Contour lines are imaginary lines drawn on a

map to connect points of equal elevation

above or below a reference point, such as
sea level.

They provide a visual representation of the

shape and relief of the land by showing
changes in elevation.

Contour lines are usually depicted as

smooth curves that indicate the slope and
steepness of the terrain.

Contour Lines: The spacing between contour lines, known

as the contour interval, represents the
vertical distance between each line. A
smaller contour interval indicates a steeper
slope, while a larger interval represents a
gentler slope.

By studying contour lines, we can determine

the height and depth of specific landforms
such as hills, valleys, and mountains.

Contour lines also help in identifying

features such as ridges, depressions, cliffs,
and other landforms.

A 1:10000 orthophoto map is a highly

detailed map that combines aerial
photographs with map data to create a
realistic representation of an area.

Orthophoto maps are created by removing

distortions caused by terrain relief, camera
angle, and lens distortion in aerial
photographs.

These maps provide an accurate

representation of the landscape, allowing
for precise measurements of distances,
angles, and areas.
1:10000 Orthophoto maps:
They are commonly used in urban planning,
land surveying, and infrastructure
development.

Orthophoto maps often include additional

information such as road networks,
buildings, land use classifications,
vegetation cover, and other features.

These maps are valuable tools for analyzing

the physical characteristics of an area and
making informed decisions related to land
development and resource allocation.
TERM 1: Map Skills -
A 1:50000 topographic map provides a larger-
scale view of a region, covering more area
but with less detail compared to
orthophoto maps.

These maps depict both natural and human-

made features, including rivers, lakes,
mountains, forests, roads, settlements, and
administrative boundaries.

Topographic maps at this scale typically

show contour lines, spot heights, and other
1:50000 topographic maps:
elevation markers to help understand the
topography of the area.

They provide a general overview of the

landscape and can be used for various
purposes, including outdoor activities such
as hiking, camping, and exploration.

Topographic maps assist in route planning,

identifying landmarks, understanding the
general physical characteristics of the
landscape, and assessing the suitability of
an area for specific activities.

Maps are valuable sources of information

for understanding spatial relationships,
patterns, and distributions of various
phenomena.

They provide information about the physical

features of an area, such as landforms,
bodies of water, and transportation
networks.

Maps can also show human-made features

like cities, infrastructure, land use
classifications, and administrative
boundaries.

Researchers and planners analyze maps to

Information from maps and photographs:
identify spatial patterns, assess resource
distribution, plan infrastructure
development, and make informed decisions
in fields such as urban planning,
environmental management, and social
sciences.

Photographs, including aerial photographs,

satellite images, and ground-level pictures,
provide visual evidence and documentation
of specific locations and events.

They help researchers study changes over

time, document cultural practices, analyze
the impact of human activities on the
environment, and support research in
various social science disciplines such as
anthropology, archaeology, geography, and
history.

Development encompasses a broad range of

economic, social, and environmental
aspects that contribute to the overall
progress of a society.

Economic development focuses on

increasing productivity, improving
infrastructure, and promoting trade and
investment to enhance the standard of
living.
Development:
Social development aims to address issues
of poverty, inequality, access to education
and healthcare, gender equality, and social
justice.

Environmental development emphasizes

sustainable practices, conservation of
natural resources, mitigating climate
change, and promoting renewable energy
sources.

Economic factors: Infrastructure

development, availability of financial
resources, investment climate, access to
markets, technological advancements, and
natural resource endowment significantly
impact a country's development trajectory.

Social factors: Education and literacy rates,

TERM 2: Development issues -
Factors affecting development:
healthcare infrastructure, social welfare
policies, gender equality, access to basic
services like clean water and sanitation, and
social cohesion play crucial roles in
determining the level of development in a
society.

Environmental factors: Natural disasters,

climate change, environmental degradation,
resource management practices, and the
adoption of sustainable technologies and
practices can either hinder or facilitate
development efforts.

Economic opportunities: Development

opens up avenues for economic growth, job
creation, and income generation. It
encourages entrepreneurship, innovation,
and investment, leading to increased
productivity and improved living standards.

Social opportunities: Development provides

opportunities for education and skill
development, which enable individuals to
participate in the workforce, build better
Opportunities for development:
livelihoods, and improve their quality of life.
It also fosters inclusive social policies,
equitable access to healthcare, and social
mobility.

Environmental opportunities: Sustainable

development practices offer opportunities
to address environmental challenges,
conserve natural resources, promote
renewable energy sources, and mitigate
climate change. This includes adopting
green technologies, implementing
sustainable agriculture practices, and
promoting environmental awareness and
education.

Weathering refers to the breakdown and

alteration of rocks, minerals, and other
geological materials on the Earth's surface.

Physical weathering involves the mechanical

disintegration of rocks without any change
in their chemical composition. Examples
include freeze-thaw cycles, where water
seeps into cracks in rocks, freezes, and
expands, causing the rock to fracture.

Weathering: Chemical weathering involves the chemical

reactions that transform rocks and minerals
into new substances. Common processes
include oxidation, hydrolysis, and
dissolution. For instance, carbonic acid in
rainwater can dissolve limestone rocks.

Biological weathering occurs when living

organisms contribute to the breakdown of
rocks. Plant roots can grow into cracks,
exerting pressure and causing rocks to
fragment. Burrowing animals and organisms
produce organic acids that can dissolve
minerals.

Erosion is the process of wearing away and

transporting sediments, rocks, and soil
from one location to another.

Geography Water erosion occurs through the actions

of rivers, streams, rainfall, and waves. It can
carve out valleys, create riverbeds, and
shape coastlines.

Wind erosion carries fine particles like sand,

dust, and silt through the air. It can result
Erosion and Deposition:
in the formation of sand dunes and dust
storms.
TERM 3: Surface forces that shape the
Earth - Glacial erosion involves the movement of
glaciers, which can carve out deep valleys
and shape the land. Glaciers transport
rocks and sediment, depositing them as
they melt.

Gravity erosion, also known as mass

wasting, refers to the downslope movement
of rocks, soil, and debris under the
influence of gravity. Examples include
landslides, rockfalls, and slumps.

Deforestation, the clearing of forests for

various purposes, can lead to increased soil
erosion. Without the protective cover of
trees and vegetation, rainfall can directly
hit the soil, causing erosion and loss of
topsoil.

Improper agricultural practices, such as

over-tilling, monocropping, and inadequate
soil conservation measures, can accelerate
soil erosion. Soil exposed to wind and water
without proper management practices can
be easily eroded.

Construction activities disturb the natural

landscape, altering drainage patterns and
The Impact of people on Soil Erosion: removing vegetation. This can result in
increased erosion due to the lack of natural
erosion control mechanisms.

Mining operations can lead to significant

soil erosion. Excavating and removing
vegetation cover exposes the soil, which can
then be eroded by wind and water. Mining
activities may also generate waste
materials that can contaminate nearby soil
and water bodies.

Overgrazing occurs when livestock

excessively graze on grasslands, leading to
the removal of vegetation and increased soil
erosion. Implementing proper grazing
management practices is essential to
mitigate this impact.

Minerals: Minerals are naturally occurring

substances that have economic value. They
are used in various industries, including
construction, manufacturing, and energy
production. Examples include iron ore, coal,
copper, and gold.

Water: Water is a vital resource for human

survival, agriculture, industry, and energy
production. It is used for irrigation,
drinking, sanitation, and generating
hydroelectric power.

Forests: Forests provide a wide range of

resources, including timber for construction
and paper production, non-timber forest
Natural resources:
products like fruits and medicinal plants,
and ecosystem services such as carbon
sequestration and biodiversity conservation.

Fossil fuels: Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil,

and natural gas, are non-renewable energy
sources that have been formed over millions
of years. They are used for electricity
generation, transportation, and heating.
However, their combustion contributes to
air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.

Renewable energy sources: Renewable

energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro,
and geothermal energy, are alternatives to
fossil fuels. They have a lower
environmental impact and can help reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
Resource use:
Labor: Labor refers to the physical and
mental efforts contributed by individuals to
produce goods and services. It includes
both skilled and unskilled workers.
Human resources:
Skills and knowledge: Human resources also
encompass the skills, knowledge, and
expertise possessed by individuals. These
skills can be acquired through education,
training, and experience.

Machinery and equipment: Capital

resources include machinery, tools, and
equipment used in production processes.
They enhance productivity and efficiency.

Infrastructure: Infrastructure refers to the

physical structures and facilities necessary
Capital resources: for economic activities, such as roads,
bridges, ports, and telecommunications
networks.

Technology: Technological resources, such

as computers, software, and automation
systems, play a crucial role in modern
production methods and innovation.

Sustainability principles: Sustainable

development involves balancing
environmental, social, and economic
considerations. It aims to meet the present
needs while ensuring the ability to meet the
needs of future generations.

Triple Bottom Line: The concept of the

triple bottom line emphasizes the need to
consider environmental, social, and
Sustainable development:
economic impacts when making decisions. It
promotes sustainable practices that
benefit people, the planet, and profit.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): The

United Nations has established a set of 17
Sustainable Development Goals to address
global challenges, including poverty,
inequality, climate change, and responsible
resource use.

TAKE NOTES Protected areas: Protected areas, such as

national parks and nature reserves, are
designated to conserve biodiversity,
ecosystems, and natural resources. They
restrict activities that could harm these
areas.

Sustainable harvesting: Sustainable

harvesting practices involve extracting
resources from natural systems in a way
Conservation:
that allows for their regeneration. This can
include selective logging, fishing quotas,
and controlled hunting.

Biodiversity conservation: Biodiversity is

crucial for ecosystem functioning and
resilience. Conservation efforts aim to
Sustainable use of resources: protect and restore biodiversity through
habitat conservation, species preservation,
and ecosystem restoration.

Recycling processes: Recycling involves

collecting and processing waste materials
TERM 4: Resource use and Sustainability - to produce new products. It helps conserve
resources, reduce waste sent to landfills,
and decrease the demand for raw materials.
Recycling:
Recycling benefits: Recycling reduces energy
consumption, greenhouse gas emissions,
and water pollution associated with the
production of new materials. It also
contributes to the circular economy by
promoting the reuse of resources.

Solar energy: Solar energy harnesses the

power of sunlight to generate electricity
through photovoltaic panels or
concentrated solar power systems. It is a
clean and abundant source of energy.

Wind energy: Wind turbines convert the

kinetic energy of the wind into electricity.
Wind energy is renewable, emits no
greenhouse gases during operation, and has
a relatively small ecological footprint.

Renewable energy sources: Hydropower: Hydropower uses the energy of

flowing or falling water to generate
electricity. It is a widely used renewable
energy source, but it can have
environmental impacts on river ecosystems
and fish migration.

Geothermal energy: Geothermal energy

utilizes the heat from the Earth's interior
to generate electricity or provide heating
and cooling. It is a reliable and sustainable
energy source in regions with geothermal
activity.

Organic farming: Organic farming avoids

synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, and
genetically modified organisms. It focuses
on soil health, biodiversity, and animal
welfare.

Permaculture: Permaculture is a design

approach that aims to create sustainable
Agricultural practices: and self-sufficient agricultural systems by
mimicking natural ecosystems and
maximizing resource efficiency.

Sustainable irrigation: Sustainable irrigation

practices aim to minimize water wastage,
such as drip irrigation and precision
watering techniques.

Availability: Food availability refers to the

quantity and quality of food produced and
imported to meet the population's needs.

Access: Food access includes the physical

and economic ability of individuals to obtain
and consume an adequate and nutritious
diet.
Food security:
Utilization: Food utilization refers to the
nutritional value and safety of the food
consumed, including proper storage,
preparation, and cooking methods.

Stability: Food stability refers to the ability

of individuals and communities to
consistently access sufficient food over
time, including during emergencies or
Food resources: unforeseen events.

Causes of food waste: Food waste can

occur at various stages, including
production, processing, distribution, retail,
and consumption. Factors such as
inefficient harvesting, improper storage,
and consumer behavior contribute to food
waste.
Food waste:
Consequences of food waste: Food waste
leads to the loss of valuable resources,
including water, energy, and labor. It also
contributes to greenhouse gas emissions
and exacerbates food insecurity and
inequality.

Deforestation: Agricultural expansion,

especially for large-scale mono-crop
production, can lead to deforestation,
habitat loss, and biodiversity decline.

Greenhouse gas emissions: Livestock

Impact of food production on the
environment:
farming, particularly intensive animal
agriculture, is a significant contributor to
greenhouse gas emissions, primarily
methane and nitrous oxide.
Water pollution: The use of chemical
fertilizers, pesticides, and intensive
irrigation in agriculture can result in water
pollution, affecting aquatic ecosystems and
human health.

Sustainable agriculture: Sustainable

agricultural practices focus on reducing
environmental impacts while maintaining
productivity and ensuring food security.
These practices include agroecology, crop
rotation, integrated pest management, and
precision farming techniques.

History