxies. Applying Einstein’s Theory to the universe ‘s’ is changing with time;
s``/s = -k (d + 3 p) ; where d = density, p = pressure ……...eqn(4)
This indicates universe is expanding or contradicting. Hubble found that universe is expanding, so if we go
back in time we have at t = 0; d = 0. Whole universe is started from a point and occurs a huge explosion------
“Big Bang” before 13.5 billion years ago.
The energy released from the Big Bang; E = m C^2 = [m0 * C^2 / {1 – (V^2 / C^2) ^ ½}] …....eqn(5)
Which gradually formed atoms, molecules, planets, stars, galaxies when our universe continues to expand and
cool down. But the question arise when fundamental particles created from Big Bang energy they are;
Mass less --- Travelling with speed of light? Or/ Massive --- Travelling slower than light?
Actually masses of these particles are crucial in forming the stable elements in our universe that leads the
formation of atoms, molecules and Life!! The process of creation of these massive particles from energy has
An Interesting Story: The Story of Higgs Boson;

Bosons and Fermions: According to Quantum theory all fundamental particles are characterized by a quantity
called “Spin”. The Spins are either 0, 1, 2, 3… Called ‘Bosons’ (Follow Bose-Einstein Statistics) or 1/2, 3/2,
5/2…. Called ‘Fermions’ (Follow Fermi-Dirac Statistics).

Present Fundamental Particle Kingdom: According to present knowledge, the list of fundamental particles:
A) Six Leptons (Light Particles): Electron, Muon, Tau and their neutrinos.
B) Six Quarks: up (u), down (d), charm (c), strange (s), bottom (b). Proton, Neutrons are all made of Quarks.
All are Spin ½ Fermions. Now an important question arises;
What Drives These Particles To Form Atoms, Molecules and Evolutions In Nature? : Interacting Forces are
responsible for all structures and diversity and evolutions in nature. There are Four Forces in universe;

1. Electro-Magnetic Force (Observed always, the sense of touching any object is actually powerful electro-
magnetic repulsion force), 2. Gravitational Force (very very weak, important mainly for stars, planets),
3. Weak Nuclear Force and 4. Strong Nuclear Force.

Modern understanding of Force: Force Quanta:: Forces between two particles are actually exchange of some
particles, called Quanta of Force. E.g. the force between electrons is exchange of photon. The other Quantas:
1. Electro-Magnetic Force--- Photon; 2. Weak Nuclear Force--- W+, W-, Z ; 3. Strong Nuclear Force--- 8 Gluons.
All are Spin 1 Bosons. And the remaining 4. Gravitational Force--- Gravitons (Theoretical Idea, not proven yet.)

So the Final Conclusion is the Universe is composed of Elementary Particles (All Spin ½ Fermions) and Force
Mediators (All Spin 1 Bosons). Now the question is: What is the Law which governs the fundamental particles?
Most successful theory is “The Standard Model” proposed by Salam, Weinberg, and Glashow.

Mass Puzzle: Most of the micro particles have non-zero masses which make all the atoms, molecules and
everything around us massive. The Standard Model shows that the particles can acquire masses only if we
assume the existence of one more particle with Spin 0. This is something we call: HiGGS BOSON !!!

What is Minimum Energy State or Vacuum? : All theories of nature must have a minimum energy state or
ground state where the system becomes stable and excited to higher energy states when energy is supplied
from outside since E = m C^2. Minimum energy state is ‘no particle’ then ‘one particle’, ‘two particle’,…etc.
For all Spin ½ Fermions and Spin 1 Bosons the ground state is just “Empty vacuum with no trace of existence
of any particle.” When enough energy is supplied the particles are created and pops up in the vacuum.

Special Property Boson: However only Spin 0 particles can have “A residual existence as a frozen non-zero
value even at the vacuum (Ground State)”. This is due to Einstein’s Relativity.

Role of Higgs; Non-Empty Vacuum: Higgs Bosons are frozen at the vacuum with non-zero value everywhere in
the space and pop up as a living particle when we supply sufficient energy to create them following E = m C^2.
For Fermions or other particles: Fermion = 0 + f; But for Spin 0 Higgs: Higgs = v + h (v = Frozen, h = Living)
If m0 = Rest Mass of Higgs; then for energy less than E < m0 C^2 there will be no living Higgs Particle to
observe since we cannot create them. All Higgs Boson are Frozen at Vacuum! That means Free Space/
Vacuum is not empty at all; it is full of Higgs!!
Mass from Frozen Higgs: However their Frozen Sea supplies energy to other particles travelling through the
space due to interaction and thus the particles acquire masses from Frozen Higgs.
[*Note- mass less Photon, Neutrinos can’t interact with Frozen Higgs]. So all the fundamental mass less
particles gets their masses from Higgs Frozen value (v) and constitutes our beautiful universe.
The Invisible Actor: Until recently all particles were detected except Higgs Boson because of our limitations.
In early 80’s cyclotron accelerators reached energy ~ 100 GeV. Higgs was not found. Higgs mass (v) must be
higher so could not be created. According to physicists the mass of Higgs Boson must be between:
100 GeV < (Rest Mass m0 =) v < 500 GeV. Despite incredible agreement between Standard Model and
experiments only Higgs Remained Undetected.

How to Wake Up a Higgs? LHC, CERN: To find Higgs many countries in the world united to build up a new
machine at CERN, Geneva and began a most expensive project ever in 1976. Finally Large Hardon Collider first
started up on 2008. On 4th July, 2012 two Proton beams (one of them is Polarized beam) were moving in
opposite directions in 27 km long LHC ring at a speed 99.999991% of Light (C) and collided at energy ~ 7 TeV
(Energy of the Universe few second after Big Bang!!). This energy can probe a micro structure of 10^-19 cm.
And this incredibly extreme energy was sufficient to Wake up Higgs Boson! Dreams Come True!!

And we finally got it with mass m0 = 126 GeV in one jet from the Proton beams intersecting point with many
other new particles created along.

 So we can understand the origin of masses of fundamental particles and formation of Atoms. The,
Invisible Actor, Higgs Boson is responsible for giving mass to other particles. They are at Frozen state.
 Though Higgs Bosons have massive mass m0 = 126 GeV = 2.24 * 10^-25 kg (Mass of 133 Protons) we
can never see them but we, our surroundings are made from them. Higgs Bosons with Spin 0, even
(+ve) parity, no electric charge and no colour charge are very unstable, and living Higgs decaying into
other particles almost immediately. Thus the journey of wonder, from Macro to Micro, comes to
conclusion.