Scientific Method
the experiment
Scientific Investigation
 Usually triggered by an observation
 Something that catches a scientist’s attention
Scientific Method
 Logical way of answering questions or solving
problems based on measurable evidence
 helps reduce errors and mistakes
 Involves: systematic observation, measurement,
communication, formulation of hypothesis, and
experiments
 Used to solve simple and complex problems
 Can be used in all fields of science
 Asking a question
 Doing research
 Forming a hypothesis
 Conducting the experiment
 Gathering and analyzing data
 Drawing a conclusion
Asking a question
 First step in scientific method
 Identifying the problem
Doing research
 Gathering existing information only from reliable and
credible sources
 You may get information from books, internet, and
academic journals
 Gives you insights about your topic
 Prevents you from repeating the same errors of
people who have tried solving the same problem in
the past
Forming hypothesis
 Potential answer to your problem or question
 An intelligent guess based of your research
 An if-then statement
 It is testable (can be proven right or wrong)
 Always on positive terms
Conducting an experiment
 Tests if your hypothesis is correct
 Do several trials to make sure you get enough data
 You have to design your methodology, identify your
independent variable, and your dependent variable
 Methodology – System of procedures that describes
what you plan to do/Provides a systematic
description of how you will change the independent
variable
 Independent variable – The factor to be purposely
manipulated in the experiment
 Dependent variable – The factor that is predicted to
change based on how the independent variable is
manipulated
Gathering and Analyzing Data
 Observations from your experiment
 Data - pieces of information that you collect from
 Analyze the data you have gathered for any patterns,
connections, and inconsistencies
 Uses graphs, table, pie chart, and diagram to be
more accurate in recording information
Drawing a conclusion
 Judgement based on facts or the results of an
experiment
 Confirms if your hypothesis is correct or not
 The step where you can choose to accept or reject
your hypothesis
 Uses THUS and THEREFORE
Iterative process
 Using the results of an experiment to ask new
questions and form new hypotheses
Scientific Tools/Laboratory Apparatus
Scientific tools
 Instruments used by scientists
 Used to make observations, take measurements, and
conduct experiments
OBSERVING TOOLS
 Help provide accurate and detailed observations of
extremely distant or extremely small objects
 Telescope
 Magnifying glass
 Microscope
Telescope
 Instrument used for viewing distant objects (Such as
the moon and stars)
 Invented by Hans Lippershey (1570-1619)
 Applied a patent for the device in 1608
 Has a concave eyepiece aligned with a convex
objective lens that can magnify distant objects 3x
 Reflecting telescope – Uses a parabolic mirror to
collect and focus the parallel light rays (from celestial
objects)
 Refracting telescope – Uses lenses to gather more
light than what can be absorbed
Magnifying Glass
 Handheld lens
 Invented by Sir Roger Bacon/lecturer at Oxford
University in England (1214-1294)
 Used to view small objects
 Most magnifying glasses use double convex lenses to
allow light rays to bend toward the center of the lens
 Magnification of a magnifying glass – Determined
by its distance from the object being viewed
Microscope
 Invented by Hans Janssen & Zacharias Janssen (1585-
1632)
 Allows you to see enlarged images of very small
objects
  Uses convex lenses  Instrument that measures temperature
 Compound microscope – Most common type of  Temperature – The measure of hotness or coldness
microscope/ Uses convex lenses with short focal of a substance or object
lengths/Has 1000x magnification  Laboratory thermometer – used for science
experiments/Partially filled by either mercury or
Concave lens
alcohol (ethanol)
 Lens that is thinner at the center  Mercury – has no longer been in use since it has
been found to be toxic
Convex lens
Platform balance
 Lens that is thicker at the center
 Tool used for measuring mass
MEASURING TOOLS
 An equal-arm balance in which two flat platforms
 Meterstick are attached to the top side of the beam, one at each
 Ruler end
 Laboratory glassware Platform Scale
 Thermometer
 Platform Balance  Used to weigh people or very heavy objects
 Triple-Beam balance  Consists of a platform or solid base with a series of
 Spring balance levers and balances that are used together to
compute the total mass of an object or person
Meterstick & Ruler
Triple-Beam Balance
 Tools used for measuring the lengths or widths of
objects/distance  Used to measure mass
 Can be made of wood, metal, or plastic  Comprised of two parts – the base and the pan
 Base – long metal platform that supports the
Meterstick measuring tool
 Used to measure the length or width of objects  Pan – metal platform that rests on top of the base
(classrooms or the school’s court)  First beam – Lightest/has a 10-gram scale and 0.1-
 One side of the meterstick: Gradations up to 100 gram rider
centimeters  Second beam – Heaviest and located in the
 Other side of the meterstick: Gradations up to 39 middle/has a 500-gram scale and a 100-gram rider
inches  Third beam – Located at the back/Has a 100-gram
scale and a 10-gram rider
Ruler  When all 3 riders are positioned fully to the right,
 Used to measure the length or width of objects their weights would up to 610 grams
(book or a chopping board) Spring balance
 Used to measure short distances
 One side of the ruler: Gradations up to 30  Tool used to measure the weight of an object
centimeters  Consists of a scale a hook from which the object to
 Other side of the ruler: Gradations up to 12 inches be weighed is hung
 Uses the measurement called newton (N)
Cubit  Crane scale – Suspended from a crane hook
 Length of the arm from the elbow to the tip of the  Fish scale – Used in homes
middle finger HEATING TOOLS
 Used by ancient Egyptians
 Alcohol lamp
Laboratory Glassware  Bunsen burner
 Most of these are made of borosilicate glass  Hot plate
 Borosilicate glass – Holds chemicals while being Alcohol lamp
heated over a flame/Contains acidic or corrosive
chemicals  Uses ethyl alcohol to produce a flame of low
 Objects that are made of glass temperature
 Used in scientific laboratories  Length of the flame can be controlled by adjusting
 Can break easily and should be handled carefully the length of the wick
 Beakers Bunsen burner
 Graduated cylinders
 Invented by Robert Bunsen
Thermometer  Uses either natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas
 A glass tube that is immersed in a liquid of unknown  Consists of a metal tube that is attached to a base
temperature with a gas inlet at the lower end of the tube
  The lower end may have a valve that can be turned
to adjust the amount of gas that goes into the tube
Hot plate
 Has a flat surface
 The temperature of the flat surface can be controlled
 Helps in determining the accurate melting or boiling
point of a substance
 Uses electricity and less harmful
Scientific Attitudes
Scientific attitudes
 Traits that are demonstrated by scientists in their
work
 Guides scientists in perfecting their inventions and
discoveries
 Concerns a person’s perception of his or her
surroundings
 Their take on what is true and logical, and their
moral values
Philosophers
 Philosophy came before science
 Loves wisdom
 Tried to explain how and why things happen the way
they do
 Relied on reasoning and knowledge
FOREIGN SCIENTISTS
 Albert Einstein
 Stephen Hawking
 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
 German-born theoretical scientist
 Published over 300 scientific studies (complex
theories in science)
 Had an overwhelming curiosity about the mysteries
of physics
 Used “thought experiments’ to solve physics
problems
 Named Person of the Century in 1999 by Time
Magazine
 Regarded as one of the most influential people in
history
Stephen Hawking (1942-2018)
 English theoretical physicist and cosmologist
 His studies explained that black holes are not
completely black but instead emit radiation
 He discovered that matter, in the form of radiation,
can escape the gravitational force of a collapsed star
 At 21 years old, he was diagnosed with amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis (motor neuron disease)
 He won Albert Einstein Award, Wolf prize, and
Prince of Asturias Award
 One of the greatest scientists of his time
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
 Prominent Dutch microbiologist who is known for
improving the microscope
 He made around 500 microscopes of supreme
magnification
 He was able to discover bacteria, sperm cells, and
red blood cells
 Father of Microbiology
LOCAL SCIENTISTS
 Paulo Campos
 Dolores Ramirez
 Lourdes Cruz
Paulo Campos (1921-2007)
 Father of Nuclear Medicine in the Philippines
 Established the country’s 1st medical research
laboratory at the College of Medicine of the
University of the Philippines in the 1960s
 Pioneered the construction of a radioisotope
laboratory in the country
 Discovered an effective way to combat goiter:
injecting patients with iodine oil (backed by the
World Health Organization)
 National Scientist in 1989 by the late former
President Corazon Aquino
Dolores Ramirez
 Biochemical geneticist (one who studies diagnoses,
and treats metabolic diseases) and a cytogeneticist
(one who studies the relationship between
chromosomes and cell behavior, and identifies
abnormalities in chromosomes)
 Known for her work on the chromosomal properties
of local crops (rice, coconut, banana, and sugarcane)
 Studied ornamental plants and fruits such as durian,
lanzones, and santol
 Her most important contribution: Investigation of
the genetics of the macapuno endosperm of
coconuts (good source of income for Filipinos)
 National Scientist in 1998
Lourdes Cruz
 Expertise in biochemistry (utilizes chemistry
concepts in studying biological processes)
 Published 100+ scientific journal articles including
investigation on predatory snails (has conotoxins)
 Conotoxins – Substances present in the venom of
cone snails
 Initiated the establishment of the Rural Livelihood
Incubator (provided economic, medical, and
educational programs for the Aeta community in
Morong, Bataan
 National Scientist in 2006
Properties of Mixtures
Matter – Pure substance or a mixture
Substance
 Made up of atoms and molecules
 Possesses specific properties
 Cannot be separated into components without
breaking chemical bonds
 Can be solid, liquid, gas, or plasma
 When there are changes in temperature/pressure,
they shift between different states of matter
 Called “pure” to set them apart from mixtures
 Elements
 Compounds
Element
 Made up of a particular type of atom
 It cannot be broken down or transformed by another
element
 Ex: carbon (only has 2 carbon atoms)
Compound
 The combining of elements that cause a chemical
reaction in which atoms are bonded together in
molecules
 Ex: water (composed of hydrogen, and oxygen)
 Ex: Salt (combination of sodium, and chlorine)
Mixtures
 Two or more substances are physically combined
 Mixtures are everywhere
 Components of the mixture retain their original
properties
 Mixtures combine with no definite proportions
 Components of a mixture can easily be separated
(filtration and Decantation)
 Filtration – process where solids are separated from
liquids or gasses
 Decantation – Process where mixtures are separated
by removing a liquid layer that is free of a precipitate
 Precipitate – substance that is separated from a
solution or suspension
 Homogenous
 Heterogenous
Homogenous mixture
 Made up of components that are equally distributed
and blended together throughout it
 Can be solids, liquids, or gasses
Heterogenous mixture
 Combination of substances that are not of uniform
size
 Can be separated into its parts
 Fruit salad, cereals, mixed nuts, oil and water, sand,
stones, shells, and smog
Classifications and Uses of Mixtures
Heterogenous mixture
 Made up of components that are identifiable
 Nonuniform mixture
Homogenous mixture
 Has the same appearance all throughout
 Uniform mixture
 They appear as 1 phase
 Phase – distinctive form of matter that has the same
chemical and physical properties
Alloy - Mixture of elements that have metallic properties
Classification of mixtures – Determined by the size of
components or particles that are combined
Suspension
 Heterogenous mixture
 Combining or stirring 2 or more substances
 It might appear as only 1 phase
Solution
 Homogenous mixture
 Solute – the substance that dissolves
 Solvent – The substance in which the solute is
dissolved
 Combination of solute and solvent is a physical
process
 Dissolving – process in which the solute, when
placed in a solvent, breaks to an atomic or molecular
level, and is no longer considered as an individual
entity
 Aqueous solution – any compound completely
dissolved in water
 Non-aqueous solution – the solvent is not water but
any mind of liquid such as oil or gas
 Concentrated solution – consists of large amounts of
solute
 Diluted solution – has large amounts of solvent
Colloid
 Falls between a solution and a suspension in terms
of properties
 Special type of mixture
 Appears as a single phase and usually milky or
opaque in appearance
 Has slightly bigger particles than solution
 Tyndall effect – ability of the particles of a colloid to
scatter light that shines on them
Disperse – To distribute or spread over an area
Dispersing medium – refers to the substance that spreads
particles
Uses of Mixtures
 Food
 Medicine and personal care
 Household materials
 Mixtures in nature
 Research and technology
Food
 Mixtures of different ingredients that are combined
to obtain not only a particular taste but also to meet
the nutritional needs of the body
 Breads and pastries (contain flour, yeast, and sugar)
 Viands – Mixtures of vegetables and seasonings
 Drinks – Combinations of fruit, water, sugar, and
flavors
 Mayonnaise – A combination of oil and raw egg
yolks/condiment
 Dairy products – provide the calcium requirements
of the body
Medicine and Personal Care Products
 Used as medicines that help people maintain their
health
 Daily supplements – composed of substances that
help you meet your nutritional requirements and
improve your resistance to diseases
 Colloids – very useful means of storing and
delivering a substance onto a target surface
(sunscreen lotion)
Household Materials
 Hygiene products – shampoo, toothpaste, and soap
(compounds mixed with fragrances and oils)
 Clothes – textiles combined with paint and other
decorative materials
 Gadgets/appliances – Made of alloys and plastic
 Furniture – Cabinets, tables, and sofa set
(combination of wood, fabrics, and metals
 Crude oil – the crude oil drawn from oil wells often
emulsified with water
Mixtures in nature
 Tap water – mixture of pure water and minerals
 Air – made up of different gasses
 Soil – mixture of rocks, minerals, and decomposing
materials
Smoke – mixture of particles that are suspended in air
Smog – a type of air pollution that is caused by burning coal,
and vehicular emissions
Research and Technology
 Colloids – used in many research and technological
innovations
 Gels – are used to culture microorganisms
 Agar-agar – commonly used to make such gels
because it can stand high temperatures
 Clouds – are sprayed with charged colloidal particles
to make the water combine and form large water
droplets
 Electronic paper/E-paper – is a thin and bendable
display that mimics the appearance of ordinary ink
on paper/ makes it easy for people to read text and
allow for a wider viewing angle
Techniques of Separating Mixtures
Separating Techniques
 Manual separation
 Using a magnet
 Using a sieve
 Filtration
 Decantation
 Chromatography
 Using heat (evaporation, distillation, and
crystallization)
Manual Separation
 Involves the use of your hands to separate the
components
 Only applicable for dry mixtures with components of
sizes perceivable by the naked eye/Mixtures
consisting of liquid and distinguishable sloid
components
 Example: Sand and pebbles/Mixed Nuts
Using a Magnet
 Can separate components with metallic properties
 Used for mixtures that have metallic substances
mixed with nonmetallic substances
 Iron – A magnetic substance and is attracted by
magnets
 Examples: Table sugar and iron fillings
Using a Sieve/Sieving
 Used to separate components of a mixture
 Sieve – A utensil made of wire or plastic mesh held in
a metal frame/Used to separate particles of different
sizes
 Strainer – A special kind of sieve used to separate
solids from liquids
 Example: Soybeans and flour
Filtration
 Uses a filter to separate the components of a
mixture
 Used to separate insoluble solid from a liquid
 You can make your own filter by cutting the to part
of the plastic bottle/Rolling a piece of filter paper
(cone shape)
 Filter – a device with tiny openings through which a
liquid or gas is passe to remove solid particles
 Residue – insoluble liquid/Left on the filter paper
 Filtrate – collected from the container (liquid)
Insoluble substance – one that does not dissolve (sand is
insoluble in water)
Decantation
 A method of removing rust, dirt, sand, and other
particles from liquid
 Example: Gravel and water
Chromatography
 Technique that involves passing a mixture in a
solution or suspension through a material that
absorbs the components differently
  Capillary action - The adhesion of water to the filter
paper
 Has applications in forensic science and pollution
monitoring, and is widely used in studying complex
mixtures (food, perfumes, and medicine)
 Example: Food dyes
Forensic Science – the application of science to criminal
investigations and involves the collection, preservation, and
analysis of pieces of evidence
Using Heat
 Evaporation – The solution is heated until all the
water evaporates and only the dissolved substance is
left (making salt)
 Crystallization – A solution is heated until it is
saturated and is then left to crystallize (salt crystals)
 Saturated solution – Contains more of the dissolved
material than can be dissolved by the solvent
 Distillation – The mixture is heated to reach the
boiling point of one component and that component
evaporates and is collected
Applications of Separating Mixtures
Natural Separation Methods
 Help separate minerals from their sources
 Wetland – An ecosystem filled with water and
aquatic plants/ It acts as a natural filter which
removes solid particles from water
 Soil – Can also filter water naturally by trapping
particles as water goes down through the soil layers
 Bacteria and soil microorganisms – Further purify
water naturally by breaking down its nutrients and
contaminants
Domestic and Industrial Separation Methods
 Water – needs to be purified not only for human
consumption, but for industrial uses as well
 Industries – need water to produce food, medicines,
utilities, and other human needs
 Filtration and distillation, natural processes, and
chemical addition of compounds – Can remove
hazardous particles from water
Household equipment used to separate mixtures
 Coffee makers – the paper filter collects the coffee
grounds and allows the coffee solution to pass
 Air purifier – remove contaminants from the air
(dust/mites)
Metal Industry
 Centrifuge and magnetic separators – Used in
research and industries
 Centrifuge – spins at a very high speeds to allow the
heavy particles in suspensions to settle very quickly
 Magnetic separators – used in factories
 Iron – extracted from its ore by heating it to a high
temperature
 Electricity - used to extract metals such as aluminum
Mercury
 Can be combined with hot-grained gold to separate
gold from sand and rocks
 Toxic substance and has negative effects to health
 The government has banned the use of mercury
 Borax – considers a safer substitute for mercury
 Causes shortness of breath, vomiting, vision
problems/Also causes problems to the nervous,
digestive, and immune systems/Also affects the brain
development of fetuses, infants, and children
Musculoskeletal System
Musculoskeletal System
 Organ system that allows the body to move using the
muscular and skeletal systems
 It provides the form, support, and stability of the
body
 It is composed of joints, bones, muscles, tendons,
ligaments, and cartilages
Bone
 A living organ
 Made mostly of collagen
 Collagen – a protein that provides its soft framework
 Mineral calcium phosphate – gives strength and
hardness to this framework
 Makes up the skeletal system of the body
 At birth, we have over 300 bones but since as we get
older, our bones fuse together, we are left with 206
bones in our body
 Nobody really knows the exact number of bones in
the body
 Light in weight, yet strong and hard
 Have a complex structure and comes in various
shapes and sizes
 Largest bone – thigh bone/femur
 Smallest bone – stirrup in the middle ear
 Classified according to type of tissue: the cortical
bone and the cancellous bone
Cortical bone
 Also called the compact bone
 It is the hard exterior that is strong and dense
 It provides structural support to the body and
protects internal organs
 It also supports movement and releases calcium and
other elements
 Most of the body’s calcium is stored in the bones
and teeth
Cancellous bone
 Also called spongy bone
 Makes up the inner layer of the bone
 It contains the bone marrow
 Bone marrow – where blood cells are produced
5 types of bones
 Flat –protect the internal organs (skulls/ribs/pelvis)
 Long – provide strength, structure, and mobility
(humerus/radius/ulna)
 Short – provide stability, and movement
(carpals/tarsals)
 Irregular – have complex shapes that allow them to
protect delicate internal organs
 Sesamoid – small, round bones that are found in the
tendons of the body/protect the tendons from wear
and tear (patella/kneecap)
Vertebrae – the bones in the spinal column which protects
the spinal cord
Spinal cord – a thick cord of nerves that connects all the
nerves in the body
Tendons – strong tissues that connects muscles to the bones
to allow movement
Cell – basic structural and functional unit of all living things
Tissue – a group of similar cells that work in a coordinated
manner to perform a specific function
Organ – a group of tissues that serve a common function
Joints
 Also known as articular surface
 It is the connection between bones in the body
 The connections form a wholly functioning skeletal
system
 Allow different kinds and degrees of bodily
movements with the help of muscles and bones
 Without the joints, movements will not be possible
 They are classified according to the degree of their
movement: fibrous/immovable joint,
cartilaginous/partially movable joint, and
synovial/freely moveable joint
Fibrous/immovable joint
 A fixed type of joint
 It cannot move
 Joined by collagen-rich connective tissue of varying
thickness
 Skull – where the bones are connected by fibrous
joints called sutures
 Sutures – wide enough for slight movement at birth
Cartilaginous or partially moveable joint
 Cannot move much
 The bones are connected by cartilage
 Cartilage – a soft but flexible and firm tissue that
serves as padding/cover and protect the ends of long
bones at the joints/important component of many
parts of the body
Synovial or freely moveable joint
 Can perform a wide range of movements
 Synovial fluid – fills up the space between the
adjoining bones/ a transparent lubricating fluid that
reduces friction between the bones, thus allowing
greater movement
Muscles
 Movement will not be possible without this
 Specialized tissues that have the ability to contract
and effect movement
 Has 3 types of muscles: skeletal muscles, smooth
muscles, and cardiac muscles – they work together
to permit body movement, maintain posture, and
facilitate body functions, and circulate blood
throughout the body
 Examples: triceps and biceps
 Triceps – large muscles under the back or the back of
the upper arm
 Biceps – large muscles located at the front of the
upper arm
Skeletal muscles
 Move bones and other structures in the body
 Attached to the bones by tendons and are bound by
connective tissues
 Are also called voluntary muscles because they can
be controlled at will
Smooth muscles
 Found in the walls of hollow organs and allow organs
to expand or relax as needed
 Called involuntary muscles because they are
controlled by the automatic nervous system
 Automatic nervous system – regulates bodily
functions such as heart rate and digestion
Cardiac muscles
 Also called heart muscle or myocardium
 Muscle that makes up the main tissue of the walls of
the heart
 Specialized muscle that continuously and repeatedly
contracts, pumping all the blood in the body
 Lies between the epicardium and pericardium
 Heart – a simple organ/ has 3 layers: epicardium
(outer layer), pericardium (inner layer), and
endocardium (innermost layer)
 Epicardium – surrounds the cardiac muscle and
separates the heart from the other organs
 Pericardium – lubricates the heart
 Endocardium – separates the muscle from the blood
that it pumps
Voluntary muscles – can be controlled
Involuntary muscles – cannot be controlled
Care for the musculoskeletal system
 Exercising
 Getting the right food and nutrition
 Getting enough sleep