Investigate and Experiment

What Is
Science?

Lava flows from Science is a way of understanding the world

an active volcano.
around us. The work of scientists often begins
when scientists ask questions about something
they observe. Asking and answering questions
is the basis of inquiry.
In this section, you will see how scientists
use inquiry skills, visual literacy, reading skills,
technology and information literacy, math skills,
and writing skills as they study volcanoes.

2
 Observation >
Investigation and Inquiry Skills
Experimentation These are the inquiry
skills scientists use. You The diagram on this page shows what is usually
7. Scientific progress is made by asking can use these skills, too.
meaningful questions and conducting
called the “scientific method.” Scientists don’t
careful investigations. As a basis Observe always follow all these steps in the same order,
for understanding this concept and
addressing the content in the other
Infer but they often start with an observation about
three strands, students should develop Classify the world around us.
their own questions and perform
investigations. Students will:
Measure You, too, are constantly making observations
Use numbers every moment you are awake. You might look
a. Develop a hypothesis.
Communicate out the window to see if it is raining. You might
b. Select and use appropriate tools and
technology (including calculators, Predict listen for the sound of thunder to find out if a
computers, balances, spring scales, Record Data storm is coming.
microscopes, and binoculars) to
perform tests, collect data, and Analyze Data
display data. Form a Hypothesis
c. Construct appropriate graphs Use Variables
from data and develop qualitative
statements about the relationships
Experiment
between variables. Make a Model
d. Communicate the steps and results
from an investigation in written
reports and oral presentations.

e. Recognize whether evidence

is consistent with a proposed
explanation.

f. Read a topographic map and a

geologic map for evidence provided
on the maps and construct and
interpret a simple scale map.

g. Interpret events by sequence and time

from natural phenomena (e.g., the
relative ages of rocks and intrusions).

h. Identify changes in natural

phenomena over time without
manipulating the phenomena (e.g., a
tree limb, a grove of trees, a stream, a
hillslope).

3 4
 Question and Hypothesis >
Inquiry Skills
When you make
observations, you use
these skills.
Observe Use your
senses to learn about an
object or event.
Classify Place things
that share properties
together in groups.
Measure Find the size,
distance, time, volume,
area, mass, weight, or
Scientists are curious people who observe the world around temperature of an object
them and try to understand it. To observe means to use your or an event.
senses to learn about something. Scientists ask questions
about the things they observe. You can too. When you ask
questions about the things you see, smell, hear, taste, or feel,
you are a scientist.
This photograph shows the town of St. Pierre on the
island of Martinique. It sits at the base of Mt. Pelée, an active
volcano. Why do you think scientists might want to closely T he work of scientists often starts with an
observe this volcano? unanswered question. If scientists cannot find an
answer to a question, they go one step further.
They propose a possible answer that can be
tested experimentally. This is known as forming a
hypothesis. A good hypothesis must
▸ be based on what you observe.
▸ be testable by performing an experiment.
▸ be useful in predicting new findings.
Scientists who study volcanoes are called
volcanologists. This volcanologist is examining
lava as it flows into the ocean. What do you think
happens to lava when it flows into ocean water?
Form a hypothesis to answer this question.
5 6
 Inquiry Skills
When you ask questions
and form hypotheses,
A scientific hypothesis must be testable. That means you use these skills.
you must be able to support or disprove your hypothesis by Infer Form an
experimenting. When you experiment you do a hands-on idea from facts or
activity to test an idea. observations.
Scientists often do research before they experiment. Form a hypothesis
They look in books, scientific journals, or Internet resources Make a statement that
for information that other scientists have already learned. can be tested to answer
a question.
Scientists also know that they cannot rely on someone’s
opinion or claim unless it has been backed up by
observations.

Scientists test a hypothesis by doing experiments.

Although scientists don’t always wear lab coats or
even work in a laboratory, every good experiment
must
▸ change only one variable at a time.
▸ be able to be repeated.
Why are these two rules important? First,
scientists must be able to check each other’s work
for accuracy. Second, if you use more than one
variable in an experiment, it may be difficult to
identify the variable that was responsible for the
results. For example, scientists might measure
the temperature of lava at different locations on a
volcano. What would happen if they changed both
the depth and the location at which they measured
the temperature?
7 8
Experiment >
Inquiry Skills
When you experiment,
you use these skills.
Experiment Perform
a test to support or
disprove a hypothesis.
Use variables Identify
things in an experiment
that can be changed or
controlled.
Before you test a hypothesis, you must have a plan. When
scientists make a plan, they think about the variables they Predict State possible
results of an event or
want to test. A variable is something that can be changed
experiment.
or controlled. It is important to change or control only one
variable at a time. Keep all other parts of the experiment the Make a model Make
something to represent
same. That way you will know that a single variable caused
an object or event.
your results.
After they determine their variables, scientists decide
what materials they will need. Then they write a procedure. A
procedure is a series of numbered steps that tell what to do
and the order in which to do them.
After scientists have developed their procedure, they
predict what will happen when they follow it. To predict
means to tell what you think will happen. In an experiment a scientist tries to observe
carefully and collect good data. Once the data have
been gathered, it is time to interpret it. Collecting
and interpreting data often requires working with
numbers.
These volcanologists are taking samples of gases
escaping from vents on the side of a volcano. They
are careful to wear protective clothing and gas
masks. Why do you think it is important to know
what gases are produced by a volcano?

9 10
 Collecting Data >
Inquiry Skills
When you collect and
When scientists follow their procedure, they make interpret data, you use
these skills.
observations and record data. Data is information.
Measurements are a type of data. Scientists use Use numbers Order,
measurements whenever they can to describe objects and
count, add, subtract,
multiply, and divide to
events. Scientists measure such things as length, volume,
explain data.
mass, temperature, and time. They use special tools, such
Measure Find the size,
as rulers, thermometers, scales, balances, and binoculars to
distance, time, volume,
make sure that their observations and measurements are
area, mass, weight, or
accurate. temperature of an object
Scientists repeat their procedure several times. This helps or an event.
them know if their results are correct. They often compare Record data
their results with other scientists. Other scientists will repeat Accurately arrange
the procedure to see if they get the same results. and store information
collected in science
investigations.
Analyze data Use the
information that has After interpreting the data, it is time to draw
been gathered to answer
questions or solve a a conclusion. A conclusion is a statement about
problem. whether or not the hypothesis is valid based on the
data collected. Sometimes the data do not support
the hypothesis. Perhaps different experiments
and observations are needed. A new question may
result.
Scientists also tell other scientists, as well as
members of the public, about what they have
learned. For example, the United States Geological
Survey (USGS) operates five volcano observatories.
They observe activity leading to eruption, provide
emergency information about future and ongoing
eruptions, identify hazardous areas around active
and potentially active volcanoes, and improve
public understanding of how volcanoes erupt and
change the enviorment.
11 12
 Conclusion
Forming a Hypothesis
Inquiry Skills
When you draw
Scientists organize and analyze their data to see if the results conclusions and Pico de Orizaba,
support or disprove their hypothesis. They determine if their S cience often starts with unanswered questions,
communicate results, Mexico
and you can too. In one class, a group of students
prediction matched their results. They draw conclusions and you use this skill.
wondered if there was a pattern in the location of
try to explain their results. When you draw conclusions you Communicate Share volcanoes around the world. This formed the basis for
interpret observations to answer questions. information. their question.
You communicate when you tell others what you have
learned. Much of the communication done by scientists is Question
done by writing. Scientists often write about their findings Are volcanoes more common in certain places than in
and publish them in books and science magazines. Scientists others?
do several things when they publish their findings. They tell The students turned their question into a hypothesis.
other scientists what they are doing. By making their findings A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested to Mount Fuji, Japan

public, other scientists can also benefit when they work. When answer a question. A hypothesis can be formed as an
scientists communicate the results of their experiments, they “If... then...” statement.
also make their results available for others to check. As you can
see, scientists rarely, if ever, work alone.
Hypothesis
If volcanoes most often occur in certain places, then
Sometimes the results of an experiment lead to new an analysis of volcano locations will show a pattern.
questions. These questions can be used to form a new
hypothesis and perform new experiements. This way of working Lassen Peak,
California
is called the scientific method.
Mount Erebus,
Antarctica

Karymsky Volcano
Kamchatka, Russia

13 14 6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis.

 Testing a Hypothesis
The World’s Volcanos
Longitude
Volcano Latitude
44oE
1 39o N T he students decided to test their hypothesis by plotting on a map places where
30oW volcanoes have erupted so that they could identify patterns.
2 38o N
24oW
3 16o N
78oW
Procedure
4 0.4oS
1. On a small outline map, mark the locations where volcanoes are found. Use the table of
52oW
5 35o N volcano locations on page 15.
103oE
6 4oS
15oE 2. Observe Are most volcanoes located near the edges or near the centers of continents?
7 37o N
90oW
8 0.3oS
19oW
9 64o N
155oW
10 58o N
105oE
11 6oS
121oW
12 40o N
155oW
13 19o N
71oW
14 16oS
122oW
15 46o N
140oE
16 42o N
73oW
17 40oS
102oW
18 19o N
61oW
19 15o N
14oE
20 40o N

Mount Shasta,
California

6 IE 7.f. Read a topographic map and a geologic map for evidence

15 16 provided on the maps and construct and interpret a simple scale map.
Evaluating Evidence Asking New Questions

Sometimes the result of an investigation can lead to new questions. After analyzing the
data and communicating their results to the rest of the class, the students had another
question they wondered about.

Question
Is there a relationship between the locations of active volcanoes and the location of
earthquakes?

Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis for this question. What data do you need to answer this question?
Discuss the question with your classmates. Work together to develop a plan to test your
hypothesis.

T he students used this map to evaluate whether the results were

consistent with their hypothesis.

Analyze Data
Does the map show a pattern in the arrangement of volcanoes?

Draw Conclusions
Are Earth’s volcanoes grouped in certain areas?

6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation. 6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an investigation
17 18 in written reports and oral presentations.
 CHAPTER 1
Chapter 1 Chapter 2

Earth’s
Ecosystems

About 8,000 waves How do organisms exchange energy

strike the Big Sur and nutrients in an ecosystem?
coastline every day.

20
 Lesson 1 Literature
Introduction to POEM

Earth’s Ecosystems
ELA R 6.3.6.
Identify and
analyze features of
PAGE 24 themes conveyed through
characters, actions, and
images. • ELA W 6.2.4.
Lesson 2 Write responses to
literature.
Photosynthesis:
The Basic Process
of Life
PAGE 40
Lesson 3
Microscopic Organisms
on Earth

PAGE 54
Lesson 4
Earth’s Food Chains,
Webs, and Pyramids

PAGE 66
Lesson 5
Earth’s Cycles for Life

PAGE 80
6 LS 5. Organisms in ecosystems exchange energy and
nutrients among themselves and with the environment.

21 22
 from MY AMERICA
ed. Lee Bennet Hopkins
Lesson 1

Introduction
by Natasha Wing
to Earth’s
Redwood trees rise like skyscrapers
Fingering the clouds in search of moisture Ecosystems
Pulling down the fog and passing it
From limb to limb
Into the deep of the forest.
The fog blankets the forest
Blocking out light, movement, and sound
Like a curtain
Draped across a stage.
Yet behind the redwood curtain
Black bear walk and stalk their prey
Deer sleep and leap away
Slugs climb and slime on leaves
Birds sing and wing in the breeze.
The show must go on
As it has for thousands of years
Behind the redwood curtain.

Write About It
Response to Literature In this
poem the author describes a forest.
What is life like in this forest? What
plants and animals live there? Write an
California is home to one of the most diverse
essay explaining the main idea of the
poem. Use details from the poem to
collections of living things in the world. Why
show how the author makes her point. do you think this is so?

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com
6 LS 5.e. Students know the number and types of organisms an ecosystem
can support depends on the resources available and on abiotic factors, such
23 24 as quantities of light and water, a range of temperatures, and soil composition.
ENGAGE
 What Is an Ecosystem?
▶ Main Idea 6 LS 5.e
A system is a group of things that work
together as a unified whole. There are systems all
Materials The number and types of
Do different ecosystems contain organisms in an ecosystem around you. Our bodies contain organ systems
different organisms? depend on the resources for breathing and for digesting food. Schools are
available. organized into school systems. Planets are part
Form a Hypothesis of our solar system. Each system is made up of
▶ Vocabulary parts that interact with one another closely.
Why do certain plants and animals live in certain
places? How does the amount of sunlight affect ecosystem, p. 26
biotic factor, p. 27
The living things in an area also work
different organisms? Write your answer as a
hypothesis in the form “If a plant needs lots of abiotic factor, p. 27
together in systems. They all depend on the same
sunlight, then . . .” humus, p. 32
resources and are affected by changes that occur
• trowel or spade
topsoil, p. 32
around them. For example, a major change in
Test Your Hypothesis • 4 small stakes a nonliving part of an ecosystem, such as an
minerals, p. 32
• meterstick extreme drought, can affect all the organisms
Experiment With your teacher select two acidity, p. 33
areas on or near your school grounds to study. • string alkalinity, p. 33
in an ecosystem.
Choose one area that receives plenty of sunlight • thermometer ecology, p. 34 Living things are part of an ecosystem.
and another that receives very little. Mark off
• field guides population, p. 34 An ecosystem consists of the living and nonliving
a 2-by-2-meter plot in each area with stakes
and string. • graph paper
community, p. 35 things in an area that interact with one another.
habitat, p. 36
Measure Measure the air temperature at • safety goggles
niche, p. 36
ground level and at 1 meter above ground
Step
level in each area. An Ecosystem
Record Data Using graph paper record the
-Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com
locations of the living things in each area. What
kinds of organisms do you see? Use field guides ▶ Reading Skill
to help you identify the organisms.
Main Idea
Draw Conclusions ;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa
Compare your observations about the two areas.
How do the temperatures differ? Which area
contains more living things? What statement
can you make about the effect of sunlight on
an ecosystem? Explore ecosystems
Step with a park ranger.
Explore More
How do you think the amount of water in an
ecosystem affects living things? Make a prediction
about this, and design a procedure to test it. How
have people affected the ecosystem?

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether

evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.

25 26
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
Ecosystems
Any living thing that is part of an
ecosystem is a biotic factor . This term
includes the root bio, which means
“living.” Living things include tiny
organisms, such as bacteria, as well as
the plants and animals people can see.
Any nonliving part of the ecosystem,
such as water, minerals, sunlight, air,
or soil, is an abiotic factor . This term
includes the prefix a-, which means
“not” or “without.”
How can you identify the abiotic
factors in an ecosystem? Abiotic factors
are the parts of the ecosystem that
help make life possible. For example,
sunlight provides warmth and energy.
Rocks provide shelter and, in time,
form soil. Water is so important to
living things that it is what scientists
Reading Diagrams
How would the abiotic factors shown here
affect the organisms that live in the pond?
Clue: What are the nonliving things in the
picture?
look for first when searching for
signs of life on other planets. Other
abiotic factors include air, climate, and
altitude. All these factors influence the
number and types of organisms that
can live in an ecosystem.
Identifying the living things in an
ecosystem might seem to be easy. At the
beach you might see birds, fish, seals,
and seaweed. In contrast, think about
microscopic organisms inside your
mouth. The warm, moist environment
there supports millions of bacteria.
Quick Check
Main Idea What are five abiotic
factors in an ecosystem?
Critical Thinking How do biotic
and abiotic factors differ?
27
EXPLAIN
Why are sunlight and
temperature important?
The amount of sunlight a
location receives directly affects
the temperature in that location.
Temperature, in turn, affects the
number and types of animals and
plants that can survive in a location.
Sunlight
Areas of Earth that receive greater
amounts of sunlight have higher
temperatures than other areas. The
equator is the part of Earth that
receives the most direct sunlight. Areas
around the equator that are not at
extremely high elevations are generally
known for their lush vegetation and
great diversity of living things.
28
EXPLAIN
The parts of Earth that receive the
least direct sunlight are the North
and South poles. Areas near the poles
have sparse or no vegetation and
fewer kinds of living things. For most
organisms, especially plants, sunlight
is an important abiotic factor.
Temperature
Temperature change is another
factor that affects living things.
In some regions the temperature
changes very little.
◀ Parrots thrive in warm
climates, such as the
Amazon rain forest.
 In tropical rain forests, for example,
the temperature stays around 80°F
(27°C) almost all the time. Many
animals and plants thrive in places
where the temperature does not change
much in a single day.
In other places, the temperature
may vary from day to night and
from season to season. In deserts the
temperature can vary from about 32°F
(0°C) to more than 100°F (38°C) in a
single day. The plants and animals in
a desert must be able to survive these
wide variations in temperature.
Changes in the seasons have similar
effects. Most organisms survive better
in warm, mild summers than in
cold, icy winters. In places where the
temperature changes a great deal with
▼ These penguins are adapted
to the temperatures in their
Antarctic surroundings.
the seasons, some organisms migrate,
or travel to a different place. Others
become dormant, or less active, or
have other adaptations that enable
them to survive.
Quick Check
Main Idea How does temperature
affect organisms in rain forests?
Critical Thinking How does the
amount of direct sunlight affect
the plant growth in an area?
29
EXPLAIN
Central Valley irrigation
Why is water important?
Without a steady supply of water, life would not exist on Earth.
Water helps living things in several ways. It keeps cells strong and healthy.
Cells are the basic units of life. Water dissolves and transports substances.
It also helps regulate the temperature of an organism.
Your Body’s Need for Water
Press your hands together, and they will seem
firm and solid. However, about 60% to 70% of
your body is made up of water. Some parts of your
body have an even greater percentage of water.
It is no wonder that water is so important to
your survival.
Water is the body’s main transportation
vehicle. Many substances dissolve in water.
This property of water is what makes it so
vital to life. Water carries nutrients, oxygen,
and other substances to various parts of your body.
Water also carries waste materials out of your body.
Water helps regulate your body’s temperature. It cools
your skin, making you feel cooler all over. It also helps
carry excess heat away from your cells.
30
EXPLAIN
Plants’ Need for Water
Plants, too, are made up mostly of
water. Some parts of a plant, such as
the leaves and stems, may be as much as
90% water. Water transports minerals
and nutrients throughout the plant.
Water keeps plant cells rigid. You
have probably seen what happens when
a plant does not receive enough water.
The leaves and stems become weak,
and the plant wilts.
Plants need water to grow. For this
reason, the amount of water in an
area affects the number and types of
plants that live there. Areas with little
rainfall, such as deserts, have fewer
plants. The plants that do grow there
have special adaptations that allow
them to conserve water.
Plants that grow in areas that receive
little rain have adapted to the dry
conditions. For example, the shape of
the barrel cactus enables it to expand
when rain falls and to shrink during
dry times. When it expands, this cactus
stores water in its spongy tissues.
Animals have adaptations for drought
and heat, too. The kit fox has large ears
with dense networks of veins. These
veins help the fox’s body shed heat.
One way that humans adapt to
dry conditions is to use irrigation. In
places where not enough rain falls to
grow crops, farmers water their fields.
Water taken from the Colorado River,
for example, irrigates almost 1 million
acres of land in Southern California.
This water helps crops such as lemons,
grapes, oranges, lettuce, and tomatoes
grow on land that would otherwise be
too dry for farming.
▲ barrel cactus, Anza-Borrego Desert
State Park, California
Quick Check
Main Idea Why do plants need
water?
Critical Thinking Why is water
good for transporting substances
in plants and animals?
31
EXPLAIN
Why is soil important? Soil is made up of weathered rock
Soil supplies the water, air, and and humus (HYEW•muhs). As rock
nutrients that plants need in order to weathers it breaks down slowly into tiny
grow. By supporting the growth of pieces. Humus is the material in soil
plants, soil helps living things survive. formed by the breakdown of plant and
Conservation of soil is important. animal remains. It mixes with the bits
We can put plants on hillsides so the of rock and adds nutrients to the soil.
soil will not erode. Farmers conserve The substances in soil affect the types
soil by rotating their crops and letting of organisms that can live in it. Some
fields lie fallow, or unplanted, every compounds known as acids can harm
few seasons. living things if they are present in high
Soil Layers
Topsoil is the upper layer
of soil, which is made
mostly of humus, minerals,
water, and air. The humus in
topsoil is spongy and holds
water very well. This makes
topsoil an ideal material for
plants to live in.
The layer below the topsoil is called
the subsoil. Some humus can be
found near the top of this layer. As
water seeps through the topsoil into
the subsoil, it brings particles of
minerals and clay with it.
Below the subsoil is partly weathered
parent rock. The parent rock is the
rock from which the soil is formed.
Minerals are the There is no humus at this depth.
naturally occurring
solid materials of
Earth’s crust. They
include clay, sand,
and silt. Below this layer is solid rock, or bedrock.
32
EXPLAIN
concentrations. Acidity is the amount
of acid in a substance. Other compounds,
known as alkalis (AL•kuh•lighz), or bases,
may also be present in soil. Alkalinity
(al•kuh•LIN•uh•tee) is the amount of base
in a substance.
The acidity or alkalinity of soil is
measured on a scale known as the pH
scale. The lower the pH, the more acidic
the soil is. The higher the pH, the more
basic or alkaline the soil is. The pH of
the soil in an area helps determine which
plants will grow there. If the pH of the
soil changes greatly, the plants there may
not be able to survive.
Quick Check
Main Idea Why is soil important?
Critical Thinking Why should
people test soil before growing
crops in it?
Testing Soil pH
Put three different soil samples
in separate cups.
Using the soil-test kits provided
by your teacher, test the pH of
each sample. Record the pH
of each.
Predict What do you think would
happen if you added an antacid
to the soil samples? Design an
experiment to test your prediction.
What lives in an ecosystem?
All the abiotic factors in an area,
including temperature ranges, sunlight,
water, and soil type, influence what
living things are found there. Every
organism in the ecosystem plays an
important role. The study of organisms
and how they interact in an ecosystem
is ecology (ee•KAHL•uh•jee). Scientists
who study this subject include ecologists,
zoologists, biologists, foresters, geologists,
and geographers.
In an ecosystem, all the organisms
of one species make up a population .
The millions of bacteria living in your
mouth make up a population. The
thousands of elephant seals living in
the waters off California are another
population. At one time, people hunted
elephant seals for their oil until only
about 100 remained. Today, there are
many elephant seals along California’s
coast. California sea lions are social
animals. The females recognize their
pups by their sounds and their smells.
Ecologists study populations,
looking at the role each population
plays in the ecosystem. They might
observe behaviors such as breeding
and feeding. Members of a population,
or species, breed with one another and
produce offspring. They also compete
for resources such as food, water, and
shelter. Almost all populations are
influenced by the human population.
California sea lions

The pH Scale

antacid household drain

(pH 10) ammonia cleaner
distilled water (pH 11) (pH 13)
(pH 7)

milk
(pH 6)
Q
tomato P OaW
(pH 4) ]`S
[
lemon b `OZ
(pH 2) \Sc
Q WRWQ
`SO
[] 33 34
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 Populations interact with other
Tide-Pool Community
plants and animals in their ecosystem.
Different species can compete with
each other and may even try to eat
each other. They can also help each
other.
Populations and Communities
All the populations living in an area
make up a community . To understand
this think about an orchestra. All the
violins in the orchestra would make
up one population, the cellos another,
the clarinets another, and the trumpets
another. Each group of instruments
represents a population, and each
group makes a unique contribution
to the community, or the orchestra.
Communities are often named after
the locations in which they are found.
Cactuses, sagebrush, kangaroo rats,
and jackrabbits are part of a desert
community. Frogs, minnows, cattails,
and dragonflies live in a pond
community. Each community includes
a group of populations that can survive
in the conditions found there.
Tide-pool communities are found
where the ocean meets the land.
Organisms must be able to withstand
the changing tides and the motion of
the waves.
Quick Check
Main Idea What is ecology?
Critical Thinking What is the
difference between a community
and an ecosystem?
Reading Photos
What items in the photo
show that this is a tide-pool
community?
Clue: What kinds of organisms
and land features do you see?
35
EXPLAIN
What roles do
organisms have?
The success of an ecosystem
depends on its ability to sustain life.
For life to thrive, there must be plenty
of resources, such as food and water.
In addition, the interactions among
living things must be in balance. To
achieve this balance, each member
of a community has a role to play.
A habitat is the place in which
a population lives. Your home is a
habitat. It provides you with the shelter
and food you need to survive. All of
an organism’s needs must be met by
its habitat. If you have ever set up an
aquarium, you know that fish require
water, the proper temperature, food,
and oxygen. Some types of fish and
other aquatic organisms can share a
habitat. In natural ecosystems several
populations may share the same habitat.
The role of an organism in an
ecosystem is called a niche (nitch).
A niche includes everything the
Wetlands help control flooding, filter
pollutants from water supplies, and serve
as habitats for many organisms.
36
EXPLAIN
organism does and everything it
needs. Although organisms may share
habitats, they may not occupy the same
niche. Suppose everyone in your town
had the same job and tried to eat at
the same time in the same place. The
competition would become fierce.
Towns, and ecosystems, are successful
because individuals and groups make
different contributions.
Some populations occupy niches
of such importance that many other
organisms depend on them. These
populations are called keystone
species. For example, beavers build
dams that flood the surrounding area,
creating valuable wetlands. These
wetlands are a rich habitat for a wide
variety of living things.
Quick Check
Main Idea What is a habitat?
Critical Thinking Why can
populations share a habitat
but not a niche?
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Ecosystems are
Main Idea What determines the number Compare
and types of organisms in an ecosystem? When scientists compare they look for
areas where living
things interact with Vocabulary In an ecosystem, all similarities among objects, materials, and data. As
each other and with organisms of one species make up scientists study a particular ecosystem over time,
nonliving things. a(n) . they can make comparisons. They can compare
(pp. 26–27) the way the ecosystem functions in the present
Main Idea What is the difference
between biotic and abiotic factors? with the way that it functioned in the past. With
Sunlight and
this information they can predict what the
temperature are
These hom
ecosystem might be like in the future.
es in Lagun
among abiotic factors ;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa were unaff a
ected by a Beach
that influence the living landslide.
conditions in an area. Learn It
(pp. 28–33) When scientists study an ecosystem, they examine
Critical Thinking If deserts had more every change they can. Scientists study changes
Populations include all
plant life, do you think that a greater because one small change in an ecosystem can affect
the organisms of one
variety of animals would live there? many biotic and abiotic factors.
species. Communities
include all populations Why or why not? Charts and Venn diagrams are tools used to compare.
living in an area. Test Practice Which of these is After you have collected and recorded data, you can see
(pp. 34–35) considered one of the layers of soil? at a glance whether the data, objects, or materials are
A alkalinity similar or not. Line graphs and bar graphs can also be
B acidity used to analyze changing conditions over time.
Make a C bedrock
Study Guide D humus Try It
Make a layered-
Test Practice Which of the following ▶ Scientists monitor how sudden events such as floods
look book (see pp. aged these
is an abiotic factor? and mudslides affect an ecosystem. In this activity
487–490). Use the A landslide dam Beach.
A plants you will compare a miniature landscape before and
titles shown. On homes in Laguna
B sunlight after a “flood.” You will need a dishpan, soil, rocks,
the inside of each
C animals small twigs, water, and a watering can.
fold, write two
sentences about D people ▶ Build a hill landscape of soil, rocks, and
the main idea of twig “trees” in a dishpan. Draw a picture of
the topic. your landscape on a chart like the one on
this page. Use the watering can to sprinkle
water gently on your hills. Record your
Writing Link Math Link observations.
Expository Writing Monitor Population Growth ▶ Hold the can high, and continue to let
Research an endangered species (plant A state park contains 200 deer. If the water fall down on the hills. Record
or animal) in or near the ecosystem in deer population doubles every year for your observations. Pour the rest of the
which you live. What biotic and abiotic 3 years, how many deer will live in the water quickly over the hills. Record your
factors have contributed to the decline park? Make a line graph to show how observations. Draw a picture of the way
of this species? the population changes over time. your landscape looks now.

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 37 38

EVALUATE EXTEND
 Lesson 2
Apply It
▶ Now use the information from your chart to create a Venn
diagram like the one on this page. Draw two overlapping
ovals. In one oval list the characteristics of your hill Photosynthesis:
ecosystem before the “flood.” In the other oval, list the
characteristics of your hill ecosystem after the “flood.” Write
the common characteristics in the area where the two ovals
overlap.
The Basic
Process of Life

▶ How did your hill ecosystem change?

▶ How did it stay the same?

▶ Next, choose an ecosystem near your school or home to

observe for a month. Note any changes in the ecosystem,
and make a chart or Venn diagram to compare its
characteristics at the beginning and at the end of the month.

Energy from the Sun helps a plant grow.

A hummingbird gets food and energy from
a plant. How does sunlight produce energy?

6 LS 5.a. Students know energy entering ecosystems as sunlight is

6 IE 7.h. Identify changes in natural phenomena over time without manipulating transferred by producers into chemical energy through photosynthesis
the phenomena (e.g., a tree limb, a grove of trees, a stream, a hillslope).
39 40 and then from organism to organism through food webs.
EXTEND ENGAGE
 Why is photosynthesis
▶ Main Idea 6 LS 5.a important?
Materials Energy enters ecosystems Every living thing needs energy to live and
How does light affect plants? as sunlight, which is used grow. Some organisms, such as animals, get their
by plants to make food. energy from eating plants. Where do the plants
Form a Hypothesis
Plants need light to grow. What do you think will ▶ Vocabulary get their energy from? Did you know that plants
happen to a plant’s leaves if you cover parts of them, chloroplast, p. 43
store energy from the Sun in their cells?
so that no light reaches those parts? Write your
chlorophyll, p. 43
answer as a hypothesis in the form “If parts of
a plant’s leaves do not receive any light, then . . .” photosynthesis, p. 43 Photosynthesis
roots, p. 44
stem, p. 45
Light
Test Your Hypothesis Water + Carbon dioxide → Sugar + Oxygen
transpiration, p. 48
Wrap small pieces of aluminum foil over parts of
several leaves. Wash your hands after handling respiration, p. 50
• growing plant
the plant.
(a large-leafed -Glossary
Use Variables Cover at least four different plant will work @ www.macmillanmh.com
leaves of the plant in the same way. best)

Place the plant in a window where it will get • aluminum foil ▶ Reading Skill
lots of light. Water the plant with a measured • paper clips Summarize
amount of water.
• water
Experiment After one day, carefully lift the
foil and check each leaf. Write down your Step
observations. Gently replace the foil in the same
Ac[[O`g
position. Continue your observations each day for
one week. Replace the foil in the same position
each time. How did the areas covered by the foil
differ from the other parts of the leaves?

Draw Conclusions
Interpret Data How did the changes you
observed progress after one day? After two Step
days? After a week? How do light and darkness
affect the growth of leaves?

Explore More
Remove the foil from the leaves. Water the plant with
the same amount of water you used in the previous
week, and observe it each day for another week.
What happens when the leaves remain uncovered?

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and

results from an investigation in written reports and oral presentations. Poppies use sunlight to make food.

41 42
EXPLORE EXPLAIN

coleus plant
Photosynthesis
Almost all organisms on Earth
depend on the Sun for energy. The
Sun’s energy is stored by plants as
food during the food-making process.
This activity goes on in plant cells that
have chloroplasts (KLOR•uh•plasts),
structures found in the cells of leaves
and stems of green plants. Chloroplasts
contain a substance called chlorophyll
(KLOR•uh•fil), a green substance in plants
that absorbs energy from sunlight.
When sunlight falls on a leaf, the
chlorophyll traps energy from the Sun.
Photosynthesis (foh•toh•SIN•thuh•sis)
is the process of making food by
using sunlight. Plants, and some other
organisms, take in carbon dioxide from
the air and water from the environment.
The plant or other organism then
changes these two raw materials into
two products. The products are sugar,
or food, and oxygen.
▶ chloroplast
seen through
a microscope
Inside the chloroplasts the energy
from the Sun is used to split the water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
The hydrogen and oxygen combine
with carbon atoms to produce food
in the form of sugars. Oxygen, which
is given off by the plant as a waste
product, enters the atmosphere.
Photosynthesis helps sustain life on
Earth. In addition to producing oxygen,
which animals breathe, plants also take
in carbon dioxide to make food. This
helps our environment, because plants
act as natural air scrubbers. They absorb
carbon dioxide that would otherwise
pollute the air. Then they turn it into
oxygen that other living things need.
Quick Check
Summarize Where do plants
store energy from the Sun?
Critical Thinking What is
photosynthesis?
43
EXPLAIN
What do roots and stems do?
When you think of photosynthesis, which part of the
plant do you think of first? Most people think of the leaves.
However, other plant structures play important roles in
photosynthesis as well.
Roots Parts of a Root
Most roots hold plants in the soil
and take in water and minerals to feed
the plants. There are two kinds of
Root Hairs Secondary
roots: taproots and fibrous roots. roots that are
Taproots are thick and straight with threadlike tissues on
a few root hairs along the sides. the surface of the root
through which water
If you have ever tried to pull a
and minerals enter
dandelion out of the ground, you
know that taproots grow very
deep and strong.
Fibrous roots do not grow as
Xylem Tissue
deep, but they branch out into through which
a network of thin, hairy roots. water and
minerals flow up
These roots can form thick mats.
through the plant
Plants such as marigolds and
grass have fibrous root systems.
Some plants, such as orchids, have Phloem Tissue
through which
aerial roots. Aerial roots do not anchor
food from the
the plant to the ground or absorb
leaves moves
minerals from the soil. Instead they down through
reach out above the ground for water the plant
and sunlight to nourish the plant. To
get the sunlight and water they need,
plants with these roots grow high in
Epidermis The
the branches of rain-forest trees.
outermost layer
Their green aerial roots are actually of the root
able to carry out photosynthesis.
Roots also store some of the food that
the plant produces. This is why edible
roots such as carrots, sweet potatoes, and Root Cap A thin covering,
sugar beets have such high nutritional made up of cells, that
value. When animals eat these roots, protects the root tip as
it grows into the soil
energy from the Sun passes along to them.
44
EXPLAIN
 Parts of a Stem
Soft Stem
cambium
xylem
phloem
Stems
Stems are the parts of a plant
that support leaves and flowers. The
stem also transports water and other
substances between the roots and
leaves. Why do you think plants need
to hold their leaves up to the Sun? They
need to do this so they can receive as
much sunlight as possible to carry out
photosynthesis.
Look at the diagram on this page.
Inside the stem are tubes called xylem
(ZIGH•luhm) and phloem (FLOH•uhm).
Xylem carries water and minerals up
from the roots through the plant to
the leaves. Phloem carries food from
the leaves to other parts of the plant.
Xylem and phloem may be separated
by another layer of cells called the
cambium.
Stems also help store energy. Like
roots some stems store energy in the
form of food. Sugarcane is an example
What are leaves?
Look at a leaf from a tree or (KYEW•ti•kuhl). This waxy covering
Woody Stem
a shrub. You might have difficulty helps prevent water from leaving the
accepting the fact that the leaf is such plant. The leaf makes food in cells
a powerful food-making machine. between the layers of the epidermis.
Inside the thin blade of the leaf are These cells contain chloroplasts. The
the structures that provide Earth with epidermis on the lower surface of a
food, oxygen, and clean air. Leaves leaf contains many tiny pores called
with only one blade are simple leaves. stomata (STOH•muh•tuh) (singular,
Leaves with two or more blades are stoma). Stomata open and close to
compound leaves. let gases, such as carbon dioxide and
oxygen, in and out. These openings
The parts of a leaf work together
also control the amount of water
to help keep the plant alive. The
that leaves the plant. Guard cells
Reading Diagrams
outermost part of a leaf is its epidermis
surrounding the stomata regulate
(ep•i•DUR•mis). Cells of the epidermis
when the stomata open and close.
How are the xylem, the phloem, and the secrete a waxy coating called a cuticle
cambium arranged differently in a woody
stem and in a soft stem?
Parts of a Leaf
Clue: Compare the drawings of the two
types of stems. How are they alike? How
are they different?
of an edible stem. Some plants, such as
asparagus, have photosynthetic cells in
their stems that can help make food.
Other plants use stems as a reservoir
for water. In what environment do you
think it is very important for plants to
store large amounts of water? You are
correct if you said, “The desert.” Some
kinds of cactuses can store enough
water to get through several days or
even several years without rainfall!
Quick Check
Summarize What functions do
roots and stems share?
Critical Thinking How do roots,
which are not green, contribute
to photosynthesis?
45 46
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
How Leaves Work
The veins that run through the
leaf blade bring water and minerals
to the last stop on their journey from
the roots. When carbon dioxide enters
through the stomata and sunlight is
captured by the chlorophyll in the
chloroplast, all the ingredients are
in place to produce food.
Some leaves, such as those of
spinach or lettuce, store food. Others
are designed to protect the plant. The
spines on a cactus are actually the
leaves. They do a good job of protecting
the plant from being eaten, and their
small size and pointed shape minimize
water loss in the dry environment of
a desert.
In some areas of the world
where there are seasonal changes in
temperature, plants shut down their
food-making factories at certain times
of year. During the winter months, they
live off the food they have stored. Green
chlorophyll disappears from the leaves.
When this happens people can see the
other colors, such as yellow and orange,
that are usually masked by the green
pigment. Maple trees, as well as some
other plants, store sugar in their leaves.
The stored sugars trigger the formation
of a red pigment, giving these plants
their vibrant autumn colors.
Quick Check
Summarize What do leaves do
for a plant?
Critical Thinking What is the
difference between a simple leaf
and a compound leaf?
Leaves
Collect a variety of leaves.
Observe Examine each leaf with
a hand lens, and write down each
structure that you can identify.
Place a piece of white paper over
the leaf, and rub back and forth
with a crayon, making a print of
the leaf.
Identify On the rubbing, identify
the leaf as simple or compound,
and label each structure.
Using two different-color crayons,
trace the flow of water and food
through the veins.
47
EXPLAIN
How does water move through plants?
Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil. The stems
and leaves transport the water and minerals throughout the
plant. This might not seem like a huge task in a small plant,
but how can water reach the top of a 90-meter (295-foot)
giant sequoia?
Several forces work together to move water through a
plant. Pressure builds up in the roots and forces water to
move upward into the stems. In small plants root pressure
alone can move water all the way through the plant. However,
in most plants root pressure is not enough to push water
through tall stems and into leaves. Forces that pull the water
upward are needed as well.
Capillary action is one force that pulls water up into plants.
Water molecules stick to one another and to other substances,
such as glass, cloth, cells, and soil. You can observe capillary
action by dipping the corner of a paper towel into a glass of
water. The water will appear to climb up the paper towel.
The other force that pulls water upward through a plant
is caused by evaporation. Transpiration (trans•puh•RAY•shuhn)
is the loss of water from plant leaves. The water in the
plant travels up through the veins of the leaves, and then it
evaporates into the atmosphere through the stomata. As the
plant loses water, more water moves into the plant cells to
take the place of the water that has been lost.
These three forces—root pressure, capillary action,
and transpiration—work together to keep water moving
through the parts of the plant. These forces help the plant
carry out photosynthesis and keep it from wilting.
Quick Check
Summarize What three forces move water upward
through a plant?
Critical Thinking What would happen to the plant if
it did not have stomata on the bottoms of its leaves?
◀ A huge tree can move more than 1,800 liters (476 gallons)
of water from the ground to its leaves each day. Most
people drink about 2 liters (4 pints) of water each day.
48 sequoia tree, Sequoia National Park, California
EXPLAIN
 How Water Moves Through a Plant
vein
petiole
Water moves up the stem,
through a leaf’s petiole,
and into the leaf’s veins.
The veins carry the water
to the leaf’s cells.
Loss of water through
transpiration in the leaves
helps pull the water upward
through the xylem toward
the top of the plant.
The water is pushed upward
into the xylem and travels
up the stem. Capillary
action pulls water up
through the xylem.
Reading Diagrams
What causes water to travel from a plant’s
roots to its stem?
Clue: Follow the path of the blue arrows in
the diagram, and read the text on page 48.
Watch how plants
transport water @ www.macmillanmh.com
Almost 99% of the water
that enters the roots is
given off into the air by
transpiration through
the leaves’ stomata.
xylem
Water and dissolved
minerals enter the plant’s
root hairs from the soil.
Pressure builds up in the
roots as water moves in.
49
EXPLAIN
Apples contain energy stored
during photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis
Light
Water + Carbon dioxide → Sugar + Oxygen
What happens during happens only in cells with chloroplasts
needs sunlight
respiration?
stores energy
When food is eaten, energy passes from
turns energy to a sugar
organism to organism. Every time energy
produces oxygen
is passed along, some energy is lost. Each
uses water to make food
organism uses some of the energy for its own
daily activities. How does a plant or animal uses carbon dioxide
use the energy that is stored in the food it eats? Respiration
When an organism needs fuel, its cells can Sugar + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
use oxygen to break apart food molecules. The happens in most cells
release of energy in plants and animals from happens in light or dark
food is called respiration (res•puh•RAY•shuhn).
releases energy
In respiration, which occurs in plants and
turns a sugar to energy
animals, sugars and oxygen join to produce
uses oxygen
water, carbon dioxide, and energy.
produces water
Quick Check produces carbon dioxide
Summarize What role does
respiration play in cells?
Critical Thinking Why can
photosynthesis and respiration
be considered reverse processes?
50
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea
Photosynthesis is the
process in which plants
convert energy from the
Sun into usable chemical
energy stored as food.
(pp. 42–43)
Roots and stems
transport water and
other substances
between the roots
and the leaves.
(pp. 44–49)
During respiration,
plants and animals
release energy from
food.
(p. 50)
Make a
Study Guide
Make a three-tab book
(see pp. 487–490).
Use the titles shown.
On the inside of each
tab, summarize how
that topic can help you
understand how plants
make food.
Writing Link
Write a Narrative
Describe the journey of a water
molecule through a plant. How does
it enter the plant? How does it move
through the plant? How does it exit
the plant?
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea How does energy enter
ecosystems?
Vocabulary The process by which
plant leaves lose water is
Summarize How does root pressure
differ from transpiration?
Ac[[O`g
Critical Thinking Explain
the relationship between plants
and an atmosphere suitable for
sustaining life.
Test Practice In addition to carbon
dioxide, is one of the
products of respiration.
A sugar
B oxygen
C chlorophyll
D energy
Test Practice What is the process
of making food by using sunlight?
A photosynthesis
B xylem
C transpiration
D chloroplast
Math Link
Calculate Oxygen Released
A forest produces 56 liters of oxygen
in 1 week. A single plant can produce
1 liter per week. How long will it take
the forest to produce enough oxygen
to fill a 10,000-liter tank?
EVALUATE
Life in the
.
Good expository writing
▶ introduces the main idea
Until recently scientists thought that
and develops it with facts
all life on Earth depended on sunlight.
and supporting details.
In the 1970s they made a startling
▶ gives important information discovery. They found creatures on the
about a topic. ocean floor that did not need sunlight
▶ summarizes information
to live. The question, then, was how
these creatures could survive on the
from a variety of sources.
cold, dark ocean floor.
▶ uses transition words, such Earth’s mantle contains hot,
as therefore and then, to
melted rock called magma. When
connect ideas. breaks in Earth’s crust occur on the
ocean floor, magma wells up, fills in
▶ draws a conclusion based
on the facts and information the spaces, and gushes forth as a hot
liquid called lava.
presented.
These worms live near
hot-water vents on the
ocean floor. They eat
bacteria that live on
chemicals in the water.
galatheid crab
ELA W 6.1.2. Create multiple-paragraph expository compositions: a. Engage the interest
of the reader and state a clear purpose. b. Develop the topic with supporting details and
precise verbs, nouns, and adjectives to paint a visual image in the mind of the reader.
51 52 c. Conclude with a detailed summary linked to the purpose of the composition.
EXTEND
 Lesson 3

Microscopic
The lava contains large amounts
of various chemicals that bacteria Organisms
feed on. These hot spots are called
hydrothermal vents. Scientists found
worms, clams, crabs, mussels,
and fish living near these vents.
The animals survive in this dark
on Earth
environment by eating these bacteria.
Most life on Earth depends on
sunlight and on photosynthesis—but
not all life does! Nature is full of
surprises.

Write About It
Expository Writing Write a report
telling how sunlight helps support your
life. Engage your reader right away, and
clearly state your purpose for writing.
Did you ever think about where some of the most
Introduce the main idea, and develop it amazing and beautiful organisms can be found? Look at
with facts. Use supporting details and several drops of pond water through a microscope. The
precise verbs, nouns, and adjectives to paramecium shown here is one part of the fascinating
describe and explain your subject. Do world of microscopic organisms.
print and online research. Summarize
your findings at the end of the report.

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com

6 LS 5.b. Students know matter is transferred over time from one organism to
53 54 others in the food web and between organisms and the physical environment.
EXTEND ENGAGE
 What are microscopic
▶ Main Idea 6 LS 5.b organisms?
Materials Energy and matter are Microscopic organisms are found everywhere.
What can you see through transferred from one They live and grow on every surface in the
a microscope? organism to another at world. Some are producers, which can make
the microscopic level.
their own food by photosynthesis. Others are
Make a Prediction consumers, which eat other organisms for food.
▶ Vocabulary
What do you think you will see if you look at an
microscope, p. 57 Some are decomposers, which break down and
onion skin, sand, or yeast under a microscope? Write
your prediction in the form “If I look at an onion skin, electron microscope, p. 57 consume dead organisms. Microorganisms are
sand, or yeast under a microscope, then . . .” prokaryote, p. 58 an important part of Earth’s ecosystems. They
• microscope provide larger organisms with some of the food
eukaryote, p. 58
Test Your Prediction • 4 microscope protist, p. 59 and oxygen they need to survive. They help
slides enrich the environment by breaking down
Observe Place a piece of newspaper on a
microscope slide. Place the slide on the stage • dropper dead organisms.
-Glossary
of the microscope, and observe it under • water @ www.macmillanmh.com
low power. Draw what you see. Look at the
• toothpick ]QcZO`ZS\a
newspaper again under high power. Record ▶ Reading Skill
your observations. • small pieces
of newspaper Classify and Categorize
Compound Microscope
Observe Select your own samples. Repeat
step 1 for each sample. Record what you see. • onion skin
• sand
Record Data Make a data table to record
the details of what you observed. How many • yeast
organisms did you observe? How big were
Step
they? What colors were they? Q]O`aSORXcab[S\b
Y\]P
Draw Conclusions Reading Diagrams
TW\S
Observe What did you learn about the ORXcab[S\b
What parts of the microscope would Y\]P
way objects appear when viewed through a you use to change the focus?
microscope? What happened to your observations
Clue: Look at the diagram, and read O`[
as you changed from low power to high power?
the labels.
Observe Describe the appearance of each
of the samples you observed.
]PXSQbWdSZS\a

Explore More Step abOUSQZW^a

Did you see any differences among the samples
under the microscope? Research the types of cells abOUS
you looked at. Analyze and present your results.
RWO^V`OU[
6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology
(including calculators, computers, balances, spring scales, ZWUVb
microscopes, and binoculars) to perform tests, collect data, a]c`QS
and display data.
POaS

55 56
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
Studying Microscopic Organisms
A microscope is an instrument
that produces an enlarged image of
an object. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
(AN•ton•vahn•LAY•ven•hook), a Dutch
merchant, used a microscope to study
microscopic organisms in the 1600s.
His tool was very simple, but scientists
today have more-powerful microscopes
that enable them to see microscopic
organisms in much greater detail.
Scientists study living and nonliving
microscopic organisms with an
instrument called a compound light
microscope. A compound light
microscope uses two or more lenses
and a light source to magnify
objects. The lens on the bottom of
the microscope’s body tube is the
objective lens. The lens at the top
of the body tube, nearest your eye,
is called the ocular lens.
Samples placed on the stage of the
microscope are first magnified by the
objective lens. The image that reaches
the ocular lens is then magnified
again. For example, the objective
lens of a microscope magnifies an
object 200 times (200x) and the
ocular lens magnifies it 10 times
(10x). If these two magnifications are
multiplied together, then the overall
magnification is 2,000 times (2,000x)
(200 × 10 = 2,000). Images begin to
get blurry at magnifications higher
than 2,000x.
Scientists study very small, nonliving
organisms and other objects with
an electron microscope . This is
a powerful microscope that uses a
beam of electrons, rather than a light
▲ Scanning electron microscopes produce
magnified images, such as this picture
of bacteria found on the human tongue.
source, to magnify samples. Electron
microscopes cannot be used on living
samples, because the stream of electrons
and the preparation process would
kill them. The most commonly used
electron microscope is called a scanning
electron microscope, or SEM. The SEM
can magnify as much as 300,000 times
(300,000x). It scans the surfaces of
nonliving samples and gives detailed
three-dimensional images of them.
Quick Check
Classify and Categorize Describe
the different kinds of microscopes.
Which do scientists use to study
living organisms?
Critical Thinking Explain why
scientists do not use electron
microscopes to study human
subjects.
57
EXPLAIN
What are microscopic organisms
that make their own food?
Microscopic organisms are
classified in two ways: by their cell
structure and by what they eat. The
cell structure determines whether they
are prokaryotes (pro•KEH•ree•ohtz)
or eukaryotes (yoo•KEH•ree•ohtz).
Prokaryotes have a simple cell
structure without a nucleus in each
cell. Eukaryotes are more complex
organisms that do have a nucleus in
each cell. Within each of these two
groups, there are organisms that eat
other organisms (consumers) and
those that can make their own food
(producers).
Producers make food by using the
energy in sunlight for photosynthesis.
Green plants use photosynthesis to
make their own food and release
oxygen. However, green plants are not
the only organisms that carry out
photosynthesis. Many microscopic
producers make their own food and
give off oxygen.
58
EXPLAIN
Microscopic organisms that
produced the oxygen that first
made Earth inhabitable for other
living things were prokaryotic
producers, such as cyanobacteria
(SIGH•an•oh•bak•teer•ee•uh). They can
be found in many places, including
fresh and salt water, hot springs, and
the Arctic. Today cyanobacteria and
other photosynthetic microscopic
producers produce about half of our
oxygen supply. Without these
organisms plants and trees alone
would not be able to support life
on Earth.
▼ Cyanobacteria often form a
chain of cells called a filament.
These chains can produce
different kinds
of algae.
 diatoms
Protists
Another kind of microscopic
organism is a protist. A protist is a
single-celled, eukaryotic organism that
cannot be clearly classified as animal
or plant. Many protists are capable
of producing their own food through
photosynthesis, like plants. Others eat
microscopic organisms.
One example of a photosynthetic
protist is a diatom. Diatoms live in
either salt water or fresh water. These
protists are very small and have
shapes such as straight lines, circles,
or squares. Because there are so many
diatoms living in lakes and oceans,
they are some of the most important
producers of oxygen and are a major
food source for many other organisms.
Another kind of protist is a
dinoflagellate (dighn•uh•FLAJ•uh•luht) .
A dinoflagellate has characteristics
of both plants and animals. Some
dinoflagellate
species of dinoflagellates can light up
like fireflies. When stirred up, they give
off light and make the ocean appear
to glow in the wakes of passing boats.
Most dinoflagellates are photosynthetic
and make up a significant part of the
phytoplankton, or photosynthetic
microorganisms that float in oceans
and lakes. They are also important
oxygen producers and a major food
source.
Quick Check
Classify and Categorize How
do scientists classify microscopic
organisms that have characteristics
of both plants and animals?
Critical Thinking How are
cyanobacteria different from
plantlike protists?
59
EXPLAIN
What are microscopic organisms
that cannot make their own food?
Some microscopic organisms Other Traveling Protists
are not able to make their own food.
Another group of protists has
Instead, they need to find food in
pseudopods (SOO•doh•podz), or “false
their environment. They must be able
feet.” This group of protists includes
to move to where food is. To do this
hundreds of species of amoebas.
they have developed structures on the
Found in fresh water, salt water,
outsides of their cells that help them
and soil, amoebas use their pseudopods
move and eat.
to pull themselves in the direction
One protist of this type is a in which they want to move. They
protozoan. Protozoans have no cell also use their pseudopods to eat. An
walls and can find and eat food. amoeba will extend a false foot and
Examples of protozoans include wrap it around what it wants to eat.
flagellates (FLAJ•uh•latz) and ciliates. When the end of the pseudopod meets
the amoeba’s body, both the foot and
Flagellates are protozoans that have
flagella (fluh•JEL•uh), or long, hairlike the food become part of the body.
structures that whip and lash to help Once the food is inside the amoeba,
them swim. Some flagellates live in it gets wrapped in a food vacuole to
ponds and lakes, feeding on smaller be digested.
organisms. Many others are parasites,
which means that they feed off and
harm other organisms.
All protists that have small, hairlike
projections, or cilia, extending from
the outsides of their cells are called
ciliates. These organisms use the cilia
as oars to move themselves through
water. Ciliates also use their cilia to
direct bacteria and other food from
their environment into a food vacuole.
A food vacuole is a structure inside
a cell that stores food.
▶ Scientists use scanning
electron microscopes to
study microorganisms.
60
EXPLAIN
 Protozoans
paramecium magnified 100 times
▲ The most common example of a ciliate
is the paramecium. Tiny surface hairs
enable it to move.
euglena magnified 130 times
▲ A euglena can make its own food or eat
food from the environment. A flagellum
helps it move.
amoeba magnified 30 times
▲ An amoeba moves by forming thick
extensions, or pseudopods. As a
pseudopod is thrust forward, the
rest of the amoeba flows with it.
Observing Protists
Slide a metric ruler onto the stage
of your microscope, and focus on
it, using the highest power. Measure
the field of view, and record your
measurement in millimeters.
Obtain a pond-water
sample from your
teacher. Put a drop of
the water in the center
of a microscope slide.
Gently place a coverslip
over it.
Observe Starting with
lake ecosystem
the lowest power, focus
the microscope until
you find microorganisms.
Switch to high power, and
focus. Draw what you see. What roles do microscopic
Measure Estimate how much organisms have in ecosystems?
area one microorganism you are
observing takes up. Multiply that
Microscopic producers make their own food through
number by the size of your field photosynthesis. As a result of that process, they give
of view to estimate the size of off about half of the oxygen in our atmosphere. However,
the organism in millimeters. For microscopic consumers cannot make their own food.
example, 1 × 1 mm = 1 mm.
3 2 6 As a result they eat other microscopic organisms. ▼ These mushrooms
Both microscopic producers and microscopic consumers help recycle
the log.
are the main food source for larger consumers. There are
Quick Check also microscopic organisms that feed on dead organisms
Classify and Categorize How are of all sizes. These organisms are called decomposers,
microscopic consumers grouped? and their job is to recycle organic materials back into
the food chain. This cycle of what eats what becomes
Critical Thinking How do the first set of links in a food chain that extends
microscopic consumers get to from the tiniest organisms all the way to humans.
their food?
Quick Check
Reading Photos Classify and Categorize What are the
three roles of microscopic organisms?
Which protozoan is the smallest?
The largest?
Critical Thinking What would happen if
Clue: Read the label that tells all organisms could make their own food?
how many times each protozoan
was magnified. 61 62
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Microscopes are tools
that produce enlarged
images of objects.
(pp. 56–57)
Microscopic organisms
that produce food
include cyanobacteria,
diatoms, dinoflagellates,
and euglenas.
(pp. 58–61)
Microscopic producers
form the foundation
for most food chains
in the oceans and in
freshwater ecosystems.
(p. 62)
Make a
Study Guide
Make a three-tab book
(see pp. 487–490).
Use the titles shown.
On the inside of each
tab, write several
sentences that classify
and categorize each of
the topics.
Writing Link
Main Idea Matter and
are transferred from one organism
to another at the microscopic level.
Vocabulary A(n) produces
an enlarged image of an object.
Classify and Categorize What is the What do museums do when their artwork and
major difference between eukaryotes
other cultural artifacts are being slowly eaten by
and prokaryotes?
organisms they can’t even see? They turn to scientists
like Maria Pia Di Bonaventura at the American
Museum of Natural History. Maria Pia is not a
detective, but she knows how to unlock mysteries like
these, where the main suspects are microorganisms
Critical Thinking Why are protists such as fungi and bacteria.
hard to identify as plants or animals?
Maria Pia helped an art museum take a
Test Practice Which organisms use microscopic look at several paintings. Paintings
pseudopods to move? made of wood, ink, oils, and canvas can be perfect
A amoebas environments for some microorganisms to grow in.
B euglenas
C cyanobacteria
You may not be able to
D diatoms see them with your eyes,
but they give themselves
Test Practice Which organisms live
away by their green, blue,
in either salt water or fresh water?
A flagella
and yellow tints and the
B cilia black markings they leave
C diatoms behind.
D protozoans
▶ Maria Pia is a microbiologist.
That’s a scientist who
studies microorganisms
and their effects on other
Math Link organisms.

Write a Narrative Determine Magnification

Write about one of the microorganisms
that you have learned about. Describe
what its life is like. What does it look
like? How does it move? Does it have
any enemies?
If the objective lens on a microscope
magnifies an object 100 times (100x),
and the ocular lens magnifies it
10 times (10x), what is the overall
magnification?

ELA R 6.2.3. Connect and clarify main ideas by identifying

63 64 their relationships to other sources and related topics.
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
EVALUATE EXTEND

To study the microorganisms
that are making their home in the
art, Maria Pia first takes a sample
of them. Back in the lab, Maria Pia
focuses on the fungi. She grows
them to find out more about their
DNA. The DNA provides the
information that Maria Pia uses to
determine the species of the fungi.
The different species respond to
different treatments, so after she
identifies a species, she can figure
out the best way to protect the
paintings from its damage.
Fungi don’t just live on
paintings. They live in all kinds
of environments on our planet,
in the tropical rain forests and
the cold tundras, in the rivers
and the oceans, and even in
deserts! Maria Pia is interested
in investigating their amazing
diversity—there are over 100,000
Write About It
Main Idea
1. Why do museums ask for help
from scientists like Maria Pia
Di Bonaventura?
2. How does Maria Pia’s work help protect
works of art and other artifacts?
-Journal Write about it online
@ www.macmillanmh.com
Meet a Scientist
Lesson 4
Earth’s Food
Chains, Webs,
and Pyramids
▲ Fungi grew on and damaged
this artwork.
species of fungi, and more are
being discovered all the time. In
fact, the world’s largest known
organism is thought to be a fungus
weighing over 100 tons, about the
weight of an adult blue whale!
Whales are among the largest animals ever to have lived
Main Idea
on Earth. What do such large animals eat? Surprisingly,
▶ Look for the question or many of them eat some of the smallest organisms in the
problem being discussed. ocean: tiny shrimplike animals called krill. A humpback
whale eats as much as 1,360 kilograms (3,000 pounds)
▶ Think about how the details
relate to each other. of krill, plankton, and small fish each day.
6 LS 5.b. Students know matter is transferred over time from one
organism to others in the food web and between organisms and the physical
environment. • 6 LS 5.c. Students know populations of organisms can be
65 66 categorized by the functions they serve in an ecosystem.
EXTEND ENGAGE
 ▶ Main Idea 6 LS 5.b

How can you model a food chain? Materials Energy and matter are
transferred from one
organism to another
Make a Prediction
in food chains and
What would a food chain of 20 organisms look food webs.
like? Would it be linear? Write your answer as a
prediction in the form “If 20 animals were made ▶ Vocabulary
into a food chain, then it would look like . . .”
producer, p. 69
consumer, p. 69
Test Your Prediction
decomposer, p. 69
Cut construction paper into 20 rectangles. Write food chain, p. 70
the names of eight producers, six animals that • top half of empty primary consumer, p. 71
eat the producers, four animals that eat the plant soda bottle
eaters, and two animals that eat the animals secondary consumer, p. 71
• yarn cattle grazing,
that eat the plant eaters. Make a hole in each tertiary consumer, p. 71
Big Sur, California
rectangle. • construction food web, p. 72
paper herbivore, p. 72
Make a Model Cover the top of the soda
bottle with construction paper. This will be the • hole punch carnivore, p. 72
▲ These cattle get their energy directly from
Sun. Punch eight holes around the rim. Attach • scissors omnivore, p. 73 the grass, which is a producer. How would
a piece of yarn to each of the eight producers. predator, p. 73 you classify the cattle? They are consumers.
Attach the other ends to the soda bottle. Using Step prey, p. 73
yarn, link each plant-eating animal to a producer. scavenger, p. 73
Continue by linking the animals that eat the plant
energy pyramid, p. 76 What are producers, consumers,
eaters to the plant-eating animals. Only one animal
may be attached to a food source.
-Glossary and decomposers?
Draw Conclusions @ www.macmillanmh.com Think about how food is arranged at the
Observe How many levels are in your model? grocery store. There are sections for baked
▶ Reading Skill goods, meats, produce, and dairy products. How
What happens to the number of organisms in
Compare and Contrast
each level as you move away from the Sun? do you think each of the food groups would fit
2WTTS`S\b /ZWYS 2WTTS`S\b into an ecosystem? Energy in many ecosystems
Predict What would happen to the number of
plant eaters if a drought destroyed the plants? begins with the Sun and is transferred from one
What happens to the animal populations? organism to another. Each living thing has a role
in this process.
Explore More
What changes might occur in an ecosystem into Producers
which the predators move? Make a prediction and Explore food webs
test it. Then analyze and present your results. with a park ranger. Think of the last time you went to the grocery
Explore energy store. What did you see in the produce section?
pyramids with
6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an a farmer.
You saw producers—fruits and vegetables. The
investigation in written reports and oral presentations. grains used to make the bread in the bakery aisle
are producers, too.
67 68
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
 Producers , such as plants and
algae, are organisms that use energy
from the Sun to make their own
food. They also produce oxygen
and food that other living things need
to survive. Most producers on Earth
live near the surface of the ocean,
where tiny photosynthetic organisms
carry out more than 70% of the
photosynthesis that occurs on Earth.
Green plants are among the producers
that live on land.
Consumers
If an organism cannot create
its own food, it must directly or
indirectly consume, or eat, other
organisms. Consumers get energy
by feeding directly on producers
or by eating animals that feed on
producers. If you eat fish, chicken,
or beef, you are indirectly getting
energy from a producer. The steer
that is now a steak either grazed on
grass or was fed a mixture of grains.
▼ These mushrooms are
returning important
substances to the
environment by
breaking down
the stump of
a maple tree.
Decomposers
Decomposers break down dead
organisms into simpler substances.
Some of these substances are absorbed
by the decomposers. Others are
returned to the environment. This
is one reason why decomposers are
an important part of an ecosystem.
Elements that are essential to life,
such as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon,
are building blocks of living things.
When decomposers do their jobs,
they recycle these and other important
substances back into the environment.
In the process they clean up the
environment by ridding it of waste
matter. Earth’s decomposers include
worms, bacteria, fungi, and insects.
Quick Check
Compare and Contrast What are
the main differences among producers,
consumers, and decomposers?
Critical Thinking How do consumers
get the energy they need to survive?
69
EXPLAIN
What is a food chain?
A food chain shows how energy
flows from one organism to another in
an ecosystem. In a food chain, producers
absorb the Sun’s energy before passing
it on to consumers and decomposers.
The path by which the energy travels can
be short and simple or long and complicated.
What does a food chain look like? Is it arranged
by size, from the largest organism to the smallest?
Do larger organisms always consume organisms of
▲ The zebra and
a slightly smaller size? This is not always the case. the lion are part
Remember the humpback whale? It eats krill, some of a food chain.
of the smallest animals in the sea. Cougars, on the
other hand, sometimes prefer to prey on animals
larger than themselves, such as moose and elk.
Forest Food Chain
bS`bWO`gQ]\ac[S`
SObaO\W[OZa
aSQ]\RO`gQ]\ac[S`
SObaO\W[OZa
^`W[O`gQ]\ac[S`
SOba^ZO\ba
RSQ][^]aS`
Reading Diagrams
What is the path of energy
in this forest food chain?
Clue: Follow the arrows.
70
EXPLAIN

Links in the Food Chain
Consumers can be classified by
where they fall on the food chain.
Primary consumers , which are
organisms that eat producers, are the
second link in a food chain after
producers. On land, primary consumers
include insects, mice, rabbits, horses,
and elephants. The size of the animal
does not always determine its diet or
its location on the food chain.
The organisms that get their energy
by eating primary consumers are
called secondary consumers .
Secondary consumers make up the
third link in a food chain. Many birds,
for example, are secondary consumers,
because they eat insects that feed on
plants. A snake that eats such a bird
is a tertiary consumer . A tertiary
consumer is usually the top predator
in a food chain. There are usually many
producers and few tertiary consumers.
What happens to an organism
that is not eaten? If an organism
is not eaten, it will eventually die.
Decomposers are present throughout
the food chain to break down the
remains of dead plants and animals.
Your Food Chain
Keep a log of everything you eat
for one day.
Classify For each food, determine
whether it is a producer or a
consumer.
Classify Which foods did you list
as producers?
Classify Which foods did you list
as consumers?
Communicate Select two foods
from the consumer group, and
draw a possible food chain for
each. Do not forget to include
yourself. Did you include
decomposers in your food
chain? Where do they fit?
The remains of these plants and
animals break down into nutrients that
producers use. This completes the cycle
and allows another food chain to begin.
The amount of energy present decreases
as it travels through each organism, but
it never completely disappears. Some of
the energy is used for life processes, and
some is given off as heat, but it never
completely disappears.
Quick Check
Compare and Contrast How do
people fit into the food chain?
Critical Thinking Compare primary,
secondary, and tertiary consumers.
71
EXPLAIN
What is a land food web? of their mouths for tearing plant
material. Their flattened back teeth
Do you eat only one kind of food? are perfect for grinding the plants
If you are like most people, you enjoy to a pulp. Many ocean-dwelling
a variety of foods. In nature most
animals are filter feeders. Some filter
organisms would not survive if they feeders use modified teeth, called
fed on only one type of food. baleen, to filter out small organisms
A food chain represents only one from huge mouthfuls of water.
thing that each consumer may eat. It
shows only one path that the energy Carnivores
follows from the Sun through the food
Carnivores are secondary and
chain. A food web shows all the food
chains in an ecosystem and shows how tertiary consumers, animals that eat
they overlap. Food webs also show the other animals. Some carnivores rip
into prey with their sharp incisors
roles and relationships among all the
species in an ecosystem. and canine teeth or with their beaks.
They typically eat more than one kind
of animal. For example, coyotes eat
Herbivores a variety of small mammals as well as
Just like food chains, all food webs birds and snakes. Cats will eat fish and
begin with producers. Herbivores are other animals. The golden eagle preys
primary consumers, or animals that upon a variety of animals, including
eat producers. On land, herbivores prairie dogs, rabbits, and ground
have flat-edged teeth in the fronts squirrels.
Land Food Web
A food web is a series of overlapping
food chains. It is a more accurate
representation of the feeding
relationships in an ecosystem
than a food chain,
because most
animals eat more
than one thing.
72
EXPLAIN
Omnivores
Animals that eat both producers
and consumers are omnivores . Many
animals, including humans, are
omnivores. Raccoons will eat fruits,
nuts, grains, birds’ eggs, young rabbits,
rodents, fish, turtles, and even scraps
from your garbage.
Predators
Living things that hunt and kill other
living things for food are predators .
The animals they hunt are prey . Most
animals, at one time or another, will be
both predator and prey. A snake can eat
a mouse one day and find itself as prey
for a hawk the next day.
Reading Diagrams
Which of these animals are
predators? Which are prey?
Clue: Follow the arrows on
the diagram to see which
animals prey on others.
What is a marine food web?
Just like land food webs, marine by changes in high and low tides.
food webs begin with producers. Despite the harsh conditions found at
In the ocean, phytoplankton are the ocean’s edge, the intertidal zone
the primary producers. Because supports a variety of living things. Each
phytoplankton depend on sunlight time the tide comes in, the plants and
to carry out photosynthesis, the size animals that live there are submerged in
of their populations depends on the water. At low tide they are exposed to
amount of sunlight that penetrates air and sunlight.
the water. Oceans are divided into
different areas depending on the Some parts of the intertidal zone
are covered by water only during the
amount of sunlight they receive
highest tides. Only a few species of
and the temperature of the water.
algae and mollusks are found there.
Areas that are underwater during high
Intertidal Zone tide contain algae and animals such as
The intertidal (in•tur•TIGH•duhl) snails, crabs, sea stars, and small fish.
zone is the area of the ocean at the These are food sources for many land
edge of the land. This area is affected and sea creatures as well as shorebirds.
▲ The California condor
is a large scavenger.
red knots
Scavengers
Have you ever been on a scavenger
hunt? It is a game in which you have to
find items. In the same way, scavengers
seek out the remains of dead animals
to eat. They eat meat without hunting
or killing the prey. Jackals, vultures,
and crows are scavengers. Fungi are
another type of scavenger. Fungi such
as mushrooms get their energy from
decaying plants and animals.
Quick Check
Compare and Contrast What
is the difference between a food
chain and a food web?
Critical Thinking Which roles in
a food web could people play?
73 74
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
Ocean Zones
From just beyond the low-tide
line to the point where the open
ocean begins is an area where
sunlight penetrates and waters are
calmer. There you will find
some of the world’s most
magnificent underwater
habitats. For example,
the giant kelp forests
off the California coast
provide food and shelter
to hundreds of species
of fish, invertebrates,
marine birds, and marine
mammals. This is a region
of complex food webs with
predators such as sea lions and
harbor seals and many types of
prey at every feeding level.
In the open ocean, most organisms
live in three main zones. The top, or
sunlight, zone reaches from the surface
down to about 200 meters (656 feet).
Plankton live near the surface, where
the sunlight penetrates the water.
Squid, octopuses, whales, fish, and
many other organisms feed on the
▲ Sea otters find shelter and food in
plankton.
Between about 200 meters (656
feet) and 1,000 meters (3,280 feet)
there is little light. This zone, the
twilight zone, is dark and cold, with
little food available. Animals that live
in this zone have adaptations for these
harsh conditions. The third zone down
has no light and is called the midnight
zone. No photosynthetic organisms
grow here, and some animals are
eyeless.
the diverse kelp-forest community.
Quick Check
Compare and Contrast What are
the differences among the three
main zones in the open ocean?
Critical Thinking What do land
food webs and marine food webs
have in common?
How are populations
connected?
Food chains and food webs
show how energy flows through an
ecosystem. What they do not show
is how energy is lost as it passes
from producers to consumers to
decomposers. Energy pyramids are
models that show how energy moves
through a food chain. Producers always
make up the base of the pyramid.
At each feeding level above the base,
energy is lost. When animals eat, they
cannot absorb all the energy their food
contains. Organisms also lose energy
when they perform their daily activities.
Think about the energy you use each
day. As energy is used, it is transferred
to the environment as heat.
Energy decreases from the base
of the pyramid to the top. About
10% of the energy at one level can
be used by animals at the next level.
With less and less energy available at
higher levels, fewer animals can survive.
Are there more producers or consumers
in the world? The decrease in energy
limits the number of consumers on the
food chain, so there are more producers.
▶ ocean energy pyramid
Anything that happens in an
ecosystem can upset the balance of
food and energy. As long as populations
in a community can obtain the food,
water, and shelter they need, they can
reproduce and grow as a species. If
something happens to decrease any
of these resources, competition may
increase within the community. This
can cause the population of a species
to decrease or even to become extinct.
On the other hand, the species might
adapt to change or migrate to new
areas. Knowing about food chains and
food webs helps scientists predict how
communities will be affected by change.
Quick Check
Compare and Contrast What do the
layers of an energy pyramid show?
Critical Thinking What would
happen if resources decreased
in a location?

75 76
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea
Producers use energy
from the Sun to
make their own food.
Consumers get their
energy from producers.
(pp. 68–69)
A food chain shows the
flow of energy from
one organism to
another in an ecosystem.
(pp. 70–71)
A food web shows all
the food chains in an
ecosystem and how
they overlap.
(pp. 72–75)
Make a
Study Guide
Make a three-tab book
(see pp. 487–490).
Use the titles shown.
On the inside of each
tab, compare and
contrast the role of
each topic with others
in the lesson.
Writing Link
Persuasive Writing
Research an issue that affects Earth’s
ecosystems. Then write and record a
public-service announcement to state
your position on the issue.
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea Food chains show how
and are
transferred.
Vocabulary A(n) eats
the remains of dead animals it finds.
Compare and Contrast How is a
scavenger different from a decomposer? Why Are They
2WTTS`S\b /ZWYS 2WTTS`S\b
at the Top
of Their
Critical Thinking Explain why a food
web tells us more about an ecosystem
than a food chain. Food Chain?
Test Practice Which of the following Have you ever seen an eagle, a hawk, or an owl swoop
is not a group into which organisms
down and capture its food? These birds of prey, or
are classified in an ecosystem?
A producers raptors, are at the top of their food chain, because they
B decomposers have few predators. Their bodies are amazing flying
C consumers machines that enable them to attack quickly and fly
D energy pyramids away with their prey.
Test Practice What are living things Raptors have strong, sharp beaks and
that hunt and kill other living things large wings. Their wings help them soar Finding ratios
for food? and swoop down on their prey, which they To find the ratio of body
A herbivores capture in their talons, or claws. Raptors’
length to wingspan,
B predators wingspans (the distance from the tip of one
C fungi ▶ divide the body length
extended wing to the tip of the other) are far
D scavengers by the wingspan.
longer than their bodies.
The table on the next page shows the bald eagle: 80 ÷ 200 = 0.40
Math Link lengths of some raptors’ bodies and their
(expressed as a fraction:
Use Percents corresponding wingspans. Look at the data,
80
An energy pyramid shows that and complete the table by finding the ratio = 8 =2
200 20 5
90% of the energy is lost from one of body length to wingspan in decimal form.
expressed as a percent:
level to the next. If you start with Then place these decimals on a number line
40%)
100,000 units of energy, how much to determine which bird has the smallest
energy does the next level get? body in relation to its wingspan.
77 78
EVALUATE EXTEND
 Lesson 5
Body length Wingspan Ratio of body
Bird
(in centimeters) (in centimeters) to wingspan

Bald eagle 80 200 0.40

White-tailed hawk

Gray hawk
50

38
120

89
0.44
Earth’s Cycles
Swainson’s hawk 46 124

Sharp-shinned hawk 27 54 0.50 for Life

Long-eared owl 33 99

Golden eagle 81 198

Cooper’s hawk 39 71 0.55

Number Line

0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60

Solve It
1. Which bird’s body length is half of its wingspan?
2. If a raptor’s wingspan were 112 centimeters, how long
would its body have to be for it to have a body-to-
wingspan ratio of 0.45?
3. Use a tape measure to determine the ratio of your arm
span to your body length. Will everyone in your class
have the same ratio? Why or why not?

Water covers about 75% of Earth’s surface.

Did you ever wonder where all this water comes
from? Could the water in your shower be from
MA NS 6.1.2. Interpret and use ratios in different contexts (e.g.,
batting averages, miles per hour) to show the relative sizes of
the same stream that a lion once drank from?
two quantities, using appropriate notations (a/b, a to b, a:b).

6 LS 5.b. Students know matter is transferred over time from one organism to
79 80 others in the food web and between organisms and the physical environment.
EXTEND ENGAGE
 ▶ Main Idea 6 LS 5.b
Materials Earth recycles water and
How does water recycle itself? other substances, such as
carbon and nitrogen.
Make a Prediction
precipitation
All living things rely on water, yet there is a limited ▶ Vocabulary
supply of water on Earth. Water is recycled so that it water cycle, p. 83
can be used again and again. What will happen to soil
evaporation, p. 83
if it is moistened with water and then placed under a
heat source? Write your answer as a prediction in the condensation, p. 83
form “If moistened soil is allowed to sit under a heat precipitation, p. 83
source, then the water in the soil will . . .” • empty soda bottle carbon cycle, p. 84
How does Earth have enough
with cap (cut into nitrogen cycle, p. 86 air and water to keep us alive?
Test Your Prediction halves) nitrate, p. 87
You know that people recycle bottles, cans,
Place about 4 inches of soil in the bottom half • soil nitrite, p. 87
and newspapers to help the environment. Did you
of the soda bottle. • water spray bottle composting, p. 88
know that the environment recycles itself, too?
Spray the soil with water so that it is moist • lamp or window The air people breathe and the water people
but not wet. with sunlight -Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com
drink do not run out, because the planet is
Secure the top half of the soda bottle over always recycling them.
Step
the bottom half. Use tape if necessary.
▶ Reading Skill
Observe Place the bottle under a lamp or in
Main Idea The Water Cycle
direct sunlight. Observe it every 10 minutes for
a class period. Write down your observations. ;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa
Observe the bottle again on the second day.
Write down your observations. Ac\

^`SQW^WbObW]\
Draw Conclusions
What did you see the first day? What did you
see the second day? Q]\RS\aObW]\
Infer What was the source of the water? What Step
was the source of the energy that caused
changes in the bottle?
Observe What happened to the water?
Q]ZZSQbW]\ `c\]TT
Explore More
What might happen if you added some small plants to
the bottle? Some small rocks? What might happen if SdO^]`ObW]\
you added more heat or placed the bottle in the shade?

6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.

81 82
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
 Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California
The Water Cycle
A cycle is a series of events that
happen one after another, in the same
order, over and over again. Think
about a bicycle. Why do you think it
is called that? It has two wheels (bi-)
that go around and around (-cycle).
The water cycle is the continuous
movement of water between Earth’s
surface and the air. The water cycle
works because water can change
from a solid to a liquid to a gas and
back again. The energy from the Sun
powers the water cycle.
The Sun heats the water in oceans,
lakes, rivers, ponds, and puddles. This
causes evaporation , the process in
which a liquid changes into a gas. As
the water vapor moves higher into the
atmosphere, it cools and condenses
into tiny water droplets. Condensation
is the process in which a gas changes
into a liquid. Condensation causes
water to form on the outside of a cold
glass of lemonade on a hot day.
Droplets of condensed water
accumulate in clouds. When the
droplets become too heavy, they fall
condensation
to Earth’s surface. Precipitation is
any form of water—rain, snow, sleet,
or hail—that falls to Earth.
When water hits Earth’s surface,
it may soak into the ground and be
stored as groundwater, in a process
called collection. It may also run across
the surface and be collected in streams,
ponds, lakes, oceans, or other bodies
of water. Some of this collected water
evaporates back into the atmosphere.
About 85% of the water that
evaporates on Earth comes from the
ocean. Most of this water quickly
condenses and falls back into the
ocean. Water evaporates from both
freshwater and saltwater sources.
However, all of the precipitation that
falls on Earth is fresh water. The salt is
left behind when salt water evaporates.
Quick Check
Main Idea What form of water does
condensation produce, a liquid,
a solid, or a gas?
Critical Thinking What is the order
of the four parts of the water cycle?
83
EXPLAIN
What is the carbon cycle?
Carbon is one of the elements that make up all living
things. Plants and animals (including people) need carbon
to live. There is not a lot of carbon in the atmosphere,
so it must be recycled. Otherwise it would be used up too
quickly. The process in which carbon is recycled between
the atmosphere and living things is called the carbon cycle .
There is evidence that a buildup of gases such as carbon
dioxide, nitric oxide, and methane trap heat that normally
would escape from Earth’s atmosphere. Called the greenhouse
effect, this buildup raises temperatures and leads to global
warming.
Since 1850 the average temperature on Earth has risen
about 1.8°F (1°C ). Some scientists predict it will rise 3.5°F
(2°C) by the year 2100. They believe this rise will lead to
many problems, such as the melting of the polar ice caps,
which would cause sea levels to rise and flood coastal areas.
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon enters the air in three ways: when plants
and animals decay; when animals breathe out
(exhale); and when fossil fuels such as coal, oil,
gasoline, and natural gas are burned.
Plants During photosynthesis,
plants use the carbon from carbon
dioxide to make sugars, starches,
and proteins. They also give off
oxygen, which is used by animals.
Death and decay When living things
die, the carbon in them goes into the
air and the ground. Some of it is turned
into carbon dioxide by the organisms
that feed on dead organisms.
84
EXPLAIN

Carbon and Life
Carbon is stored in molecules of
living and dead organisms, in organic
matter in soil, in the air as carbon
dioxide, and in fossil fuels. Dissolved
carbon dioxide is also found in the
ocean and in the shells of some marine
organisms.
Plants and other photosynthetic
organisms take in carbon dioxide
and water and use them to make
food. During this process, oxygen is
released into the atmosphere as a waste
product. When living things need to
use the energy that has been stored in
food, they use oxygen to break apart
Storage Some carbon is
stored as fossil fuels. This
is the carbon left behind
by certain organisms that
died millions of years ago.
the molecules during respiration. The
final products are energy, water, and
carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is
returned to the atmosphere, continuing
the cycle.
Quick Check
Main Idea Why is the carbon
cycle important to living things?
Critical Thinking Where does
the carbon that has been stored
in an animal’s body go when the
animal dies?
Reading Diagrams
What happens to carbon when
living things die?
Clue: Read the text boxes.
Animals Animals eat plant
sugars, starches, proteins, and
other substances. The animals
use the carbon in these foods to
make their own body chemicals.
85
EXPLAIN
The Nitrogen Cycle
nitrites with
nitrates
ammonia
What is the nitrogen cycle?
All living things must have nitrogen
to develop and grow. Nitrogen is
needed to make proteins, which are
the building materials for muscles,
skin, bones, blood, plants’ cell walls,
and internal organs. Just like water
and carbon, nitrogen is cycled through
the environment.
The nitrogen cycle is the
continuous trapping of nitrogen gas
into compounds in the soil and the
returning of nitrogen gas to the air.
Earth’s atmosphere is 78% nitrogen.
You would think this would be
enough to supply living things with
the nitrogen they need. However,
plants and animals cannot use nitrogen
in this form. Plants must get nitrogen
86
EXPLAIN
nitrogen gas
nitrites
from nitrogen compounds in the soil
that have been made usable. Animals
then get nitrogen in the same way they
get energy—by eating plants or by
eating the animals that eat the plants
that absorb the nitrogen.
Uses of Nitrogen
Lightning can change the nitrogen
found in the atmosphere into a water-
soluble compound that dissolves in
rainwater to form nitric acid. A small
amount of nitrogen is absorbed into
soil this way.
The rest of the nitrogen in soil
comes from bacteria. Certain bacteria,
called nitrogen-fixing bacteria, live in

Fertilizers
nitrogen compounds
Reading Diagrams
What role do decomposers
play in the nitrogen cycle?
Clue: Where do plants
obtain nitrogen from?
the roots of beans, peas, and peanuts
and can extract nitrogen from the air.
Other bacteria convert this nitrogen
into usable compounds called nitrates
and nitrites . Plants absorb the nitrates
and nitrites and use them to make
proteins. These proteins are passed
along when animals eat plants and
one another.
When plants and animals die,
nitrogen from their remains returns
to the soil when bacteria break it down
into nitrogen gas. These bacteria return
about the same amount of nitrogen to
the air as other bacteria take from the
air, keeping nature in balance.
Fill two plastic cups with pond
water or water from an aquarium.
Add a few water plants, such as
elodea, to each cup.
Add a teaspoon of houseplant
food to one cup, and label the
cup. Be Careful. Always wear
protective gloves when handling
plant foods.
Observe Place both cups in a
sunny window, and observe them
each day for a week. Record your
observations.
Interpret Data What effect did
the plant food have on the plant
growth in the cups? What is the
independent variable in this lab?
What is the dependent variable?
Quick Check
Main Idea What is the nitrogen
cycle?
Critical Thinking Why do some
people use manure, or raw animal
wastes, in their gardens?
87
EXPLAIN
How are plants recycled?
Plants are necessary to each
of nature’s cycles. Plants continue
their work even after they die. Think
of a giant tree falling in a forest.
Right away it becomes a habitat for
many different animals, including
birds, frogs, and insects. Soon after
it falls, the tree begins to break down.
Decomposers are organisms that
break down dead plants and animals
into useful things such as minerals composting
and rich soils. Plants need these in
order to grow. As you can see, each
kind of organism has a role that Composting
helps others survive. Worms, crickets,
What happened to the fallen tree
cockroaches, bacteria, and fungi are
also applies to your yard and some
decomposers. These organisms help
of the food scraps around your home.
plants survive.
Certain kinds of scraps from the food
you eat or cuttings from your yard still
contain nutrients and other substances
that can be recycled. Composting is
▼ The yellow coral the process in which decomposers
fungus helps break break down organic matter so it can
down this fallen tree. be used as a natural fertilizer for
gardening or farming. You can make
compost by mixing three parts dry
leaves and plant material, one part
fresh grass clippings, and one part
vegetable food scraps. Decomposers
soon go to work, breaking down these
materials into nitrogen and other
elements that make the soil rich.
Quick Check
Main Idea What is the role of
decomposers in an ecosystem?
Critical Thinking What is the
first thing that happens when
a tree dies and falls down?
88
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Inquiry Structured
Main Idea Earth water, Materials
The water cycle is the
carbon, and nitrogen. What factors affect the carbon,
continuous movement
of water between Vocabulary The process in which a water, and nitrogen cycles?
Earth’s surface and gas changes into a liquid is .
the atmosphere.
Main Idea What happens to the Form a Hypothesis
(pp. 82–83)
nitrogen compounds that are not small cup The carbon cycle is a series of events that recycles carbon through
The carbon cycle is absorbed by plants? the environment. Carbon exists in many forms and can be found
the process in which in the air and in plants and animals. Plants take in carbon dioxide
;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa from the air and convert it into food and oxygen. The amount
carbon moves between
the atmosphere and of carbon found in the air is affected by air pollution, especially
living things. pollution from the burning of fossil fuels. What role do plants play
(pp. 84–85) in the carbon cycle? Write your answer as a hypothesis in the form
bromothymol
Critical Thinking What would happen blue “If carbon dioxide is added to a system containing a plant, then . . .”
The nitrogen cycle
if Earth became much warmer? Be Careful. Wash your hands with soap and water after the
is the movement of
nitrogen among air, soil, Test Practice Which of the following investigation. Immediately wash any area of skin that comes in
plants, and animals. objects would most likely take the contact with bromothymol blue.
(pp. 86–87) longest to decompose?
A plastic bottle Test Your Hypothesis Step
elodea
B eggshell Use a straw to blow slowly into a small
C paper bag cup of bromothymol blue. Record
Make a D schoolbook your observations in your journal.
Study Guide
Test Practice What is the process test tube Be Careful. Be sure to breathe out
Make a three-tab folded book (see in which a liquid changes into a gas? with cap through the straw. Do not breathe in.
pp. 487–490). Use the titles shown. A precipitation Do not drink the liquid in the cup.
On the inside of each tab, write two B evaporation
sentences about Measure Pour 10 milliliters of Step
C condensation
the main idea of bromothymol blue into a test tube.
D collection
the topic. Record the color of the liquid in
straw your journal.
Experiment Use a straw to blow
gently into the test tube until the
liquid turns light green. Place one
piece of elodea in the test tube, and
Writing Link Math Link put the cap on the tube. Step
Expository Writing Estimate Fresh Water Place the test tube in a rack near a
Research a local environmental Of Earth’s fresh water, 69% is polar window, and check the color of the
problem that is related to water or air. ice, 30% is groundwater, and 0.9% graduated bromothymol blue every 30 minutes
cylinder
How does this problem result from is permafrost. What percent of for 2 hours. Record the color of the
human activities? Earth’s fresh water is available for liquid at each interval.
use by people?

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 89 90 6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis.

EVALUATE EXTEND
 CHAPTER 1 Review
Draw Conclusions Fill each blank with the best term
Explain What made the bromothymol blue change color
Summarize the Main Ideas from the list.
in step 1? An ecosystem consists of
the living and nonliving abiotic factor, p. 27 nitrogen cycle, p. 86
Analyze If you had continued blowing into the test tube
things in an area that energy omnivore, p. 73
instead of capping it, what do you think would have happened
interact with each other.
during the 2-hour experiment? pyramid, p. 76
(pp. 24–37) transpiration, p. 48
Infer What part of the carbon cycle did you represent when eukaryote, p. 58
water cycle, p. 83
you blew into the test tube?
Photosynthesis is the niche, p. 36
process of making food
Inquiry Guided by using sunlight. 1. Energy from sunlight is a(n)
(pp. 40–51)
. 6 LS 5.e
What factors affect the water cycle?
2. Everything an organism does
Form a Hypothesis Microscopic producers, and everything it needs make up its
consumers, and . 6 LS 5.e
Does temperature affect the water cycle? Write your answer as
a hypothesis in the form “If the average air temperature changes decomposers are parts
of the food chain. 3. A complex organism that has
over a long period of time, then the water cycle will . . .”
(pp. 54–63) a nucleus in each cell would be
classified as a(n) . 6 LS 5.b
Test Your Hypothesis
Food chains, webs, 4. A(n) would eat both
Design an experiment to investigate how temperature affects the
and pyramids show producers and consumers. 6 LS 5.b, c
water cycle. Write out the materials you need and the steps you
how energy flows
will follow. Record your results and observations.
within an ecosystem. 5. The term describes the
(pp. 66–77) loss of water from leaves. 6 LS 5.a
Draw Conclusions
Did your results support your hypothesis? Why or why not? What 6. A model showing how energy
Water, carbon, and
do you think would happen to the water cycle in a large land area moves through a food chain is
nitrogen cycle through
if volcanic ash blocked the Sun’s rays for a few months? a(n) . 6 LS 5.b
the living and nonliving
parts of the environment.
7. Evaporation, condensation, and
(pp. 80–89)
Inquiry Open precipitation are parts of the
. 6 LS 5.b
What can you learn about the nitrogen cycle? For Remember to follow the
example, does pollution affect it? Come up with a
Make a 8. Denitrifying bacteria are an important
steps of the scientific process.
question to investigate. Then design an experiment to Study Guide part of the . 6 LS 5.b
answer your question, and carry out your experiment. Ask a Question Take a sheet of paper
Organize your experiment to test only one variable, and tape your lesson
or one item being changed. Write down the steps so Form a Hypothesis
study guides as
that another group could complete the experiment by shown. Use the study
following your instructions. guides to answer the
Test Your Hypothesis
questions on these
pages.
Draw Conclusions

91 92
EXTEND
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
Answer each of the following
in complete sentences.
9. Cause and Effect What effect would
over-logging of trees have on the
amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere? 6 LS 5.a
10. Critical Thinking How does the
angle at which the Sun’s rays strike
Earth affect the number and types
of organisms found in different areas
of the world? 6 LS 5.b, e
11. Predict What two effects might
occur if most of the phytoplankton
living in the world’s oceans were
destroyed? 6 LS 5.a
12. Infer Explain why Earth is probably
the only planet in our solar system
that has soil. 6 LS 5.b
13. Explanatory Writing Be a teacher
for the day. How would you explain
the nitrogen cycle to your students?
6 LS 5.b
How do organisms exchange
energy and nutrients in an
ecosystem?
1 What do microscopic organisms
Save the Trees
Suppose a kind of insect is destroying all
the Joshua trees. Your goal is to convince
state officials that funding must be made
available to save the Joshua trees.
What to Do
2 Which of the following types of
1. Find out what niche the Joshua
trees occupy. In what ways do
other organisms living in the same
ecosystem depend on these trees?
2. Prepare a display to show officials
how the destruction of the Joshua
trees could disrupt the food chains
in the ecosystem.
3 Look at the table below.
Analyze Your Results
▶ Explain how a disruption in one
part of an ecosystem can have
far-reaching effects.
▶ Would the benefits of saving the
Joshua tree outweigh the risks of
spraying to prevent insect damage?
4 4 What is the role of a decomposer
provide to larger organisms? 6 LS 5.b when plants die? 6 LS 5.b
A fresh water A to eat the bacteria in the soil
B composing organisms B to store carbon for the plants
C increased sunlight C to break down plant proteins
D food D to turn nitrates into nitrogen gas
5 5 Why are organisms such as
organisms turns energy from the earthworms and fungi called
Sun into chemical energy? 6 LS 5.a decomposers? 6 LS 5.c
A producers A They break down very quickly
B consumers after they die.
C decomposers B They break down other organisms
D composers into simpler substances.
C They are the only organisms that
cannot make their own food.
D They break down carbon dioxide
Category A Category B
into oxygen through respiration.
tomato plant elephant
6 Which of the following best
fern panther
describes the role of roots
cyanobacteria humpback whale
and stems in a plant? 6 LS 5.a
willow tree field mouse
A Roots and stems transport water
grass hawk
and minerals to the leaves so that
photosynthesis can occur.
These organisms are grouped B Roots and stems help the plant
into 6 LS 5.c move and keep cool in hot weather.
A decomposers and tertiary C Roots and stems transport water
consumers. and minerals to the flowers to
B primary consumers and attract bees so that pollination
scavengers. can occur.
C producers and consumers. D Roots and stems are where
D omnivores and producers. photosynthesis takes place.

16/>B3@

93 94
7 The diagram below shows an
ocean energy pyramid.
10 0 The energy in a community
flows from producer to primary
consumer and from primary
consumer to 6 LS 5.c
A tertiary consumer.
B decomposer.
C secondary consumer.
D top predator.

11 1 A scientist observes a crow eating

both insects and grass. What can
she conclude about crows? 6 IE 7.e
A Crows will never eat higher-level
consumers.
B The crow will always eat only
insects or grasses.
Which organism in the C The crow is the only organism
energy pyramid is a secondary that eats insects and grasses.
consumer? 6 LS 5.b D Crows will eat both insects
A seal and grasses.
B penguin
C fish 12 2 Some populations occupy niches
D plant of such importance that many other
organisms depend on them. These
8 8 What adaptations do plants have to populations are called keystone
live in desert environments? 6 LS 5.e species. Which of the following
A They reflect light from the Sun. is an example of a keystone
B They migrate during the day to species? 6 LS 5.e
cooler areas. A Venus’s-flytraps catching flies
C They store water in spongy tissues. in the garden
D They do not grow in desert B moles digging in the soil, creating
environments. long tunnels under grass
C beavers building a dam, creating
9 9 Microscopic organisms that recycle a valuable wetland
organic materials back into the food D birds building a nest high up
chain are 6 LS 5.b in a tree
A producers.
B decomposers.
C users.
D consumers.

Materials prepared by PASS at 95

CHAPTER 2
Lesson 1
Earth’s Land Biomes

PAGE 100
Earth’s Land Lesson 2
Earth’s Water
Ecosystems

and Water PAGE 118

Lesson 3
Ecosystems
in California

PAGE 132
6 LS 5. Organisms in ecosystems exchange energy and
nutrients among themselves and with the environment.

How do organisms survive in land

and water ecosystems?

96 97
 from MOJAVE

Literature
POEM

ELA R 6.3.4.
Define how tone
or meaning is conveyed by Diane Siebert
in poetry through
MOJAVE
word choice, figurative I am the desert.
language, sentence I am free
structure, line length,
punctuation, rhythm, Come walk the sweeping face of me.
repetition, and rhyme.
• ELA W 6.2.3. Write And as the desert seasons change,
research reports. The hands of Nature rearrange
My timeworn face with new designs
Of colors, shadows, shapes and lines:
In wintertime the north winds blow;
My mountain peaks are capped with snow;
But resting, waiting patiently
Beneath the frost that covers me,
I dream of spring, when I can wear
The blossoms of the prickly pear,
Along with flowers, wild and bright,
And butterflies in joyful flight.

Write About It
Response to Literature This poem
describes how a desert changes with
the seasons. What happens when
spring arrives? What causes the
changes to occur? Write a research
report about flowering plants that
grow in the desert. Explain when they
bloom and what causes them to do so.

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com

98 99
Lesson 1
Earth’s
Land Biomes
Although deserts receive little rainfall, many
different organisms live there. In places such as
Joshua Tree National Park in California, you can
discover many secrets of the desert. What kinds of
plants and animals live there? How do they survive?
6 LS 5.d. Students know different kinds of organisms
100 may play similar ecological roles in similar biomes.
ENGAGE
What are Earth’s biomes like? Materials
Make a Prediction
A biome is a land region that has a particular
climate. Earth’s biomes include taiga, tundra,
tropical rain forest, deciduous forest, desert, and
grassland. Do all biomes have the same kinds of
plants and animals? Write your answer as a prediction
in the form “If each biome has a particular climate,
then plants and animals live in each.”
• long piece of
white butcher
Test Your Prediction paper
Work in groups of four or five. Each group • crayons and
should select one biome. colored markers
Tape the paper to the walls of the classroom. • index cards
Research the biome you selected. Find out
Step
about its location, climate, soil, and its plants
and animals.
Make a Model Draw a mural that represents
your biome. Show at least two plants and two
animals that live in the biome. Include a world
map that shows the location of the biome.
Communicate List the information you
collected on the index cards, and attach them
to your mural. Indicate where you obtained
the information.
Draw Conclusions
Compare the plants and animals in the biomes.
What similarities and differences do you see?
Did your observations support your prediction?
Explore More
Compare food chains from the biomes. What are
the main producers in each? What are the main
consumers?
6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an investigation
in written reports and oral presentations.
101
EXPLORE
 Earth’s Biomes
What is a biome?
/@1B71=13/<
▶ Main Idea 6 LS 5.d
Land on Earth can be classified into
The environment defines
six major areas called biomes (BIGH•ohmz).
the ecological roles of A biome is a region with a particular climate
organisms. (KLIGH•muht) that contains certain types of
plants and animals. Climate is the average
▶ Vocabulary /B:/<B71
weather pattern of a region. It is mainly =13/< B`]^WQ]T
biome, p. 102 determined by temperature and precipitation. 1O\QS`
climate, p. 102 Differences in climate from place to place create >/17471
deciduous, p. 110 =13/<
different conditions for living things. 3_cOb]`
taiga, p. 112 7<27/<
tundra, p. 113 =13/<
B`]^WQ]T
7QS
1O^`WQ]`\
Bc\R`O
BOWUO
-Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com 2SQWRc]caT]`Sab
B`]^WQOZ`OW\T]`Sab
▶ Reading Skill 5`OaaZO\R
Cause and Effect 2SaS`b
Reading Maps
1OcaS3TTSQb
Why are there different
biomes around the world?
Clue: Look at where different
Climate affects plant and animal
biomes are located in relation
life. All the organisms in a biome are to the equator.
adapted to live in the region’s climate.
That is why you will not find a penguin
on a beach in Southern California or America, South America, Africa, Asia,
a cactus growing in the Arctic. and Australia. However, most deserts
Several factors help determine lie at about latitude 30°N or 30°S.
a region’s climate. One factor is the Tundra biomes exist in North America
amount of sunlight. Areas closer to and Asia. At what latitude are they
the equator receive more direct sunlight located?
than areas closer to the poles. Wind
patterns, ocean currents, and barriers Quick Check
such as mountains also affect climate.
Distance above sea level is another Cause and Effect How does
factor. Places at higher elevations tend the amount of sunlight in a
to have cooler climates. region affect its climate?
A particular biome can be found Critical Thinking Why do you
in different parts of the world. For think some plants live only in
California redwood forest
example, desert biomes exist in North biomes with cold climates?
102 103
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
What are tropical
rain forests?
Tropical rain forests are biomes
located near the equator, where the
Sun’s rays strike Earth’s surface most
directly. The climate in tropical rain
forests is hot and humid, with a lot
of rainfall. This climate supports an
enormous variety of plant and
animal species—more than those
in all the other biomes combined.
Vegetation grows in the rain
forest in four levels. At the top is
the emergent layer. This layer is
made up of the tops of very tall
trees that emerge from the forest
below into the sunlight above.
Many birds nest in this area to
avoid predators.
The next level, the canopy,
shades the rain forest with a thick
blanket of foliage. This foliage is
so thick that very little sunlight
passes through to the layers below.
Plants such as orchids grow on
the branches of trees, with their
roots exposed to the air. Orchids
absorb water and nutrients through
their roots. Many animals, such as
toucans, monkeys, snakes, owls,
and insects, make their homes in the
canopy. With an abundance of food
available to them, some animals
never leave this level.
Reading Diagrams
Why do you think many animals live in
the canopy layer?
Clue: Where do animals find food?
104
EXPLAIN
Tropical Rain Forest Tropical Rain Forest
Location: Near the equator
emergent layer
Climate: Hot year round,
200–460 cm (80–180 in.)
scarlet macaw of precipitation per year
Soil: Poor in nutrients
Plants: Greatest diversity of any
biome; vines, orchids, ferns, and
a wide variety of trees
Animals: More species of insects,
canopy reptiles, and amphibians than any
other biome; many tree-dwelling
animals
emerald tree boa
understory Rain forests are found in Central
The Understory and
America, South America, India, Africa,
the Forest Floor Southeast Asia, Australia, and many
Beneath the canopy of the rain tropical islands. Although plant and
forest is the understory. This layer is animal species found in each rain-forest
made up of the trunks of the canopy environment may differ, their roles
trees as well as shrubs, vines, and remain the same. For example, squirrel
small plants. Animals such as frogs, monkeys live in large troops in the
red-eyed tree frog insects, snakes, and jaguars and other tropical rain forests of South America.
cats live in the understory. This part of The talapoin, another small monkey,
the forest receives very little sunlight. lives in large troops in the rain forests
The bottom level of the rain forest of central Africa. Both types of monkeys
forest floor
is the forest floor. Without sunlight eat fruit, seeds, insects, and eggs.
very few plants can grow here. The
soil is low in nutrients, because the Quick Check
shallow root systems of rain-forest
Cause and Effect Why does little
trees quickly absorb nutrients. Rain
sunlight reach the understory and
also washes away some plant nutrients.
the floor of a tropical rain forest?
Insects, snakes, frogs, and mice live on
the forest floor. Plants here have large Critical Thinking Which layer of
leaves to capture the limited amount a tropical rain forest receives the
tapir of sunlight. most sunlight? Why?
105
EXPLAIN
What are deserts?
Deserts are areas that receive less
than 25 cm (about 10 in.) of rainfall
per year. Plants and animals that live
in deserts have special adaptations for
surviving in such dry environments.
There are four major types of deserts:
hot and dry deserts, semideserts, coastal
deserts, and cold deserts. The types
are determined by their temperature
ranges and the amount of rainfall they
receive. Desert biomes are found on
every continent, including Antarctica.
Remember the definition of a desert.
It is determined by the amount of
rainfall, not the location.
Hot and Dry Deserts
As the name implies, these deserts are
hot and dry year-round, especially in the
summer. During the day the desert air
contains little moisture to block the Sun’s
Hot and Dry Desert
Location: Middle latitudes
Climate: Very hot days and cool
nights, less than 25 cm (10 in.) of
precipitation per year
Soil: Poor in animal- and plant-
decay products but often rich in
minerals
Plants: Cactuses, yucca, bunch
grasses, shrubs, and a few trees
Animals: Rodents, snakes, lizards,
tortoises, insects, birds; in the
Sahara in Africa, camels, gazelles,
antelopes, small foxes, snakes,
lizards, and gerbils
106
EXPLAIN
rays. At night the air can become very
cool, because there is no cloud cover, and
the dry air loses heat easily after dark.
Hot and dry deserts receive little
rainfall. When rain does fall, the water
often evaporates before it reaches the
ground. Occasionally, short periods
of heavy rain occur and may cause
flooding. Like other hot and dry
deserts, the Mojave Desert in California
has plants and animals that live in dry
conditions. Plants that conserve water,
such as yucca, prickly pear, and agave,
can survive there. The animals tend
to rest during the hot day and become
active when the temperatures fall at
night. They include insects, spiders,
reptiles, birds, and burrowing animals.
Animals in other desert regions play
similar roles. For example, the jerboa of
the Sahara in Africa also burrows in the
sand during the day and comes out at
night to search for food.
Arches National Park, Utah
collared lizard
Semideserts
Semideserts are often located
between a hot and dry desert and a
grassland or a woodland. As in hot and
dry deserts, summer temperatures are
hot during the day and cooler at night.
Semidesert plants include the creosote
bush, bur sage, white thorn, catclaw,
mesquite, and brittlebush. During the
day, insects stay in shaded areas. Many
animals remain in their burrows, where
they are protected from the heat. The
most common animal species include
ground squirrels, jackrabbits, kangaroo
mice, and kit foxes.
Coastal Deserts
and Cold Deserts
Coastal deserts are typically found
on the western edges of continents.
They have cool winters and warm
summers. The Atacama Desert in Chile
is a coastal desert near the Pacific
Ocean. It is Earth’s driest desert and
sometimes receives no rain at all for
several years. Cold deserts are found
near the North and South poles, in
places such as Antarctica, central Asia,
and Greenland. These deserts have
long, cold winters and short summers.
Endangered Species
Choose an endangered animal
species to study.
Use books, Web sites, and other
sources to find information about
this endangered species.
Identify the species’ niche in
its biome. Find out what it eats,
where it lives, and how it interacts
with plants and other animals in
the biome.
Draw a food web that shows
the interactions between the
endangered species and the plants
and other animals in the biome.
Show how they depend on each
other for resources such as food
and shelter.
Infer What would happen if this
animal became extinct?
Quick Check
Cause and Effect How does dry
desert air contribute to the heat of
a hot and dry desert?
Critical Thinking How does
resting during the day help desert
animals survive?
107
EXPLAIN
What are grasslands
and savannas?
Grasslands are biomes in which
grasses are the main plant life. Rainfall
is irregular and usually not plentiful.
Temperatures are cool in winter
and warm in summer. Some of the
world’s most fertile soils are found in
grasslands. For this reason grasslands
are often used for farming. The roots
of grassland plants hold soil in place.
If the plants are removed, the soil can
be blown away by winds.
In the late 1800s, thousands of
settlers in North America moved into
the area known as the Great Plains.
Grassland
Location: Middle latitudes, interiors
of continents
Climate: Cool in winter and warm
in summer, 25–75 cm (10–30 in.) of
precipitation per year
Soil: Rich topsoil
Plants: Mostly grasses and small shrubs,
some trees growing near sources of
water
Animals: Prairie dogs, foxes, small
mammals, snakes, insects, and various
birds in American grasslands; elephants,
lions, zebras, and giraffes
in African grasslands
108
EXPLAIN
Arriving in covered wagons called
prairie schooners, they found prairies
full of tall grasses as well as bison
and other wildlife. Before long these
tallgrass prairies were plowed under
for farmland. Only about 1% of the
original grasslands still exists.
The plants and animals in
grasslands vary from place to place.
In North America, herbivores such
as bison, gophers, ground squirrels,
and prairie dogs live in the grasslands.
Carnivores there include coyotes,
badgers, and black-footed ferrets. The
grasslands of central Russia, known as
steppes, have different animals, such
as Siberian chipmunks and wild boars.
The grasslands of Argentina, known as
the pampas, are home to pampas deer.
▼ A bison grazes in a grassland biome.
Savannas In savannas and grasslands around
the world, different organisms may
Savannas are a type of grassland.
play the same role. For example, the
They stay warm year round. The soil
serval, a type of wildcat, lives in the
is not as fertile as the soil of other
savannas of Africa. It has the same
grasslands. However, savannas receive
feeding behavior as the maned wolf
more rainfall than other grasslands,
of the South American grasslands.
although not enough to support a dense
Even though they live on different
growth of trees. Savannas have long,
continents, both prey on rodents,
dry winters and very wet summers.
lizards, and other small animals.
During the dry season, natural fires
Plants, such as the eucalyptus tree of
occur. These fires help clear out dead
the Australian savanna and Africa’s
leaves and branches, prevent trees and
acacia tree, also play similar roles.
shrubs from growing, and encourage
the growth of grasses.
Quick Check
Africa has large savannas dotted
with acacia trees, which provide shade Cause and Effect What happens
for animals. Animals in the African when a natural fire occurs in a
savannas include lions, giraffes, zebras, savanna?
and antelope. Critical Thinking What role do
grasses play in a grassland biome?
▼ a family of lions in the African savanna
109
EXPLAIN

What are temperate
deciduous forests?
For a few months each year, the
deciduous (di•SIHJ•uh•wuhs) forests
in some parts of North America are
ablaze with color. This is when the
leaves turn from green to the colors
of autumn—red, orange, yellow, and
brown—before falling to the ground.
fungi on a
tree trunk
110
EXPLAIN
Deciduous Forest
Location: Middle latitudes
Climate: Relatively mild summers and
cold winters, 76–127 cm (30–50 in.)
of precipitation per year
Soil: Rich topsoil over clay
Plants: Hardwoods such as oak,
beech, hickory, and maple trees
Animals: Wolves, deer, bears, and
a wide variety of small mammals,
birds, amphibians, reptiles, and
insects
Deciduous means “tending to
fall off during a particular season.”
Deciduous forests are those in which
the leaves fall off many of the trees
when winter comes. This enables the
tree to conserve energy when sunlight
is scarce. Deciduous trees include ash,
oak, beech, hickory, and maple. When
the leaves fall to the ground, they
decay, making the soil very rich and
fertile. Decomposers such as bacteria
help break down the leaves. Deciduous
forests also have species of evergreen
trees. Most evergreen trees do not shed
their leaves.
Deciduous forests are found in
eastern North America, northeastern
Asia, and western and central Europe.
In these forests, mosses, mushrooms,
and ferns carpet the forest floor.
Animals in a Temperate
Deciduous Forest
You might observe birds such as
cardinals, robins, crows, and hawks
in deciduous forests. Under a rock you
might find a salamander, a frog, or a
garter snake. Chipmunks, squirrels,
mice, and deer move through the
forest looking for food. Some forest great horned owl
animals are herbivores that eat nuts,
berries, and leaves. Other animals,
such as cougars, coyotes, bears, owls,
and raccoons, are predators.
Great horned owls live in forests
throughout the Americas. Owls are
very efficient hunters. They usually
become active at twilight, when the
Sun has almost set. They have very
good eyesight and can spot the small
animals that run along the forest floor.
deer
Their specialized feathers allow them
to fly almost noiselessly.
Deer often live in forests. These
animals will eat almost any plants.
The spotted coat of a young deer helps
it hide in the dappled light of a forest.
The number of deer has increased
dramatically in some areas.
Ferns and mosses have adaptations
that allow them to survive in the weak
light that penetrates the tree leaves.
Fungi do not need light to survive. red salamander
They get their energy from breaking
down dead organisms.
The red salamander is often found Quick Check
in damp places under rocks or logs.
Cause and Effect How do fallen
Some salamanders can take in oxygen
leaves affect the soil of the forest?
through their skin. In many places the
number of these small creatures has Critical Thinking What is the main
declined dramatically. characteristic of a deciduous forest?
111
EXPLAIN

Taiga
Location: Middle to high latitudes
Climate: Very cold winters and cool
summers, about 50 cm (20 in.) of
precipitation per year
Soil: Acidic and poor in minerals,
decayed pine and spruce needles on
surface
Plants: Mostly spruces, firs, and other
evergreens
Animals: Birds (in summer), rodents,
snowshoe hares, lynx, sables, ermines,
caribou, bears, and wolves
What are taigas
and tundras?
Taigas (TIGH•guhs) and tundras are
biomes found in far northern regions.
The climates in these regions include
very cold winters. For this reason
tundras and taigas have fewer plant
and animal species than other biomes.
Taigas
Taiga is the Russian word for “forest.”
A taiga is a cool forest of cone-bearing
evergreen trees. It is sometimes called
a boreal forest. Trees in the taiga grow
in clusters that provide some protection
against winter’s cold and wind. The
112
EXPLAIN
wolves in a taiga
taiga of the Northern Hemisphere,
which stretches across Eurasia and North
America, is the world’s largest biome.
Taiga winters are very cold, and
summers are warm, rainy, and humid.
These summer conditions encourage
millions of insects to reproduce, which
in turn attracts migrating birds. Taiga
plant life is limited to the few species
that can survive the rugged winters.
These include trees such as pine,
spruce, and hemlock as well as low-
growing lichens and mosses. Taigas are
also home to predators such as lynx,
wolverines, and bobcats. These animals
hunt herbivores such as snowshoe
hares, red squirrels, and voles.
caribou in a tundra
Tundras
A tundra is a very cold, dry biome
that includes a layer of permanently
frozen soil. The frozen-soil layer is
called permafrost. Tundras cover
about 20% of Earth’s surface. In the
Northern Hemisphere, tundras circle
the North Pole and spread south to
the taigas.
The cold, dry tundra conditions
limit the types of plants and animals
that can survive there. The permafrost
prevents trees and large plants from
rooting. However, mosses, grasses,
lichens, flowers, and low shrubs can
grow. They have adapted to resist the
cold, harsh winds. Mammals such as
Tundra
Location: High, northern latitudes
Climate: Very cold, harsh, long
winters and cool, short summers;
10–25 cm (4–10 in.) of precipitation
per year
Soil: Poor in nutrients; permafrost
layer a few centimeters (inches) down
Plants: Grasses, wildflowers, mosses,
and small shrubs
Animals: Musk oxen, migrating
caribou, arctic foxes, weasels,
snowshoe hares, owls, hawks, various
rodents, and occasional polar bears
snowshoe hares, caribou, and musk
oxen feed on lichens and plants.
Predators such as hawks, wolves,
arctic foxes, and polar bears feed on
these herbivores and other animals.
As in the taigas, summer brings many
different species of insects, which
attract migratory birds.
Quick Check
Cause and Effect How does
permafrost affect tundra plant life?
Critical Thinking Why do plants
such as grasses, mosses, and
small shrubs grow in taigas?
113
EXPLAIN
What lives in Earth’s
coldest places?
Freezing temperatures can be found
at Earth’s North and South poles. In
these places the landscape is white,
because snow or ice lasts the whole
year. Cold winds and icy temperatures
are a year-round feature.
The Arctic regions, near the North
Pole, and the Antarctic regions, near
the South Pole, differ in one important
way. There is no land near the North
Pole. What appears to be snow- and
ice-covered land is actually only snow-
and ice-covered water. In most winters
the polar ice cap that covers the North
Pole is solid. In the summer this polar
ice cap breaks up into smaller pieces.
Sometimes huge icebergs break off and
drift south into the North Atlantic
shipping lanes.
The snow and ice near the
South Pole, however, cover the huge
continent of Antarctica. In the summer
the vast continent remains covered
with snow and ice. Glaciers near the
polar bear
114
EXPLAIN
ocean’s edge produce icebergs. These
icebergs float north on ocean waters
toward the equator.
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Life in the Polar Regions Main Idea What defines the ecological
A biome is a region
roles of organisms?
Most life on Earth depends on with a particular climate
that contains certain Vocabulary The average weather
energy from the Sun. This energy is
types of plants and pattern of a region is its .
trapped by plants and other producers animals.
and enters the food chain. In the cold Cause and Effect How do cool
(pp. 102–103)
polar regions, plants are not able to nighttime temperatures affect desert
animals?
grow on land. All life in these regions Tropical rain forests
have more species of
ultimately depends upon life in the 1OcaS3TTSQb
plants and animals than
sea. Close to the North Pole, the polar all the other biomes
bear, Earth’s largest land carnivore, combined.
can be found. The diet of these bears (pp. 104–105)
consists mostly of seals and walruses,
The tundra and taiga
animals that live on fish and shellfish. Critical Thinking Explain why areas in
biomes are found in far
In the winter polar bears move south the Arctic can be classified as deserts.
northern regions and
into land areas, where they eat small have cold climates. Test Practice Which layer of the
animals, plants, and sometimes food (pp. 112–113) tropical rain forest contains a thick
scraps discarded by people. blanket of foliage?
A emergent layer
Antarctica has no land carnivores. B canopy
One animal that does live there is Make a
Study Guide C understory
the penguin. Like seals and walruses, D forest floor
penguins feed in the ocean. These Make a trifold book
(see pp. 487–490). Test Practice Which biome has dry
birds often nest far from their ocean winters and wet summers?
Use the titles
food source. They must walk many shown. In each A taiga
kilometers to feed on fish in the sea column, list the B savanna
and then return to their nesting sites causes and effects C tundra
far inland. They are in danger when of changes to D desert
they return to the ocean to feed. Many biomes.
penguins are eaten by leopard seals
and sharks while they look for food.
Writing Link Math Link
Quick Check
Write a Story Make a Bar Graph
Cause and Effect Why are Write a story about life in one of the Using data from this lesson, find the
penguins in danger when they biomes you have studied. In your story average annual rainfall for each biome.
go to the ocean to feed? use information about the biome, such Then make a bar graph to show your
as its location, climate, soil, plants, and results.
Critical Thinking Plants are
animals.
not part of the food chain in
polar regions. Why is this so?
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 115
EVALUATE
Sequence
Many things on Earth occur in a sequence.
Think about it. You cannot be 13 years old before
you are 12, and leaves do not fall off deciduous
trees until the leaves have matured. The same
is true about the layers of soil in a land biome.
By digging down to lower layers, scientists can
learn more about a biome and any changes that
have taken place over time. In general, in a soil
sequence, the lowest layers are the oldest.
Learn It
When you put things in sequence, you put
one thing after another in a fixed order. When you
sequence events, you put them in the order in which
they happened. This order helps you see patterns.
When scientists do experiments, they record
their data in a time sequence showing what
happened first, next, and last. Scientists need these
data not only to verify what they discovered and
when but also to be able to repeat the investigation
or try it in a different way. A sequence chart is a
useful tool for recording these kinds of data.
Try It
▶ Suppose scientists wanted to verify the soil
layers in a biome. They would make a plan to
dig into the ground and examine it. Here is a
sequence chart they might keep, but it is not in
the correct order. Write a number in front of each
box to show the order in which each layer would
be found. Use number 1 for the topmost layer.
▶ Which level contained the newest soil materials?
▶ What did scientists find at the oldest level?
▶ How could knowing the sequence of soil and
rock layers in a desert biome help scientists?
116
EXTEND

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Apply It
▶ In this activity you will build a grassy environment. As
you do this activity, make a sequence chart to show
each step in your project and your observations. The
overall growth of the plants will show whether you
have built a healthy environment. You will need a
10-gallon fish tank, gravel, charcoal, sand, topsoil,
grass seed, small seedlings, a plastic spoon, a
mixing bowl, a watering can, plastic wrap, tape, a
measuring cup, and a ruler.
1. Spread a 1-inch layer of gravel on the bottom
of the tank with the spoon. Mix in a little
charcoal, and then spread a 1-inch layer of
sand over the gravel.
2. Measure 2 parts topsoil to 1 part sand in the bowl, and mix
thoroughly. Spread a 2- to 3-inch layer of the mixture over
the sand and gravel.

3. Sprinkle grass seed on half of the soil. Plant seedlings in
the other half. Be sure to cover the roots and leave space
between plants. Water the landscape gently until it is moist
on top.
4. Cover the tank with plastic wrap. Use tape to secure the
plastic tightly over the top. Place the tank in a sunny place.
5. Check the tank each day for a week, and record what you
observe. Then answer the following questions.
▶ Do the layers in your environment appear to be in the
same order as they were in the Try It activity?
▶ What did you observe in your environment?
▶ Using words and diagrams, describe the sequence that seeds
go through as they germinate and grow.
6 IE 7.g. Interpret events by sequence and time from natural
117
phenomena (e.g., the relative ages of rocks and intrusions).
EXTEND
Lesson 2
What are water ecosystems like? Materials

Make a Prediction
Earth’s Water What will you observe when you compare samples
of water from different sources? Will the contents be
alike or different? Write your answer as a prediction
in the form “If water samples come from different
Ecosystems sources, then . . .”

Test Your Prediction

Obtain from your teacher samples of pond, lake,
and ocean water. Place each sample in a different • microscope
container. Label each container. • slides with
Observe Note the appearance of each water coverslips
sample, and record your observations. • water samples
from ponds, lakes,
For each sample, place a drop of the water on
and the ocean
a slide, and carefully place a coverslip over it.
Observe Examine the slide under a microscope Step
at low power and at high power.
Communicate Record what you see on each slide.

Draw Conclusions
Interpret Data Compare the samples. How
are they alike and different? What do your
observations tell you about water ecosystems?
Did your results support your prediction? Step

Explore More
What organisms did you observe in the water
samples? Where do the organisms fit in the food
chain? Draw a possible food chain for each sample.
If you bend a light stick, it glows. The glow comes
from a chemical reaction. Some squids use a similar
chemical reaction, known as bioluminescence, to
produce light. This squid lives in deep ocean water.
6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including calculators,
Why do you think the squid produces its own light? computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and binoculars) to perform tests,
collect data, and display data. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from
an investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

6 LS 5.d. Students know different kinds of organisms

118 may play similar ecological roles in similar biomes. 119
ENGAGE EXPLORE
 Zones of Ocean Life
What are ocean ecosystems?
6 LS 5.d
Oceans cover about 75% of Earth’s surface.
▶ Main Idea The shallowest part of the ocean is
Organisms in water
The water in the oceans plays an important role in
the intertidal zone , the area between the
ecosystems play roles the water cycle. Energy from the Sun causes water
high-tide line and the low-tide line. At high
similar to those of to evaporate. The evaporated water rises and
tide the intertidal zone is covered by water.
organisms in land biomes. forms clouds. Eventually the water falls back to
At low tide it is exposed to sunlight and air.
Earth as rain or snow.
▶ Vocabulary Some animals, such as crabs, burrow into
intertidal zone, p. 121
The oceans are divided into regions in much the sand.
nekton, p. 123
the same way that land is divided into biomes.
benthos, p. 123
The regions have different conditions that affect
estuary, p. 126
the plants and animals living in them. Factors From the low-tide line to the point where
that affect ocean organisms include temperature, the ocean floor drops off is the neritic
-Glossary salt content, water pressure, tides, and the (nuhr•I•tik) zone. Sunlight penetrates the
@ www.macmillanmh.com amount of sunlight that penetrates the water. water here, allowing many photosynthetic
organisms to grow. In addition, runoff from
▶ Reading Skill the land adds nutrients to the water. For these
▼ These lyretail anthias live near a coral reef.
Summarize reasons, the neritic zone is richer in plant and
animal life than any other part of the ocean.

Ac[[O`g The oceanic zone is divided into two

main areas. From about 200 m (656 ft)
deep to about 2,000 m (6,562 ft) deep
is the bathyal (BATH•ee•uhl) zone. Here
you will find sharks, squid, octopuses,
different species of fish, and many other
organisms. Below the bathyal zone is the
abyssal (uh•BIS•uhl) zone. At depths greater
than 100 m (328 ft), there is no sunlight.
The organisms that live at these depths have
adapted to the cold, dark conditions.

Reading Photos

In what zone of ocean life do many

plants grow?
Quick Check
Clue: Look for the photosynthetic Summarize What causes the
organisms. abyssal zone to have few animals?
Critical Thinking Why do many
plants grow in the neritic zone?
120 121
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 Ocean Food Chain
^Vgb]^ZO\Yb]\
a[OZZTWaV
]]^ZO\Yb]\
What are ocean food
chains like?
There are hydrothermal vents in
some of the deepest parts of the ocean.
Here jets of hot water rich in minerals
come up through cracks in the ocean
floor. No sunlight reaches the vents, so
photosynthesis cannot occur. Bacteria
live near the vents. These bacteria
produce food through the process of
chemosynthesis (kee•moh•SIN•thuh•sis),
which is based on chemical reactions
rather than light as an energy source.
These bacteria form the bases of food
chains that include microscopic
animals, snails, shrimp, crabs, tube
worms, octopuses, and fish.
There are many possible food chains
in the oceans. Like other food chains,
those in the oceans include producers
122
EXPLAIN
ZO`USTWaV
aVO`Y
Reading Diagrams
What role do phytoplankton play
in an ocean food chain?
Clue: What animals feed on
phytoplankton?
Watch an ocean
food chain@ www.macmillanmh.com
and different levels of consumers,
ranging from small organisms to larger
ones, as well as decomposers.
Ocean food chains begin with
plankton, microorganisms that
live near the surface of the water.
Phytoplankton (FIGH•toh•plank•tuhn)
are microscopic organisms that,
like plants, use the Sun’s energy to
make food through photosynthesis.
Other organisms eat phytoplankton
and receive some of this energy.
Zooplankton (ZOH•uh•plank•tuhn) are
microscopic animals that feed
on phytoplankton. Small fish and
other animals eat the zooplankton.
Ocean Food Web
OZUOS
a_cWR
Y`WZZ
TWaV
POZSS\eVOZS
Larger fish eat the smaller fish and
other animals, and mammals such
as orcas eat the larger fish. Without
plankton, other ocean organisms would
not have the food they need to survive.
Ocean food chains are not all the
same. Some are short—for example,
blue whales feeding on plankton. In
others, many organisms feed on one
another in turn. The neritic zone has
many complex food chains.
Ocean Organisms
Ocean organisms can be divided into
three main categories. Plankton float
near the surface of the water. Sometimes
called floaters, they make up the largest
group of organisms. Nekton (NEK•tuhn)
are animals, such as flounder, tuna, and
squid, that swim through the water.
^S\UcW\
]`QO
aSOZ
Nekton come in many shapes and sizes
and can be found in any ocean zone.
Many nekton are predators, able to
swim after their prey. Nekton are also
prey for other animals.
Benthos (BEN•thahs) are organisms
that live on or near the ocean floor.
Benthos include seaweed and kelp as
well as the tube worms that live near
hydrothermal vents.
Quick Check
Summarize What would happen
if an accident killed off the
phytoplankton in an area of
the ocean?
Critical Thinking How does
the ability to swim help nekton
obtain food?
123
EXPLAIN
What are freshwater
ecosystems?
Freshwater ecosystems exist in
and around bodies of water that
contain little salt. These bodies of
water include ponds, lakes, streams,
rivers, and wetlands. Some of the same
factors that affect ocean life—such as
sunlight, temperature, and the amount
of food and oxygen present—also
affect freshwater ecosystems.
In most ponds and lakes, the water
is mostly still. You may see a covering
of green algae. There may be plants
such as cattails, bur reeds, and water
lilies. Insects may glide over the water’s
surface. They may become food for
the fish that swim below.
Streams and rivers have moving
water. Plants and animals there have
developed adaptations to keep from
being swept away. Reeds have roots
young river otter in
a freshwater ecosystem
124
EXPLAIN
that anchor them to the bottom. Some
fish, such as trout, have streamlined
bodies, while other animals have
hooks and claws that help them cling
to objects.
Conserving Water
As cities grow, people need more
water. Water is piped into cities, where
people and industries use it. However,
the amount of fresh water available is
not increasing. We can conserve water
in three ways. The first and best way is
to use less. The second way is to reuse
water. Many cities reuse wastewater to
water plants, trees, and grassy areas.
The third way to conserve water is to
clean it and recycle it, or use it again
for the same purpose.
Plants as Water Filters
tricolored heron
in a wetland
Wetlands
Wetlands are areas in which water
is near the surface of the soil much of
the time. In California, most wetlands
are salt marshes, which help keep
the shoreline from washing away.
Birds that migrate from one place to
another use salt marshes as rest stops.
Wetlands serve as natural water filters,
and they provide flood protection and
erosion control. They can help remove
pollutants released by industry and
agriculture.
You could also think of wetlands as
the nurseries of the sea. Many kinds of
fish and birds lay their eggs and raise
their young in the wetlands.
During the past 200 years, about
half of all the wetlands in the United
States were destroyed. Many were
drained or filled in with soil for use
as farms or places to build homes.
In the 1970s, people began to protect
and restore wetlands. Today more and
more people recognize the value of
these unique ecosystems.
Set four small potted houseplants,
with their pots, into the tops of
four clear containers.
Slowly pour clean water into one
of the pots and watch it trickle
through the pot into the container.
Observe the liquid that comes out.
Add about 1 g
of soil to a cup
of water and
stir. Pour this
mixture into
a second pot.
Observe the
liquid that leaves the pot.
Add some colored, powdered drink
mix to a cup of water and stir.
Slowly pour the mixture through
a third pot. Note the color of the
water that drains from the pot.
Mix about 30 mL of liquid soap with
a cup of water. Pour this mixture
through the fourth pot. Does the
soap flow through the soil?
Observe Empty the containers
under the third and fourth pots.
Then pour some clean water over
both plants. What drains out?
Draw Conclusions Based on your
results, what can you conclude
about the role of plants in
wetlands?
Quick Check
Summarize Explain why it is
important to conserve water.
Critical Thinking What is the
advantage of strong roots to river reeds?
125
EXPLAIN
What happens when fresh
water meets salt water?
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
An estuary (ES•choo•eh•ree) is the
part of a river where fresh water meets Ocean ecosystems
Main Idea Organisms in
play roles similar to those of organisms
the sea and is affected by tides. Bays, cover about 75% of
in land biomes.
inlets, and harbors are also examples Earth’s surface.
(pp. 120–121) Vocabulary The area between the
of estuaries. The water in an estuary
high-tide line and the low-tide line
contains less salt than the water in the
is the .
ocean, but it is not as fresh as river
water. As the tide flows in and out, Ocean food chains Summarize What causes the amount
^Vgb]^ZO\Yb]\ begin with
a[OZZTWaV
of salt in the water of an estuary to
the amount of salt in the water of an ]]^ZO\Yb]\
ZO`USTWaV microorganisms change?
estuary changes. Sometimes the water called plankton.
at the surface is fresh, while denser Tall grasses and their roots protect aVO`Y (pp. 122–123)
salt water remains below. Organisms young fish and other animals. About
that live in estuaries, such as turtles, three fourths of all the fish caught in Freshwater
sea grasses, clams, and fish, adapt to the United States each year spent part ecosystems include Ac[[O`g
the changing levels of salt and oxygen of their lives in estuaries. ponds, lakes, rivers,
in the water. Estuaries filter the water streams, and wetlands.
Critical Thinking How would a
and help prevent flooding. (pp. 124–125)
Quick Check streamlined body help a fish survive
Estuaries are full of plant and in an ecosystem with moving water?
Summarize Why should people
animal life. The nutrients washed Make a Test Practice What organisms form
conserve estuaries? the base of an ocean food chain?
in by rivers help plants and animals Study Guide
thrive. Many kinds of birds and water- Critical Thinking Compare and A plankton
Make a layered- B small fish
dwelling animals breed in estuaries. contrast a wetland and an estuary. look book (see C large fish
pp. 487–490). D mammals
Use the titles
shown. On the Test Practice Which organisms
inside of each live on or near the ocean floor?
fold, summarize A plankton
how that topic can help you understand B nekton
Earth’s water ecosystems. C bathyal
D benthos

Art Link Math Link

Make a Poster
Learn about a particular wetland. Draw
all the living and nonliving things
you can find in this wetland. How is
it similar to and different from the
community where you live?
Make a Line Graph
Research population growth in California
for the past five years, and make a line
graph of your data. Plot the years on
the x-axis and the number of people
on the y-axis.

Russian River, California

126 -Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 127
EXPLAIN EVALUATE

Meet
Eleanor Sterling
Did you know that more animal
species live on coral reefs than in rain
forests? Like sprawling cities in the
sea, reefs are home to thousands of
species of marine organisms, from sea
turtles and giant clams to tiny coral
polyps. When reefs are damaged,
the organisms that live there are in
danger, too. Protecting coral reefs is
a complicated business, and that’s
exactly what Eleanor Sterling and
her colleagues are working to do.
Eleanor is a scientist at the
American Museum of Natural History.
She travels to different ecosystems
around the world to study and
conserve the diversity of life. She
and her colleagues recently visited
a group of islands in the
middle of the Pacific
Ocean to study the
coral reefs.
▶ Palmyra Atoll
128
EXTEND
One of these islands is called the
Palmyra Atoll. It is unusual because it
is one of the most isolated places in the
world, and only scientists are allowed to
visit. The reefs at Palmyra are healthy.
▲ Eleanor is a conservation
biologist. That’s a scientist
who studies endangered
environments and
organisms and works to
ensure their conservation.
ELA R 6.2.3. Connect and clarify main ideas
by identifying their relationships to other
sources and related topics.
Meet a Scientist
Unfortunately, though, many
reefs around the world are
being threatened by fishing
practices, unusually warm water
temperatures, deforestation, soil
erosion, and tourism.
In Palmyra Eleanor and her
colleagues dive underwater and
kayak around the islands to ▲ Eleanor Sterling studies the
document the wildlife that lives reefs near Palmyra Atoll.
in the reef. They are especially
interested in the sea turtles. Nobody
knows how many sea turtles live in scientists use all this information
Palmyra, so the scientists are trying to find ways to protect this habitat.
to find out how large the population From their work they learn lessons
is, what parts of the reefs they use, that can be used to protect marine
and what they need to survive. The ecosystems all over the world.
Write About It
Cause and Effect
Cause and Effect
▶ Think about factors that
1. What factors cause damage to coral
cause changes to occur.
reefs?
2. How does damage to coral reefs affect
▶ Consider the effects of
the organisms that live in them?
each type of change.
-Journal Write about it online
@ www.macmillanmh.com
129
EXTEND
 Inquiry Structured Draw Conclusions
Materials Explain What happened when you placed the egg in the salt
What is an estuary? water? In the fresh water?
Analyze Based on your experiment, what can you determine
Form a Hypothesis
about water found in estuaries? What can you determine about
Fresh water and salt water have many similarities and differences. the animals and plants in estuaries?
Both saltwater ecosytems and freshwater ecosystems have food webs
plastic cups that exist because of the Sun’s energy. Both types of ecosystems have
animals and plants that thrive in all types of temperatures. Estuaries Inquiry Guided
are areas where fresh water flows into the ocean. This creates an
area that has a different salt content and is a haven for many types of How do ocean salt levels affect
creatures. What are some unique characteristics of estuary waters?
plastic spoons living things?
Write your answer as a hypothesis in the form “If estuary water is
different from salt water and fresh water, then buoyancy . . .”
Form a Hypothesis
Be Careful. Wash your hands with soap and water after the activity.
What would happen to sea life if the ocean’s salt levels changed?
Write your answer as a hypothesis in the form “If the ocean’s salt
Test Your Hypothesis Step
levels change, then the organisms will . . .”
Label three cups Fresh Water,
salt water made Ocean Water, and Estuary Water.
Test Your Hypothesis
from ocean mix Measure Pour 200 milliliters of Design an experiment to investigate what effect salt levels have
tap water into the cup labeled on organisms such as brine shrimp. Write out the materials you will
Fresh Water. Pour 200 milliliters need and the steps you will follow. As you follow your plan, record
of salt water into the cup labeled your results and observations.
Ocean Water.
Place an egg in the salt water. Draw Conclusions
waterproof Record your observations in your
markers Step Did your results support your hypothesis? Why or why not?
journal, and mark the egg with a
Present your results to your classmates.
marker at the water level.
Place the same egg in the fresh
water, and mark the egg again. Inquiry Open
Record your observations in your
journal. What else can you learn about estuaries and their
eggs inhabitants? For example, what types of animal life Remember to follow the
Remove 100 milliliters of water can be found in estuaries? Think of a question to steps of the scientific process.
from each cup, and pour it slowly investigate. Then design an experiment or write out
Step
into the cup labeled Estuary Water. a research strategy to answer your question. Carry Ask a Question
Record what happens to the water out your experiment or your research, and present
as you pour the two together. your results to your classmates. Form a Hypothesis
Place the egg in the estuary water,
and record your observations. Test Your Hypothesis
graduated
cylinder
Draw Conclusions

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and

130 131
results from an investigation in written reports and oral presentations.
EXTEND EXTEND
Lesson 3
What are California’s Materials

ecosystems?
Purpose
Ecosystems What are California’s ecosystems like? How are they
similar or different? Write a prediction in the form
“If California’s ecosystems have different ,
in California then they will have different .” • modeling clay of
different colors
California sea lions, Farallon Islands, California Procedure • sturdy cardboard
Work in groups of four or five. Find various • index cards
ecosystems on the map provided.
Step
Make a Model Outline a map of California on
a piece of cardboard. Using different colors of
modeling clay, construct a state map showing =@35=<
the state’s ecosystems. Include landforms and
bodies of water. 9:/;/B6
Observe Create an index card for each 3c`SYO
;=2=1 A/1@/;3<B=
ecosystem. Use your clay map to find landforms D/::3G
and bodies of water that might affect plants and
<3D/2/
animals in the region. Record this information on
the index cards. Think about the types of plants
0/G A73@@/ A/<8=/?C7<
and animals you might find in each ecosystem. 23:B/ AO\4`O\QWaQ] D/::3G

Draw Conclusions 13<B@/:

1=/AB
Analyze Using the information on your index
cards, compare the ecosystems. How do the ;=8/D3

regions differ?
:]a/\USZSa
Did your observations support your prediction? A=CB6 1=:=@/2=
1=/AB 23A3@B
AO\2WSU]
California is home to many different kinds Explore More
of plants and animals. Why do you think Choose one ecosystem on your state map. What ;3F71=
this is so? adaptations do you think plants and animals in
that region would need to survive?

6 IE 7.f. Read a topographic map and a geologic map for

evidence provided on the maps and construct and interpret
a simple scale map.

6 LS 5.e. Students know the number and types of organisms an ecosystem can
support depends on the resources available and on abiotic factors, such as
132 quantities of light and water, a range of temperatures, and soil composition. 133
ENGAGE EXPLORE
 What is a Mediterranean
▶ Main Idea 6 LS 5.e climate?
California has different The area around the Mediterranean Sea
ecosystems that are home near Europe and Africa is one of the most
to many native plant and fertile regions of the world. This area is located
animal species.
about halfway between the equator and the
▶ Vocabulary North Pole. Follow the same latitude around
chaparral, p. 136 the globe, and you will find such a region in
Central and Southern California. In the Southern
-Glossary Hemisphere, Chile, South Africa, and Australia
@ www.macmillanmh.com have areas with the same characteristics. All of
these regions have similar climates, known as
▶ Reading Skill Mediterranean climates, with hot, dry summers
Cause and Effect and mild, rainy winters. ▲ A Mediterranean
Areas with Mediterranean climates are usually climate makes
1OcaS3TTSQb This process keeps temperatures from varying greatly.
found along the west coasts of continents. When Catalina Island in
Sacramento, Fresno, and the Los Angeles area all enjoy California a favorite
the land near a coast heats up, the air over the the effects of a Mediterranean climate. place for boaters.
land becomes warm and rises. Cooler air over
the ocean flows in to replace the warm air. Areas with Mediterranean climates are famous for
food crops such as grapes, olives, figs, and citrus fruits.
These crops grow in late winter and early spring, when
Mediterranean Climate Zones temperatures are mild and rain is plentiful.
To survive the hot, dry summer, plants in Mediterranean
climates have adapted in several ways. Trees, such as
evergreens, oaks, and olive trees, usually have thick bark to
protect them from fire. Some trees, such as oaks, have deep
roots. Others have tough, thick leaves that prevent water
/B:/<B71 loss. Some plants become dormant, or less active, during the
=13/< B`]^WQ]T
1O\QS` hotter months.
3_cOb]`
Wildfires can be common in regions with a Mediterranean
>/17471
climate. These fires benefit the plant community in some ways.
=13/< 7<27/< They clear out old growth and add nutrients to the soil,
=13/< B`]^WQ]T
1O^`WQ]`\
encouraging new plants to sprout.

Reading Maps
/`SOaeWbV;SRWbS``O\SO\QZW[ObSa
What features are shared by regions
with a Mediterranean climate?
Clue: Look at the map. How are the
134 regions similar?
EXPLAIN
Quick Check
Cause and Effect Why do California, Chile, South
Africa, and Australia all have Mediterranean climates?
Critical Thinking What are two adaptations of plants
that allow them to live in the Mediterranean climate?
135
EXPLAIN
 Wildfires Chaparral Wildfire
By the end of summer, the
chaparral is extremely dry. Winds,
such as the Santa Ana winds in
Southern California, blow in hot
gusts. Any spark, such as lightning
or an untended campfire, can ignite
the chaparral. This combination
often causes fires to break out.
When wildfires occur, they can
burn large areas in a short time.
montane chaparral, Sierra Nevada, California Despite the damage they cause,
wildfires are an important abiotic factor,
▲ A food chain in a chaparral ecosystem or nonliving part of the ecosystem,
may begin with native grasses and end in the chaparral. Some plants actually
with a predator, such as the mountain
depend on fires. The only way these
lion shown below.
plants can sprout new branches and
What is a chaparral? thrive is to regrow from stumps left
In the foothills of California’s southern mountain after a burn. Other plants need the
ranges, in the Sierra Nevada, and in many places along heat from these fires to crack open
the California coast, you will find a special kind of their seed pods and begin to grow.
ecosystem called a chaparral (shap•uh•RAL). A chaparral As harmful as fires may seem,
is a dry region with a thick growth of brush and small fire has always been nature’s way
trees. The name comes from the Spanish word chaparro, of clearing out old plant growth and
meaning “evergreen oak.” Chaparrals also exist in some ground litter. Ashes from fires return
other western states and in Mexico. important nutrients to the soil. Fires
If you have never been to a chaparral, try to picture also reduce the plant population, so the
a landscape with blazing sunlight and soaring temperatures. surviving plants face less competition
A dense blanket of shrubs and low trees grows there. Each for water. The risk of fire decreases in
plant has special adaptations that allow it to survive summer the winter. Temperatures become mild,
in the chaparral. Plants such as the manzanita have large, the rains arrive, and wildflowers in
thick leaves. Others have needlelike leaves to reduce water bloom cover the hillsides.
loss. The roots of some plants spread out just below the
soil’s surface, seeking every last drop of water. Quick Check
Plants are not the only organisms adapted for life in Cause and Effect What would Reading Photos
the chaparral. There are plenty of animals as well. The happen if there were no fires in How do wildfires change the
California chaparral is home to bees, ladybugs, toads, a chaparral? vegetation of the chaparral?
alligator lizards, kangaroo rats, and jackrabbits. Many
Critical Thinking What adaptations Clue: What elements in the
birds, such as quail and thrashers, live and nest in the photograph tell you that things
thick protective shrubs. Mountain lions, coyotes, and help plants survive in the chaparral? will change after the wildfire?
hawks are predators of the chaparral.
136 137
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 One of the most common plants
in the Colorado Desert is the
creosote bush. This plant has small,
waxy leaves that limit water loss.
Even during times of drought, it
can produce enough food through
photosynthesis to stay alive.
You can tell when you have entered
the Mojave Desert by the presence of
Joshua trees. These large trees, a part
of the yucca family, are a striking
sight, with their uplifted branches and
bunches of needlelike leaves.
After months of dormancy, the
deserts become a canvas of color
when the rains arrive in the spring.
▲ Anza-Borrego
In the Mojave Desert, lupines, desert
Desert State sunflowers, desert primroses, and many ▲ A black-throated sparrow
What are California’s deserts like? Park, part of the more flowering plants bloom. The perches on a cardon cactus.
Colorado Desert, Colorado Desert is equally splendid,
California has two deserts that cover about 98,000 sq km in California with verbenas, evening primroses, In both desert areas, you are likely
(38,000 sq mi). The Mojave Desert is in the southeastern part
gilias, and lupines. Flowering plants to find bighorn sheep, kit foxes,
of the state, east of the Sierra Nevada. South of the Mojave
attract butterflies such as the Mojave coyotes, spotted skunks, jackrabbits,
is the Colorado Desert, which extends to the Colorado River.
sootywing and the painted lady. and a variety of other small mammals.
The Mojave Desert has extreme temperature variations. ▼ desert tortoise Birds include eagles, hawks, owls, quail,
Summers have very hot, dry days and cool nights. In the roadrunners, warblers, and orioles.
winter, temperatures can be freezing, and rain or snow may Desert tortoises live mainly underground.
fall. The lowest point in the United States, Death Valley, is When the tortoises abandon their
located within the Mojave. It is 86 m (282 ft) below sea level. burrows, many other animals make
The Colorado Desert is the warmest desert in the United use of them. For this reason, desert
States. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are cool and tortoises are considered a keystone
moist. Much of the Colorado Desert has been converted to species, or a species upon which other
irrigated agriculture. Cotton is a major crop there. animals depend.

Quick Check
Desert Plants and Animals
Cause and Effect What would
In deserts, as in other ecosystems, factors such as
happen if desert tortoises never
sunlight, water, temperature, and soil affect the variety of
abandoned their burrows?
the vegetation. The dry conditions of the California deserts
cause plants to compete for water. To survive in the hot, Critical Thinking How is a desert
dry environment, many desert plants have developed special similar to and different from a
adaptations. chaparral?
138 139
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
Where are California’s forests found?
In temperate deciduous forests,
most of the trees lose their leaves in a
specific season. In many places these
trees lose their leaves because of cold
winter weather. In other places some
trees lose their leaves during a dry
season. However, there is another
important kind of tree that does not
lose its leaves all at the same time.
These trees are commonly called
evergreens. The name refers to the
idea that these trees keep their leaves
all year, although a few evergreens do
drop all of their leaves at one time.
Most evergreens lose some of their
leaves throughout the year while
keeping most of their leaves. Also unlike
deciduous trees, evergreens have thin
leaves that look like needles or scales.
You may have seen the needlelike leaves
of a pine tree or the small, flat leaves
of a redwood. Evergreens are also
sometimes called conifers. They produce
seeds in special structures called cones.
Redwood National Park, California
140
EXPLAIN
In California the evergreen forests
are found along the northern coast
and higher up in mountainous areas.
In these locations the temperature
and climate are ideal for these trees
to produce forests. Along the coast of
Northern California, people can hike
through magnificent forests of giant
redwoods that tower overhead. The
constant moisture that comes in off the
ocean bathes these trees in the humid
conditions that favor their growth. You
might be surprised to see that these
tall trees produce tiny cones about the
size of an adult person’s fingernail.
In areas of California away from
the sea, you can find giant sequoias
growing. These trees do not grow as
tall as the coast redwoods, but their
trunks are much larger in diameter.
These trees have adapted to life in a
colder and drier environment. In fact,
you can see these trees planted in
places scattered throughout the state.
Old-Growth Forest
If you were asked to define the
word forest, you would probably say
that a forest is a place where trees
grow in abundance. You would be
correct. However, there are different
kinds of forests. An old-growth forest
refers to an area where trees have
grown undisturbed for a long time.
As trees grow, they increase in
diameter as well as in height. In old-
growth forests you can see trees with
trunks so large that you cannot reach
around them with your arms. In the
past, huge areas of the United States
spotted owl
were covered with old-growth forests.
Over time, many of these forests were
cut down to be made into lumber, used
as fuel, or used for farmland. Today, lives in Northern California, Oregon,
old-growth forests survive in a few and Washington State. This owl lives
protected areas in this country. only in old-growth forests, where it
nests in old trees that have formed
The old-growth forests that remain cavities as the wood has decayed. These
often have unique animals that have birds also fly more easily in old-growth
evolved over time along with the trees. forests, because the branches of the
For example, the northern spotted owl trees are farther apart, leaving more
open space. When old-growth forests
are cut down, even if young trees are
planted as replacements, the northern
spotted owl cannot survive. The same
is true of other plants and animals that
have adapted over time to live in these
magnificent and special places.
Quick Check
Cause and Effect If all of the old-
growth forests in the United States
disappeared, what would happen?
Critical Thinking Why do the
redwood trees grow only along the
coast?
141
EXPLAIN
What are California’s
producers?
California has more than 5,000
plant species. More than 30% of
these plants are found nowhere else
in the world. No other place in the
continental United States can compete
with this great diversity of plant life.
Why do you think this is so?
Recall what you know about
habitats. Each organism has adapted
to living in certain conditions that
meet its needs. For plants, these needs
include sunlight, water, temperature
ranges, soil, and nutrients. For
example, some plants require more
sunlight than others. Some plants can
tolerate drought, while others require a
great deal of water.
California’s large area includes
different climates. In addition, the
state has regions at widely varying
elevations. These two factors help
create diverse habitats, which support
many different types of plants.
The plants produce food through
photosynthesis, and most provide
food for other living things as well.
One of California’s greatest
treasures is its redwood forests.
Coast redwoods are found only in the
North Coast area. It is here that the
world’s tallest living things thrive on
moisture from Pacific storms in the
winter and fog in the summer. Giant
sequoias, relatives of coast redwoods,
grow only in the Sierra Nevada.
Joshua trees are found only in
the Mojave Desert. They play an
important role in the desert ecosystem
142
EXPLAIN
as both a food source and a home for
many animals. Deer, small rodents,
and other animals eat the sprouts of
the Joshua tree.
Several species of grasses are unique
to California. The leafy reed grass
grows in the North Coast area. Birds
eat the seeds of this grass and use its
fibers for building nests. Birds also
eat the seeds of the California poppy,
which grows in many of the state’s
ecosystems, including the chaparral
and the coastal areas.
▼ Deer eat the leaves of poison
oak, and birds spread its seeds,
but you should not touch it.
In parts of California, the soil
layer includes an unusual rock known
as serpentine. This rock contains
minerals that are toxic, or harmful,
to many plants. When serpentine
breaks down, its minerals become
part of the soil. As a result only
plants that can tolerate serpentine
soil, such as the leather oak, can live
in these areas.
A California Food Web
Choose a large predator that lives
in a desert or chaparral ecosystem
in California.
Do research to identify some
of the prey, or animals that this
predator eats.
Choose one of the prey. Find out
what organisms it eats.
Draw a food web that shows
where the organisms you
identified belong.
Infer What types
of organisms
would you
expect to find at
the base of this
food web?
Quick Check
Cause and Effect How does
California’s size contribute to the
number and types of plants found
in the state?
Critical Thinking How does the
Joshua tree act as a producer in
the Mojave Desert ecosystem?
143
EXPLAIN
What are California’s
consumers?
As you have learned, there is a
relationship between the vegetation
and the animal life in an ecosystem.
Given the great variety of producers
in California, it makes sense that there
is a great variety of consumers.
Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep graze
only on the eastern side of the central
and southern Sierra Nevada. They
use ledges and steep slopes to protect
themselves from predators such as
mountain lions.
California’s deserts are home to
many animal species, including the
kangaroo rat. There are 22 species
◀ The feet of bighorn sheep are able to
144
EXPLAIN
of kangaroo rat, and many of them
exist only in California. They eat
mostly seeds, leaves, stems, and
insects. They are prey for coyotes,
foxes, badgers, snakes, and owls.
About 9,000 species of insects,
including the Kelso Dunes Jerusalem
cricket, are found exclusively in
California. The Thorne’s hairstreak
butterfly and the Hermes copper
butterfly are two species found only
in San Diego County and northern
Baja California.
The sunny Mediterranean climate
and diverse landscape attract many
people to California. As the human
population increases, so does the need
to protect the state’s natural resources.
It is important to find a balance in
order to preserve the diversity of plants
and animals in California.
find toeholds on very small places.
These animals can rapidly run over
areas that would slow down any
predator chasing them.
▲ The eggs of the California condor are
collected and placed in incubators. Then
Two of California’s Most the condor chicks are fed by people who
Endangered Animals use a condor “puppet.” Scientists never
let the chicks see the people who feed
Many species of birds, including the
them. In time the young condors will find
California condor, live in the state. The
their own food.
condor has long been a symbol of the
fight to save endangered species. Once
at the brink of extinction, the condor’s
numbers have increased in recent years,
thanks to human efforts. California
condors are scavengers, feeding off the
remains of dead animals.
The San Joaquin kit fox is one of
several species of foxes found only in
California. It feeds on rodents and other
small animals. Its primary predator is
the coyote. However, automobiles and
loss of habitat are also serious threats
to this endangered species.
Quick Check
Cause and Effect How does loss
of habitat affect the San Joaquin
kit fox?
▲ The San Joaquin kit fox hunts mostly at
Critical Thinking What is the
night. Its large ears enable it to listen for
relationship between vegetation its prey. The kit fox populations have been
in an area and the animal life greatly reduced, because people have
found there? taken over much of its natural habitat.
145
EXPLAIN
Why are nonnative plants and animals
dangerous to California’s ecosystems?
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Scientists have identified an important problem
Main Idea California’s are
facing California’s native plants and animals: the Mediterranean
home to many plant and animal species.
introduction of many nonnative species of plants and climates have hot, dry
animals into the state. Nonnative plants and animals summers and mild, Vocabulary A dry region with thick
often have no natural checks that prevent dramatic rainy winters. brush and small trees is a(n) .
(pp. 134–135)
increases in their populations. Without natural checks, Cause and Effect Why does the desert
nonnative plants and animals can often spread quickly. burst into bloom at certain times?
The two desert
Problems are often caused when nonnative plants ecosystems found 1OcaS3TTSQb
outcompete native plants. They may produce many seeds in California are the
or spread into new areas by underground roots. In Mojave Desert and the
the plants’ new environment, there may be not other Colorado Desert.
▲ The yellow starthistle (pp. 138–139)
organisms that keep this spread in check.
covers about 12 million
Nonnative animals are often introduced by accident. acres in California. The California has more Critical Thinking What might happen
plant is poisonous to than 5,000 plant to animal populations in the Mojave
Ships, for example, often pump out water from distant
horses. Most grazing species, which act Desert if the Joshua tree died out?
lands along California’s coast. This water may contain as producers in their
animals, however, will Test Practice Parts of the California
young nonnative animals. Nonnative animals have also ecosystems.
not eat it because of coast have a climate like that near
broken out into the wild from captivity. its spines. (pp. 140–143)
the .
In many cases, imported plants and animals do not A Arctic Ocean
pose problems for native species or the environment. Make a B Atlantic Ocean
Studying the impact of nonnative plants and animals Study Guide C Mediterranean Sea
before they become permanent parts of California’s D Salton Sea
Make a trifold book (see pp. 487–490).
landscape is important. Use the titles shown. In each column, list Test Practice What kind of factor
the causes and is a wildfire?
Quick Check effects of a place’s A biotic
location on its B abiotic
Cause and Effect Why do climate or on the C chaparral
some nonnative plants and animals that live D endangered
animals pose dangers to there.
California’s natural areas?
Critical Thinking What are
two traits in a nonnative plant Writing Link Math Link
that would cause concerns
Write a Story Find the Range
about introducing this plant
What would happen if your biome The monthly precipitation in a tropical
into an area? suddenly became much hotter or much rain forest in a year is 9 in., 6 in., 4 in.,
colder? How would you adapt? Write 21 in., 17 in., 8 in., 0 in., 3 in., 4 in., 25 in.,
a story about how changes to your 15 in., and 15 in. What is the range of
◀ These wild pigs were released into the wild biome would affect your life. the monthly precipitation in this year?
in California. The pig population in an area
increases rapidly. Because these animals
146 will eat almost anything, they outcompete -Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 147
EXPLAIN animals that eat a more limited diet. EVALUATE
 Convert measurements
For accurate calculations
Can You Compare the use these measurements:
1 mile = 1.609 kilometers
1 kilometer = 0.621 miles
The rugged foothills of the Sierra Nevada are
Lengths of Rivers? ▶ To convert miles to
located in central California. Here the winters Good expository writing Often, the longest rivers are the ones kilometers, multiply the
are rainy and mild, but in summer think you read the most about, although even number of miles by 1.609.
▶ introduces the main idea.
dry—very dry. Because of the dry summer short rivers provide important habitats 40 mi × 1.609 = 64.36 km
conditions, forest fires and brushfires break ▶ develops the main idea with and are a valuable resource. The table ▶ To convert kilometers to
out often. facts and supporting details. below includes the longest rivers in miles, multiply the number
The plants of the foothills have adapted to ▶ engages the reader’s interest. the world, in the United States, and of kilometers by 0.621.
the summer droughts. Some plants have roots in California. 64.36 km × 0.621 = 39.97 mi
that stretch deep into the ground to take in ▶ draws a conclusion based
water. Other plants live only during the rainy on the purpose and on facts
months. In the summer their seeds sprout when and details. Solve It
the rains return. 1. The table below lists the lengths of rivers
in two different units of measurement. The
Woody plants have adapted to survive
measurements have been rounded to the
summer fires. They have thick bark that protects nearest mile or kilometer. Complete the table
them. The tops of some plants burn completely, but by converting miles to kilometers or kilometers
the roots survive underground. When there is water, to miles to fill in the missing information.
the plants sprout again.
Despite the threats of Length Length
River
(in miles) (in kilometers)
fires and droughts, the
plants of the foothills have Write About It Shasta River, CA 40 64

ways that help them thrive. Expository Writing Write an essay about the
Sacramento River, CA 382
Mojave Desert and some of the plants and animals
that live there. State the main idea and your purpose Colorado River, CO 2,333
for writing at the beginning. Use supporting
Amazon River, Brazil 6,296
details and descriptions. Explain the threats faced
by wildlife in the Mojave Desert. Write a detailed Nile River, Egypt 6,695
summary linked to the purpose of your essay.
California Aqueduct, CA 450
-Journal Write about it online Mississippi/Missouri Rivers, US 2,565
@ www.macmillanmh.com
2. Rank the rivers from longest to shortest.
According to the table, which is the longest river
in the world? In the United States? In California?
3. Measure two hallways in your school, one in
feet and one in meters. Convert the feet to
meters and the meters to feet to compare the
ELA W 6.1.2. Create multiple-paragraph expository compositions: a. Engage the
interest of the reader and state a clear purpose. b. Develop the topic with supporting
lengths of the hallways.
details and precise verbs, nouns, and adjectives to paint a visual image in the mind of the
148 reader. c. Conclude with a detailed summary linked to the purpose of the composition. MA AF 6.2.1. Convert one unit of measurement to another 149
EXTEND (e.g., from feet to miles, from centimeters to inches). EXTEND
CHAPTER 2 Review
Fill each blank with the best term Answer each of the following California Wetlands
Summarize the Main Ideas from the list. in complete sentences.
A biome is a region with At one time people often filled in
benthos, p. 123 estuaries, p. 126 9. Infer Explain why desert biomes are wetlands to make the land “useful.”
a particular climate that
found on every continent on Earth, Your goal is to defend the wetlands
contains certain types biome, p. 102 nekton, p. 123 including Antarctica. 6 LS 5.d by informing people of the many roles
of plants and animals.
(pp. 100–115) chaparral, p. 136 taiga, p. 112 wetlands have in our ecosystems.
10. Cause and Effect How did the
climate, p. 102 tundra, p. 113 westward expansion of settlers affect What to Do
Oceans are divided into the American grasslands? 6 LS 5.e 1. Design a Web page or a poster
regions in much the 1. A special ecosystem characterized that clearly informs people about
same way as biomes are. 11. Communicate In written or visual
by a dry climate and a thick growth the importance of wetland areas.
(pp. 118–127) form, describe the different zones of
of brush and small trees is a(n) Include at least four facts about the
the ocean and the organisms that live
. 6 LS 5.d roles wetlands play in sustaining our
in those zones. 6 LS 5.d, e
environment. Select appropriate
California has diverse 2. The is a very cold and dry visuals to support your statements.
12. Critical Thinking Explain how you
climates and ecosystems biome that is characterized by
might pass through several different 2. Predict the consequences of wetland
with many native plant a permanent layer of frozen soil.
6 LS 5.d
biomes as you climb a mountain. destruction, and include this information
and animal species. 6 LS 5.e on your Web page or poster.
(pp. 132–147)
3. All organisms that swim through the
13. Explanatory Writing Using a Analyze Your Results
water are . 6 LS 5.d
topographic map, explain why so ▶ What information on your Web page or
Make a 4. The average weather pattern of a many plants and animals are found poster was fact, and what was opinion?
Study Guide region over a long period of time only in California. 6 LS 5.d, e
▶ As the human population increases,
Take a sheet of paper is its . 6 LS 5.e and there is a greater need for land
and tape your lesson
to house and feed people, should
study guides as 5. Bottom-dwelling marine organisms
people continue fighting to save the
shown. Use the study can be classified as .
6 LS 5.d
wetlands? Why or why not?
guides to answer the
questions on these
pages. 6. A coniferous forest biome is called
a(n) . 6 LS 5.d

7. At the mouths of rivers, where

fresh water mixes with seawater, How do organisms survive in land
are important habitats called biomes and in water ecosystems?
. 6 LS 5.d
16/>B3@

8. A(n) is a region that has

a particular climate and particular
plants and animals. 6 LS 5.d

150 151
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
1 What is the most important factor
in determining which plants and
animals live in a land biome? 6 LS 5.e
A the trees
B the insects
C the climate
D the animals
2 Pedro collected the following data
on the lengths of plant roots in rivers
and ponds.
Root Lengths
River Species Average Root Length
A 5.6 cm
B 7.2 cm
C 4.9 cm
Pond Species Average Root Length
D 2.9 cm
E 3.8 cm
F 4.9 cm
What would be the best way for
Pedro to communicate these
results? 6 IE 7.d
A construct a bar graph
B show photos of the roots
C write a paragraph
D draw a map
3 The part of the ocean most likely
to receive direct sunlight is the
intertidal zone. Which part of the
tropical rain forest is similar to the
intertidal zone in this way? 6 LS 5.d
A the emergent layer
B the canopy
C the understory
D the forest floor
152
4 A group of students went on a field
trip to the beach. The picture shows
the organisms they observed in a
tide pool.
Which of the following do these
organisms need for survival? 6 LS 5.e
A more room to swim
B salt in the water
C sand in the water
D no light in the water
5 Which of the following describes why
similar organisms are found in hot
deserts throughout the world?
6 LS 5.d
A People have brought the organisms
to the deserts.
B Deserts around the world all have
similar amounts of precipitation.
C The organisms have migrated to
deserts around the world.
D The organisms do not like the cold
weather.
6 Why do many plants living in
Mediterranean climates have thick
leaves and deep roots? 6 LS 5.e
A to shelter small birds and animals
B to provide food for insects and
birds
C to conserve water during the hotter
summer months
D to soak up the fog and dew from a
large body of water
7 Which of the following best
describes why organisms living in
estuaries can adapt to changes in
salinity? 6 LS 5.d
A As tides flow out, the water heats
up.
B As tides flow in, the organisms’
homes are submerged.
C As tides flow in, the salt in the
water increases.
D As tides flow out, the salt dries on
the land.
8 The sixth-grade students learned
that the greatest diversity of plants
and animals on Earth is found in
the tropical rain forest. Which of
the following questions would they
be most likely to answer through
research on the Internet? 6 IE 7.a
A How many animals live in each tree
of the tropical rain forest?
B Which flowering plants bloomed
last week in the tropical rain forest?
C What conditions permit so many
species to survive in the tropical
rain forest?
D Which species of the tropical rain
forest will become endangered in
ten years?
9 Carnivores in the savanna compete
for prey, while plants in tropical rain
forests compete for 6 LS 5.d
A mates.
B water.
C light.
D shelter.
10 In California’s deserts, the desert
tortoise lives mainly underground.
Which abiotic factor has most likely
influenced the tortoise to adapt in
this way? 6 LS 5.e
A unchecked wildfires
B seasonal changes in sunlight
C extreme daily temperature changes
D unexpected flash floods
11 Which of the following best
describes why there is more plant
growth after a fire? 6 LS 5.e
A The fire leaves room for new plants.
B The fire takes nutrients from the
soil.
C People plant seeds in the spring.
D The rain is very heavy in the winter.
12 Which of the following is an abiotic
factor that affects quail living in the
chaparral? 6 LS 5.e
A the amount of food available
B predators such as coyotes
C chaparral wildfires
D nesting sites in the shrubs
Materials prepared by PASS at 153
 On a cold winter day, a wood frog lies in a shallow burrow
beneath fallen leaves on the forest floor. The frog isn’t
moving. It isn’t breathing. Its heart isn’t beating. In fact,
it is frozen solid. Yet this frog is alive!
Staying Warm
Amphibians and reptiles have no burying themselves at the bottom of
fur or feathers to keep them warm. a pond or a lake. A few simply freeze.
In cold climates they need to have other Wood frogs, which live as far north
survival strategies. Most avoid freezing as the Arctic Circle, survive the winter
by burrowing deep underground or by as frozen “frog-sicles.”
Sugar and Ice
If you or most other animals tried
this trick, you wouldn’t be nearly as
successful. Sharp ice crystals that form
inside your body’s cells would damage
your cells beyond repair. (That’s why
we get frostbite.) Wood frogs solve
this problem in an interesting way.
Freezing temperatures trigger the frog’s
body to produce large amounts of around the frog’s organs and forms
glucose, or blood sugar. This works as thin sheets between layers of skin and
an antifreeze. It is like the antifreeze muscle. As the frog’s blood freezes, its
people put in car engines to keep them heart stops beating, its other organs
running in winter. Glucose inside the shut down, and its breathing stops. As
wood frog’s cells prevents the cells much as 65% to 70% of the water in
from freezing. Instead, ice forms its body turns to ice. The wood frog
outside the cells. It fills the cavities enters a state of suspended animation.

As temperatures climb above freezing

in spring, the wood frog begins to thaw.
Soon it is ready to hop to a nearby puddle
or pond and begin looking for a mate.
Although snow may still cover the ground,
the calls of this incredible winter survivor
6 LS 5. Organisms in ecosystems exchange energy and nutrients
loudly proclaim that spring is on the way.
among themselves and with the environment. • ELA R 6.1.4. Monitor
154 expository text for unknown words or words with novel meanings by 155
using word, sentence, and paragraph clues to determine meaning.
Tree-Care Technician
If you enjoy caring for plants and love
climbing trees, you may want to consider a career
as a tree-care technician. Tree-care technicians
help keep trees in neighborhoods, parks, and
forests healthy. This requires a great deal of
physical activity and the ability to handle heavy
equipment. Duties may include climbing trees
to reach work areas, inspecting trees for disease
or pest problems, and operating shredding and
chipping machines. Tree-care technicians help
with storm recovery by removing trees that
have fallen on roads, houses, or electrical wires.
Tree-care technicians often receive on-the-
job training. However, education in forestry,
biology, and pest management is helpful.

Wildlife Biologist
As human populations grow and make
more demands on Earth’s land and resources,
a need emerges for people who care about
protecting wildlife. Earth’s environment
depends on stable ecosystems. However, as
more animal habitats are altered or destroyed
to meet human needs, more species of wildlife
are becoming endangered or even extinct.
Wildlife biologists work to protect endangered
species, such as these orangutans, and their
habitats. The biologists generally have college
degrees with a background in biology,
ecology, and math. They are also familiar
with the social, economic, and political factors
that affect wildlife management. In addition,
wildlife biologists need good communication
skills to interact with members of the public
who visit forests and other natural areas.

156
-Careers @ www.macmillanmh.com
 CHAPTER 3
Chapter 3 Chapter 4

Heat Energy

The Sun produces more energy in one

second than all the people who ever
lived have ever used.
How does heat move from
one object to another?

158
 Lesson 1 Literature
Heat Flow MAGAZINE ARTICLE

ELA R 6.2.3.
Connect and
clarify main ideas
PAGE 162 by identifying their
relationships to other
sources and related
Lesson 2 topics. • ELA W 6.2.1.
Waves Write narratives.

PAGE 174
Lesson 3
Fuels: Our Major
Energy Source

PAGE 186
Lesson 4
Heat Transfer in
Solids and Fluids

PAGE 198
6 PS 3. Heat moves in a predictable flow from warmer
objects to cooler objects until all the objects are at the
same temperature.

159 160
 from SCHOLASTIC NEWS

Lesson 1

by Fiona McCormack
Heat Flow
A group of strange-looking cars recently
zipped through Australia. The vehicles
looked like spaceships, but they were
solar-powered cars.
The cars and their drivers were
competing in the World Solar Challenge,
a 1,877-mile solar-car race. The cars, with
one driver in each, raced from Darwin to
Adelaide, Australia. Twenty-two teams
from 11 countries competed. The winning
car, from the Netherlands, finished in
about 29 hours.
Solar cars run on sunlight instead of
gasoline. Flat solar panels line the outside
of the cars. The panels catch sunlight and
turn it into electricity to power the cars’
motors. With this power, solar cars can
travel up to 74 miles per hour. . . .
Solar cars aren’t advanced enough to
replace gas-powered cars yet. But the race
demonstrates that their future is bright.

Write About It
Response to Literature This article
describes how people use energy from
the Sun to run solar cars. In what other
ways do people use the Sun’s energy?
Is the Sun’s energy always useful?
Write a personal narrative about how
the Sun affects your life. What role
does the Sun play in your activities?
Have you ever been to the desert? During the day
the air and the ground can be very hot. At night the
air cools quickly. However, if you touch the ground,
you’ll find that it stays warm for a while longer than
the air does. How reliable is your sense of touch in
determining how hot or cold an object is?

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com 6 PS 3.a. Students know energy can be carried from
one place to another by heat flow or by waves, including
161 162 water, light and sound waves, or by moving objects.
ENGAGE
 How is energy related
▶ Main Idea 6 PS 3.a to motion?
How can you measure heat flow? Materials Heat energy flows from a You know that water can exist as a solid (ice),
warmer object to a cooler a liquid (liquid water), or a gas (water vapor).
Make a Prediction object until both are the Did you know that almost all matter can exist as
Do you think heat flows between warm objects and same temperature.
a solid, a liquid, or a gas? Why? Matter is made
cool objects? What will happen if a jar of cool water ▶ Vocabulary of molecules that are always moving. Whether
is set into a bowl of room-temperature water? Write
energy, p. 164 the molecules form a solid, a liquid, or a gas
your answer as a prediction in the form “If a jar of
warm water is set into a bowl of room-temperature kinetic energy, p. 165 depends on how close together they are and how
water, then . . . If a jar of cool water is set into a bowl potential energy, p. 165 fast they move. Molecules usually move faster in
of room-temperature water, then . . .” temperature, p. 166 gases and slower in liquids and solids.
• 2 large bowls
heat, p. 167 In solids molecules vibrate back and forth. In
Test Your Prediction • 2 jars
heat flow, p. 168 gases molecules move in straight lines until they
• 4 thermometers
Fill one jar with 30°C water. Fill a second jar insulation, p. 170 bump into other molecules. In liquids molecules
with 10°C water. • watch or
show a mix of both of these types of motion.
stopwatch
Measure Place each jar into a separate bowl -Glossary
• water @
The motion of molecules is a type of energy.
of room-temperature water 22°–24°C. Record www.macmillanmh.com
the starting temperatures of the water in the Energy is the ability to bring about changes or
bowls and jars. Step ▶ Reading Skill to do work. It takes energy to move yourself up
Compare and Contrast
a hill. It takes energy to light a house or cook
Experiment Record the temperatures of
the containers every 2 minutes for 20 minutes. a dinner. It also takes energy to change ice into
2WTTS`S\b /ZWYS 2WTTS`S\b
Record your observations. When do you think water or water into water vapor.
the temperatures will stop changing?

Draw Conclusions Molecules in a Solid,

a Liquid, and a Gas
Analyze Make a line graph that shows how
the temperature of the water in each jar and
Explore heat flow
each bowl changed over time.
Step with a chef. liquid
Analyze What happened to the temperature
of the jar with warm water? Where did the
heat go? solid

Explore More
gas
What do you think will happen if you place a jar
of warm water into a bowl of ice water? Make
a prediction and test it. Then analyze and present
your results.

6 IE 7.c. Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop qualitative statements The molecules in solids, liquids, and
about the relationship between variables. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and
gases move at different speeds.
results from an investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

163 164
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
Two Kinds of Energy
▼ As the girl moves
A skateboarder swoops down a hill,
moving faster and faster. The energy of
any moving object is called kinetic energy
(ki•NET•ik EN•uhr•jee) . A skateboarder has
a lot of kinetic energy as she moves down
a hill. The molecules of a gas have a
lot of kinetic energy, too, because
they are moving quickly.
When the skateboarder skates up
the hill, she is storing energy. The
energy stored in an object by changing
its location is called potential energy .
Moving an object upward against
gravity is one way to give it potential
energy. At the top of the hill, as the
skateboarder waits to start downhill,
she has the most potential energy.
Any moving object, from a molecule
to a car, has energy due to its motion.
When you kick a soccer ball, it has
kinetic energy as it sails across
the field.
Quick Check
Compare and Contrast How are
kinetic energy and potential
energy similar and different?
Critical Thinking What kind
of energy would a person at
rest have, and why?
How is temperature
downhill, her potential different from heat?
energy is converted
into kinetic energy. If you place a thermometer in
boiling water, it registers 100°C
(212°F). The thermometer measures
the temperature of the water. The
temperature of a substance is the
average kinetic energy of its molecules.
Molecules in all substances are
constantly in motion. The molecules
in a gas move about rapidly, colliding
with one another. They have a great
deal of energy. The molecules in a
solid vibrate in place. They have less
energy than the molecules in a gas.
Some molecules in a substance
may move faster or slower than
other molecules. Scientists calculate
the average speed to determine the
Before a balloon can fly, the air inside
molecules’ average kinetic energy. The it must be heated. The molecules in
average kinetic energy of the molecules the air inside the balloon move farther
determines how much heat a material apart. Now the air in the balloon is
has. The average kinetic energy not as dense as the air that surrounds
is its temperature. the balloon. The balloon floats high
into the sky.
165 166
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 Heat Flow Why does heat flow from
one object to another?
Heat flows from warmer objects
When you put your hand into
to cooler ones. Water is heated on
the stove. Then the hot water is
warm water, energy moves to your
mixed with cocoa. The warm mug hand because the water is warmer
transfers heat to the girl’s hands. than your hand. The opposite is also
true. When you put your hand into
cold water, energy passes out of your
hand into the cold water.
Energy is transferred from
one object to another because of
differences in temperature. Heat
flow is the transfer of energy from a
warmer object to a cooler object. Heat
energy always flows from a higher-
temperature material to a lower-
temperature material. That is why the
plastic bag became warm when it was
placed into the beaker of warm water
in the illustration below.
When someone who has a fish
tank brings a new fish home from
the store, the fish often comes in a
small plastic bag partly filled with
water. It is important to balance the
temperature of the water in the bag
with the temperature of the water
in the tank. That way the fish is not
harmed. To balance the temperature,
many people place the plastic bag in
the tank. After an hour or so, the
water in the bag will be about the
same temperature as the water in the
tank. Then it will be safe to pour that
water, and the fish, into the tank.

Measuring Heat Flow

Heat
If you hold a mug of hot cocoa,
energy moves to your hand because
the mug has more heat than your
hand. Your hand becomes warm. If
you drop an ice cube into a hot drink,
energy passes out of the drink into
the colder ice. The ice melts, and your
drink cools off.
This energy is called heat. Heat
flow is the transfer of energy from
a warmer object to a cooler object.
When you heat something, such as a
cup of soup, you increase the energy
of its molecules. Before it is heated,
the soup has little thermal energy. If
you heat soup for a period of time,
it becomes hotter and cooks the
ingredients.
Because heat is a form of energy,
it can be measured. The most common
unit used to measure heat is the calorie.
A calorie is the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of
1 gram of water by 1°C. There is
another way to think of heat. Heat is
energy that flows between two objects
that have different temperatures. That
energy is heat.
Quick Check
Compare and Contrast How is
temperature different from heat?
Critical Thinking What happens Reading Diagrams
when you place a hot object in Why did the temperatures change over time?
contact with a cooler one?
Clue: Compare the temperatures of the water in the bag and in
167 168 the beaker at the beginning and at the end of the experiment.
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

▲ This blacksmith uses heat
flow to shape iron.
How Heat Travels
What happens when you dip a
metal spoon into a steaming bowl of
soup? The heat from the hot liquid
causes the molecules in the spoon to
heat up and vibrate faster. They collide
with the molecules next to them,
which in turn start vibrating faster,
and so on all the way up the spoon.
Eventually the extra energy reaches
the top of the spoon. If you touch the
spoon, it will feel hot. Heat energy
has flowed from the hot soup to the
top of the spoon to your hand.
A thermometer uses heat flow
to measure the temperature of a
material. Most thermometers measure
temperature by using a liquid that
expands in warmer materials and
contracts in cooler materials. When
Different Objects,
Different Temperatures
Observe Touch a metal object,
such as a stapler. Then touch a
wooden object, such as a ruler
or a desk. What do you notice?
Predict Do you think that the
metal and the wood are the same
temperature? How could you
determine whether they are the
same temperature?
a thermometer is placed in something
warmer or cooler, heat flows between
the two until their temperatures are
equal. The liquid inside the thermometer
then registers the same temperature as
the material it is in.
Quick Check
Compare and Contrast Compare
heat flow between a hot object
and a cold object with heat flow
between two objects at the same
temperature.
Critical Thinking Describe how
an ice cube cools off a hot drink.
169
EXPLAIN
What is insulation? A conductor is an object that
Have you ever wondered why some absorbs heat and distributes it evenly
objects feel colder than others? For throughout an object. Most metals are
example, touch the metal leg of a desk good conductors. They absorb heat
or a chair. Then touch the wooden and distribute it evenly throughout an
surface of a desk or a bookcase. The object. Since the object heats slowly,
metal feels colder than the wood. it takes time before a change can be
Touching a cold object transfers heat observed.
from your body to the object. The An insulator is an object that
effect on the object depends on whether absorbs heat but does not distribute
it is a conductor or an insulator. it evenly. Wood is an example of an
insulator. If you place your hand
on a piece of wood, the area under
your hand warms up. However, the
temperature of the rest of the wood
does not change.
Vacuum Bottle
Insulation (in•suh•LAY•shuhn) is
used to prevent heat from flowing
into or out of a material. You insulate
something by wrapping it with a
vacuum material that is not a good conductor
bottle of heat. Think of a window or the
walls in a building. On a cold day, the
mirrorlike insulation in the wall keeps the heat
coating
inside. Because heat does not move
bounces
radiant well through the insulation, the heat
heat does not warm up the entire wall.
vacuum
Quick Check
no material
to conduct Compare and Contrast How do
heat between
bottle
insulators differ from conductors?
Critical Thinking Explain why it
inner bottle is important to insulate buildings
in hot and cold climates.
outer bottle
Reading Diagrams
How can a vacuum bottle keep liquids hot
or cold for a period of time?
170 Clue: Look at the layers in the vacuum bottle.
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea
Energy is related to
motion. The energy
of a moving object is
called kinetic energy.
(pp. 164–165)
Temperature is the
average kinetic energy
of the molecules in
a substance.
(pp. 166–167)
Heat flow is the
transfer of energy
from warmer objects
to cooler objects.
(pp. 168–169)
Make a
Study Guide
Make a three-tab book
(see pp. 487–490). Use
the titles shown. On
the inside of each tab,
compare and contrast
the terms on each tab.
Writing Link
Write a Newspaper Article
Write a brief article for a science
newspaper about a new roller coaster
at an amusement park. Be sure to
include information about the potential
and kinetic energy of the ride.
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea flows from Experiment
a warmer object to a cooler object. Scientists experiment by performing
Vocabulary When a river flows over procedures under controlled conditions that
a cliff, its is converted into help them test a hypothesis, discover an
. unknown effect, or illustrate a known effect
or scientific law.
Compare and Contrast How does heat
differ from temperature? Sometimes an experiment does not
2WTTS`S\b /ZWYS 2WTTS`S\b produce the expected result. Does this mean it
was a failure? No. It just means that you have
new data to lead to more experiments. warm u
p
I like to eplace.
fir
Learn It by the
When you experiment you perform a test that
Critical Thinking If boiling water were supports or does not support a hypothesis. You
poured into a china cup and a foam cup, need to plan a procedure, make observations,
which cup would feel hotter? Explain. and record data. Once you have enough data,
you can draw a conclusion about whether or not
Test Practice Which of the following
your data supports your hypothesis, it may, or it
is a poor insulator?
may not. Either outcome is good. However, the
A wood
more data you collect, the more accurate your
B copper
conclusion will be. In the following experiment,
C rubber
you will collect data to test the following
D plastic
hypothesis: If a rubber band is thick, then it
Test Practice How does energy will get hotter than a thin rubber band when
transfer from a warmer object to both are stretched the same amount.
a cooler object?
A kinetic energy Try It Kirby lik
es t o
B potential energy on the r warm up
▶ You will need a thick rubber band and
C heat loss
adiator.
a thin rubber band for comparison. Without
D heat flow
stretching either rubber band, hold each to your
forehead. Do the rubber bands feel warm or
cool? Are they the same temperature as your
Math Link skin? Record your observations in a chart similar
to the one shown here.
Measure Temperature
A pot of water was brought to ▶ Hold the thin rubber band away from your face,
a boil at 100°C. Then it was cooled and quickly stretch it and let it relax three times.
for 10 minutes. If the water cooled at Let it relax, and touch it to your forehead. Record
your observation about its temperature in the
a rate of 4°C per minute, what was
chart. Repeat this procedure with the thick
the final temperature?
rubber band.
6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including
calculators, computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and
171 172
binoculars) to perform tests, collect data, and display data.
EVALUATE EXTEND
 Lesson 2
▶ In an experiment variables are the things that change. To
determine what caused the experiment’s results, you need to
change one variable at a time. The variable that changes is the
independent variable. A dependent variable is one that changes
because of the independent variable. In this experiment what is Waves
the independent variable? What is the dependent variable?

Apply It
▶ Now analyze the results of your experiment. Do they support
or refute the hypothesis: If a rubberband is thick, then it will
get hotter than a thin rubber band when both are stretched the
same amount? From your results, can you draw a conclusion
about why the stretched rubber band felt warmer than, cooler
than, or the same temperature as your skin? If you used a
thicker rubber band, would the heat flow felt by your skin be
greater, less, or the same?

▶ Can you predict what would happen if you used a thinner

rubber band? A thicker one? A longer one? If you stretched
it five times before feeling it? Ten times? Plan and carry out
an experiment that would prove or disprove one of your
predictions. Share the results with your classmates.

At a speed of about 1,230 km (760 miles) per hour,

a plane breaks the “sound barrier.” The plane flies faster
than sound travels. Often a cloud of water vapor forms
behind the plane. On the ground, you hear a boom that
sounds a lot like thunder. Did you know that the boom
you hear is made of waves?

6 PS 3.a. Students know energy can be carried from one place to another by heat
173 174 flow or by waves, including water, light and sound waves, or by moving objects.
EXTEND ENGAGE
 What is a wave?
▶ Main Idea 6 PS 3.a
Kinetic energy always moves. Wind blows,
water flows, light travels, and electricity passes
How can you change the sound Materials Energy moves from one
place to another by heat
through wires. How does energy move from one
a string makes? flow or by waves. place to another?

Form a Hypothesis ▶ Vocabulary Waves and Energy

What do you think will happen when you stretch a wave, p. 176
string out across a desk and use pencils to lift the wavelength, p. 176 One way that energy moves is through wave
string off the desktop? Can you change the pitch of amplitude, p. 176 motion. Drop a pebble in a pond, and at first
the sound by moving the pencils? Write your answer frequency, p. 177 only the moving stone has energy as it falls.
as a hypothesis in the form “If the pencils are moved sound wave, p. 178 Then little waves pass over the pond’s surface—
closer together, then the pitch of the sound will . . .” • 2 small buckets another example of energy. A few moments later,
compression wave, p. 180
• stones to fill each electromagnetic wave, p. 182 a leaf at the edge of the pond bobs up and down
Test Your Hypothesis bucket as the wave reaches the shore. The waves have
light wave, p. 182
Cut a length of string about twice as long as • 2 pencils carried some of the energy from the dropped
your desk. Place the string across the desk, and pebble across the pond to the leaf.
• string or fishing
tie each end to the handle of a bucket so that -Glossary
line @ www.macmillanmh.com
the buckets hang freely. Insert the pencils under A wave is a disturbance that carries energy
the string at each edge of the desk. Fill each • safety scissors from one place to another without a net movement
bucket one-quarter full with stones. • safety goggles
▶ Reading Skill of matter. That means that as a wave travels
Summarize through water, the water moves up and down,
Near the center of the desk, pluck the string
Step
with your finger. Record what you hear. but it doesn’t move in the direction of the wave.
Move the pencils closer together, and repeat The wavelength of a wave is the distance from
step 2. Record your observations. the top of one crest to the top of the next or from
Ac[[O`g the bottom of one trough to the bottom of the
Draw Conclusions next. A wave’s amplitude is the distance from the
Analyze How would you explain what you midpoint to the crest (or trough) of the wave.
observed? Did your observations support ▶ Technology
your hypothesis?
Explore waves with
Infer How does the tightness (tension) a physicist.
▼ A wave can be described
of a string affect the sound? in terms of its wavelength
and its amplitude.
Explore More Step Wavelength and Amplitude
What will happen to the sound if you fill each bucket
half full with stones and repeat step 2? Develop
a hypothesis and test it. Then analyze and present
your results.

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and

results from an investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

175 176
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
 Wave Frequency What is sound?
Toss a pebble into a pond, and the
ripples spread energy outward from
where the stone entered the water. Strike
a drum, and the air around it ripples
outward in waves, too. Like other forms
of energy, sound travels as waves.
A sound wave is produced by the
vibration of an object. A sound wave
carries vibration from the vibrating
object outward in all directions. For
example, a drum produces sound when
the drum head is struck.
A guitar produces sound when a
string is plucked or strummed. In a
saxophone or clarinet, the sound is
produced by a vibrating reed. The
sound of your voice is caused by the
vibration of your vocal chords.
The pitch, or highness or lowness
of a sound, depends on its frequency.
A high-pitched sound, such as that
from a flute or a whistle, has a high
frequency. The vibrations that
produce high sounds move back and
forth quickly.

Movement of Sound Waves

Reading Diagrams

Why does the pelican stay in the same

place?
Measuring Waves Clue: Look at the way the wave moves.
Waves can be measured in different
ways. Water waves move up and down. Watch waves
@ www.macmillanmh.com
Sound waves move back and forth.
The back-and-forth or up-and-down
motion of a wave, sometimes called a
vibration, is described by its frequency . Quick Check
The frequency of a wave tells the
Summarize What is the difference
number of vibrations it makes in a
between wavelength and
given period of time, usually 1 second.
amplitude? Reading Photos
For example, if 2 vibrations occur in
1 second, the frequency is 2 vibrations Critical Thinking How is frequency What would you hear if the boy played
per second. related to energy? the trumpet in a space with no air?
Clue: How does the sound wave travel?

177 178
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 A low-pitched sound, such as that the soles of your feet. However, most How do sound waves
from a foghorn or tuba, has a low sounds are detected only by our ears.
frequency. The vibrations that produce The human ear is so sensitive that it travel?
low sounds move back and forth at a can pick up the tiny vibrations in the Clap your hands once. Sound waves
slower speed than those that produce air that we hear as sounds. spread out in all directions from the
high-frequency sounds. clap. A sound wave moves through the
Quick Check air in the same way that a wave moves
Hearing Sounds Summarize What is the difference through a coiled spring. This kind of
between high frequency and low wave is called a compression wave .
How do we hear sounds? Sound
frequency? In sound waves the wave and the
waves from one vibrating object can
molecules of matter in the wave move
cause other objects, such as your Critical Thinking Explain how back and forth in the same direction
eardrums, to vibrate. You may actually vibrations from a drum reach as the wave.
feel a very loud sound such as a gong your ear.
vibrate inside your body or against Compression waves move by
compressing and expanding matter.
To visualize how a sound wave travels,
picture a coiled spring toy on a table
Eardrum Inside your Ossicles When with someone holding each end. If
head, the vibrations hit the eardrum one person pushes an end of the toy
a membrane called an vibrates, it rattles toward the other person, a wave
eardrum and cause it to three tiny bones
move back and forth. called ossicles.
travels through the coils from one
end to the other. As the wave passes Because compression waves need
through each part of the toy, the matter to compress and expand,
wave compresses, or pushes, the coils a sound wave must travel through
together. As the wave moves on, the matter. The matter conducts the sound
coils expand, or pull apart. wave away from the vibrating object
that produces it.

Compression Wave
Sound waves are compression waves
that travel through the air like the
A_cSS SQ]WZab]USbVS` ripples of a coiled spring toy.
O\R`SZSOaS

Cochlea Deep inside the ear, the

Ear Canal ossicles vibrate against the cochlea.
The vibrations make waves in the
liquid inside the cochlea. These
Ear When the trumpet is waves move tiny hairs. These hairs
played, the air around it send signals along the nerves to
vibrates. Your outer ear the brain. As a result, you hear
directs the vibrations vibrations as sound.
down the ear canal. eOdS[]bW]\

179 180
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

◀ Sound travels through
air, but it does not
Traveling Sound Waves
travel very far from the
source of the sound or
very fast.
◀ Whales communicate
with one another over
vast distances. The
sounds they make can
be detected many miles
away. Sound travels
about four times faster
in water than in air.
Materials That Transmit
Sound Waves
Most sounds that we hear are
transmitted through the air. Do you
think that other substances can also
transmit sound? To test this try an
experiment. Place a wind-up watch
at one end of a table. Then walk to
the other end of the table. You cannot
hear the watch ticking. Now put
your ear to the table. You can hear
the watch ticking because the table
conducts sound waves better than
air does.
Sound can travel through solids
and liquids as well as gases. In fact,
air is a poor conductor of sound.
Sound travels about four times faster
in water than in air and about fifteen
times faster in steel than in air.
What are electromagnetic
waves?
On a sunny day, you can feel the heat We see some electromagnetic waves
Make a model Stretch a piece energy and see the light energy from as light. Light waves are the visible
of plastic wrap over a large bowl the Sun. The Sun’s energy is carried to part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
or pot. Make sure the plastic Earth by electromagnetic waves that The electromagnetic spectrum includes
is stretched tightly over the
container.
are made up of alternating electric and a wide range of electromagnetic
magnetic fields. These waves are created energy. The lower-frequency waves are
Place 20–30 grains of uncooked
by vibrating electric charges. radio waves and microwaves. Next
rice on top of the plastic wrap.
Unlike a sound wave, an come infrared waves, which we feel
Hold a tin as heat. The higher-frequency waves
cookie sheet electromagnetic wave vibrates back
include visible light and X rays.
close to and forth across the direction in which
the plastic the wave travels. Some electromagnetic
wrap. Hit the Quick Check
waves can travel through matter.
sheet with However, electromagnetic waves do Summarize How is a light
a spoon to
make a loud
not need matter to carry them. They wave similar to a radio wave?
can travel without matter in the almost
noise. What Critical Thinking How does
happens to complete vacuum of space.
the rice?
an electromagnetic wave
carry energy?
Infer What do you think caused
the results you observed?
Predict What might happen if you Electromagnetic Spectrum
hit an object that makes a sound
different from a cookie sheet?
Quick Check
Summarize Why is water a Film that is sensitive to The prism separates visible X rays were used to show
better sound transmitter than air? infrared light can show this light into the colors of the the bones in this human
night scene at a water hole. spectrum. hand.
Critical Thinking Why does the
transmission of sound require
matter such as a solid, a liquid,
or a gas?
181 182
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
A wave is a back-and-
Main Idea How does energy
move from one place to another?
forth, disturbance that Seeing in
carries energy. Vocabulary Amplitude and
(pp. 176–177) frequency are properties that
describe a .
Summarize How do humans perceive Infrared
Sound waves are the difference between sound waves
compression waves and some electromagnetic waves?
that carry energy. When you stand in front of a campfire, the glowing
(pp. 178–179) embers of the fire give off radiation that you can see. This
visible radiation is like a train of waves that begins at the fire
and travels to your eyes. There’s another wave train, or type
Electromagnetic Ac[[O`g
of radiation, coming from the fire, but you can’t see it. These
waves such as light
waves are longer than those of visible radiation. They heat up
also carry energy.
Critical Thinking What kind the air, and you can feel this heat when you stand next to the
(p. 182)
of energy is carried by an fire. These waves are called infrared radiation.
electromagnetic wave?
You cannot see a person in a dark room, because people
Test Practice Which of these
do not give off radiation that our eyes can pick up. But if you
Make a transmits sound least efficiently?
A steel
could see the longer waves of infrared radiation, you would
Study Guide see the person very well, even if the room were pitch black!
B a pond
Make a three-tab book C air
(see pp. 487–490). Use People have invented machines that can help us detect
D an ocean
the titles shown. On infrared radiation.
the inside of each tab, Test Practice The visible part of the
summarize how that topic electromagnetic spectrum contains
can help you understand waves.
Earth’s energy. A compression
B radio
C sound
D light 1880
Writing Link Math Link
Write a Report Make a Graph 1880 The Bolometer Samuel Langley invents a tool
Research the history of the invention Research the wavelengths of different called a bolometer to measure infrared radiation.
Infrared radiation heats a metal coil inside the
of the telephone. How did the colors of light and the invisible parts of
bolometer and produces physical changes to the
understanding of sound waves make the electromagnetic spectrum. Make a coil that can be measured. The bolometer could
this invention possible? Write a report color-coded bar graph comparing the detect a cow from 400 meters (1320 feet) away.
and present it to your class. wavelengths.

ELA R 6.2.1. Identify the structural features of popular

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 183 184 media (e.g., newspapers, magazines, online information)
EVALUATE EXTEND and use the features to obtain information.
 History of Science

Lesson 3

2003 Fuels: Our Major

2003 Spitzer Space Telescope
NASA’s Spitzer Space
Telescope uses infrared
detectors to take pictures of
the universe. It is the first to
Energy Source
succeed in taking pictures
of a planet outside our solar
system. These planets emit
very little visible light but more
1940s infrared radiation—enough to
be picked up by the telescope.

1940s Night Vision The U.S. Army creates

the first night-vision devices. Infrared night-
vision goggles use an infrared detector to
convert infrared waves into visible ones that
the eye can see. The advantage of these
goggles is that they allow people to search
for things at night without using light.

Write About It
Compare and Contrast
1. How is infrared radiation different
from visible radiation?
2. What do the bolometer, night-vision
goggles, and the Spitzer Space
Telescope have in common?
Compare and Contrast
▶ Look for similarities and
differences.
▶ Use your own experiences
to clarify comparisons.
Fossil fuels, such as oil and natural gas, are used as
a source of energy to heat or cool our homes and to
cook our food. The Sun is also a source of energy.
How can we use the Sun’s energy in similar ways?

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com
6 PS 3.b. Students know that when fuel is consumed,
185 186 most of the energy released becomes heat energy.
EXTEND ENGAGE
 What are fuels?
▶ Main Idea 6 PS 3.b
People, animals, and plants need food to live.
They break down the food and use it as a source
How can we use the energy Materials When a fuel burns, stored
chemical energy changes of energy. Fuel is also a source of energy. A fuel
of the Sun? into heat energy and light is a material that releases heat when it is burned,
energy. Heat energy can providing energy. There are many different kinds
Purpose drive engines that do of fuels, including wood, oil, and coal.
The Sun gives off light and heat. Light is used by work.
plants to make food and by people to see during Fossil Fuels
▶ Vocabulary
the day. The heat of the Sun warms Earth. Can this
heat be used as a source of energy? fossil fuel, p. 188 Some fuels come from fossils, the remains of
nonrenewable resource, ancient plants and animals. Known as fossil fuels ,
• white construction
Procedure p. 189
paper they are formed beneath the surface of Earth.
renewable resource, p. 189 When plants and animals die, their remains
Line the outside of one paper cup with black • black construction
construction paper. Tape the paper to the cup. biomass conversion, p. 189 become buried beneath layers of sand or mud.
paper
Insert this cup into the second paper cup. The chemical reaction, p. 190 Over millions of years, the plant and animal
• aluminum foil
black construction paper should be between the reactant, p. 190 remains sink deep into Earth, where heat and
two cups. Place three small pieces of peeled • 3 unwaxed paper product, p. 190
apple in the bottom of the first cup. cups
work, p. 192
Place a piece of aluminum foil on top of a piece • transparent tape friction, p. 193 ▼ Fossil fuels contain energy from
of white construction paper. Tape the foil to the • peeled apple ancient plants and animals.
paper. Roll the paper and foil into a cone, with pieces -Glossary
the paper on the outside. The narrow end should @ www.macmillanmh.com
fit into the first paper cup. Insert the cone into Step
the cup, and tape it in place. ▶ Reading Skill
Put three small pieces of peeled apple into a Main Idea
third paper cup. Place the cups in direct sunlight.
;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa
Draw Conclusions
Observe Look at the pieces of apple every
half hour for 2 hours. Note your observations. Step

Analyze What caused the differences you

observed?

Explore More
In this activity you made a simple solar cooker.
How can you make your solar cooker more efficient?
Compare your design with solar cookers that are available in stores.
Write a report about your findings, and present it to your class.

6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an

investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

187 188
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
pressure convert them into fuels such
as coal, oil, and natural gas. Fossil fuels
—sometimes called “stored sunlight”—
give off large amounts of heat when
they burn, so they are widely used.
Renewable and Nonrenewable
Resources
Because fossil fuels take millions of
years to form, they are nonrenewable
resources , resources that cannot be
replaced within a short period of time
or at all. Coal, oil, and natural gas are
examples of nonrenewable resources.
Other sources of energy are known
as renewable resources . These can be
replaced in a relatively short time. This
means that we can use these resources
without using them up or running out
of them. Wood, water, wind, and solar
energy are renewable resources if they
are not used up too quickly.
Another source of renewable fuels
is biomass conversion , a method for
changing plant and animal materials
into high-quality fuels. Materials used
for biomass conversion include straw,
manure, sugarcane, corn, animal fats,
and vegetable oils. For example, the
sugar in corn can be turned into ethanol,
a fuel that can be mixed with gasoline to
run cars. Another method uses bacteria
to digest garbage buried in landfills.
As the bacteria digest the garbage,
they give off methane gas, which is
the main ingredient in natural gas.
Quick Check
Main Idea What is the difference
between a nonrenewable resource
and a renewable resource?
Critical Thinking Why is biomass
conversion useful?
fossil of a tree fern
coal
189
EXPLAIN
What happens when fuel burns?
When a fuel such as coal, wood,
or gasoline burns, energy is released.
Burning is a chemical reaction , a
change in matter that produces new
substances with different properties
from the original substances. The
original substances in the reaction are
called reactants . The new substances
formed are called products .
Burning Methane Gas
3 4
2
1 Methane gas Methane is a gas that
is burned for fuel. It requires oxygen and
energy to burn. Methane is made up of
carbon and hydrogen.
2 Oxygen Oxygen is necessary for a fuel
such as methane to burn.
3 Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is one
of the products given off when methane is
burned. As the methane burns, the carbon
in the methane combines with oxygen in
the air to make carbon dioxide.
190
EXPLAIN
Oxygen must be present for any
fuel to burn. When a fuel is heated,
it reacts with the oxygen in the air
around it. This chemical reaction
between the oxygen and the fuel
releases heat energy and light energy.
It also releases products such as water
vapor and carbon dioxide, which
contain little energy.
5
1 Reading Diagrams
How does the carbon dioxide
form?
Clue: Start at the beginning,
and follow the arrows.
4 Heat Burning methane gives off a
lot of heat that can be changed into
electricity or other forms of energy.
5 Water vapor Water vapor is
another product given off by burning
methane. The hydrogen in the
methane combines with oxygen in
the air to make water.
Burning Fuel for Energy Quick Check
Fuels such as coal and petroleum Main Idea What is the difference
release large amounts of heat energy between a reactant and a product?
when they burn. They are a major
source of the energy used in cars, Critical Thinking Describe the
homes, and businesses. process by which coal is burned.
Burning fuels may also release light
energy. Candles and kerosene lamps
give off light that can brighten
a room. The light energy released
when fireworks explode is used
to entertain people on the
Fourth of July and
other celebrations.

How can energy be Work and Energy

used to do work?
People use energy to do work.
Work is the use of force to move an
object through a distance. People
satellite rocket launch do work when they move objects
from one place to another. You can
use your body to move a bag of
groceries or a stack of books. You
can also use a simple tool, such as a
screwdriver, to turn a screw. In all
these cases, you are using energy to
do work.
The energy released when fuel
burns can also be used to do work.
The engine in a jet plane burns fuel
and releases energy that helps move
the plane. A gasoline engine does Reading Photos
work by burning fuels and using
heat energy to move the parts of the What force makes a bicycle move
engine. The heat energy in steam is forward? What force makes a
bicycle stop?
used to power generators that make
electricity. Clue: How is the cyclist using his
hands and feet?

191 192
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

What materials can
reduce friction?
When a car’s engine burns gasoline,
gases are produced. The gases
push down the pistons that turn the
crankshaft. The wheels spin, and
the car races around the track.
Friction: Nature’s Brakes
To stop a moving car, we use
friction. Friction is the force that acts
when two surfaces rub against each
other. When the driver of a car presses
on the brake pedal, the friction of
the brakes against parts of the wheels
slows the car. The friction of the tires
against the road also slows the car.
There is even friction between the car
and the air. Friction generates heat.
In this case it causes the brakes and
the tires to get hotter. To feel the heat
generated by friction, try rubbing your
hands together. The heat you feel is the
result of friction.
Quick Check
Main Idea How does friction
between the tires and the road
work to brake a car?
Critical Thinking What do
friction and energy have in
common? How do they differ?
Observe Rub your hands together
quickly. What happens? What force
causes your hands to heat up?
Experiment Put lotion on your
hands, and try rubbing them
together again. What happens?
Do you think talcum powder will
have the same effect as the lotion?
Test your idea.
Infer Based on your observations,
what effect does motor oil have
on friction between engine parts?
Squeezing the brakes makes
the brake pads squeeze the
tires. Friction between the
brake pads and the tires
slows and stops the bike.
193
EXPLAIN
How does potential As the match burns, it gives
off heat and light. The potential
energy change into energy of the chemical bonds
becomes the kinetic energy
kinetic energy?
of heat and light.
Energy can change from one form
into another. It can change from Some of the carbon atoms
in the match may not burn
stored energy into energy that is used
completely. You can see the
to move an object. Potential energy is
carbon atoms in the form of
stored energy, and kinetic energy is the
soot left on the match and in
energy of motion. Potential energy can
be changed into kinetic energy, and the air. This means that some
kinetic energy can be changed back of the stored energy has not
been released.
into potential energy. For example,
imagine a rock on the side of a steep
hill. While it is still, the rock has Quick Check
potential energy. If the rock begins to Main Idea How is the energy of
roll down the hill, its potential energy a rolling object different from the
changes to kinetic energy. When the energy of the same object at rest?
hill levels out, friction will cause the
rock to stop rolling. Critical Thinking How does a
burning fuel convert potential
Burning a fuel is another way to energy into kinetic energy?
change potential energy into kinetic
energy. For example, a match has
potential energy in its chemical
bonds. When you light the
match, you release the
energy in these bonds.
What kind of energy
does this rock have?
194
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea When a fuel burns, stored
A fuel is a material
energy changes into heat
that releases heat
and light energy.
when it burns.
(pp. 188–189) Vocabulary The use of force to move an
object through a distance is .

When a fuel burns, Main Idea How are biomass conversion

and nonrenewable resources similar? Saving energy is everyone’s job. In my
it releases energy
through a chemical
opinion if we can save energy, we will save
;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa money. Using less energy will help reduce
reaction between
oxygen and the fuel. pollution. It will cut down on greenhouse
(pp. 190–191) gases that contribute to global warming.
Saving energy will help secure a better
Work is the use of Critical Thinking Why does
force to move an
future for California.
smothering a small fire with a blanket
object through a Adults are not the only ones involved.
or the lid of a pan put the fire out?
distance. You can help, too. Your family can cut
(pp. 192–193) Test Practice Which of the following back on using energy at home. Use the
is a renewable resource? air conditioner as little as possible. Use
A solar energy
washers, dryers, and dishwashers only with
B coal
Make a C natural gas
a full load. Hang laundry to dry instead of
Study Guide D oil putting it in the dryer. Turn off lights when
Make a three-tab book they are not in use. Ride a bicycle or walk
Test Practice What force acts when
(see pp. 487–490). two surfaces rub against each other?
instead of traveling by car.
Use the titles shown. A biomass
On the inside of each B potential energy
tab, write the main C kinetic energy
Write About It
idea from the lesson Persuasive Writing Write a persuasive
D friction
that the term is in. letter to your local representative in the
California State Assembly about an energy- Good persuasive writing
related environmental problem in your
area. State your opinion, and support it ▶ clearly states an opinion.
with convincing reasons and evidence
arranged in a logical order. Include ▶ uses convincing reasons
Writing Link Math Link arguments for ways to conserve energy and arguments.
and solve the problem. Use print and online
Explanatory Writing Calculate Calories ▶ organizes reasons in
sources to research this topic. Use the
The mayor of a town is trying to decide There are 3,500 food calories in 1 pound a logical order.
correct form for a formal letter.
whether the town should spend money of fat. If you eat 1 candy bar each day
▶ includes opinion words
on biomass conversion or fossil fuels. that has 250 calories, how many days
and phrases, such as
Write a letter to the mayor describing would it take to gain 1 pound? -Journal Write about it online should and in my opinion.
your viewpoint. @ www.macmillanmh.com

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 195 196 ELA W 6.1.1. Choose the form of writing (e.g., personal letter, letter to the
EVALUATE EXTEND editor, review, poem, report, narrative) that best suits the intended purpose.
 Lesson 4

Convert
measurements
For accurate calculations
Heat Transfer in
use these measurements:
1 mi/gal = 0.425 km/L Solids and Fluids
1 km/L = 2.35 mi/gal
Hybrid cars use less energy from fossil ▶ To convert mi/gal to
fuels by using a combination of gasoline and km/L, multiply the
electricity from a battery. These cars can be mi/gal by 0.425.
very fuel efficient. 22 mi/gal × 0.425 =
Car buyers look carefully at fuel-efficiency 9.35 km/L
information. This information is usually
▶ To convert km/L to
written in miles per gallon (mi/gal) or kilometers
mi/gal, multiply the
per liter (km/L). The farther the car can travel km/L by 2.35.
on 1 gallon or 1 liter of gasoline, the more fuel 9.35 km/L × 2.35 =
efficient the car is. This information helps a 21.97 mi/gal
car buyer determine how much it might cost to
buy fuel to drive a car for a year.

Fuel Use Fuel Use

Solve It Vehicle
(in mi/gal) (in km/L)
1. The table lists the fuel use of Sports car A 9.8
vehicles in mi/gal or km/L.
Sports car B 18
In order to compare efficiency,
all the measurements must be Hybrid car A 15.3

in a single system. Complete the Hybrid car B 46

table by converting mi/gal to Sedan A 16.2
km/L or km/L to mi/gal to fill in
Sedan B 20
the missing information.
2. Which car is the most fuel Luxury car 5.2 When a large block of ice falls off a glacier
efficient? Which is the least? Compact car A 15.3 and splashes into the sea, the nearby water gets
3. Hybrid car B travels 46 miles on Compact car B 29
colder. What do you think happens to the air
a gallon of gasoline. How many Station wagon 11.0
above the iceberg and the sea?
gallons are needed for the car
Sport utility vehicle 14
to travel 500 miles?

MA NS 6.1.2. Interpret and use ratios in different contexts (e.g., batting

averages, miles per hour) to show the relative sizes of two quantities, using 6 PS 3.c. Students know heat flows in solids by conduction (which involves no flow of
appropriate notations (a/b, a to b, a:b). • MA AF 6.2.1. Convert one unit of 197 198 matter) and in fluids by conduction and by convection (which involves flow of matter).
measurement to another (e.g., from feet to miles, from centimeters to inches). EXTEND ENGAGE
 How is heat transferred?
▶ Main Idea 6 PS 3.c
Heat transfer is measured by changes in
temperature. Objects that are near each other
How does heat flow from one Materials Heat flows in solids
by conduction and in
will eventually have the same temperature. Heat
material to another? fluids by conduction and travels from warmer objects to cooler objects
convection. until the objects are the same temperature.
Make a Prediction
What will happen when two objects of different
▶ Vocabulary
Conduction
temperatures are placed together? Will heat be conduction, p. 200
transferred? Write your answer as a prediction in convection, p. 202 Conduction is the movement of energy
the form “If heat moves from hot to cold, then . . .” buoyancy, p. 202 through direct contact. This means that two
convection current, p. 203 materials must be touching for heat to be
Test Your Prediction conducted from one material to the other.
Hold a liquid-crystal thermometer card against -Glossary Conduction is the only way heat can travel
• 2 liquid-crystal
the back of your hand, and observe what @ www.macmillanmh.com through solids.
thermometer
happens to the card as it warms up. Record cards
color changes, if any. ▶ Reading Skill
• quarter
Warm a quarter in your hands and place it on Compare and Contrast
• cup of hot water
the table. Place a liquid-crystal thermometer 2WTTS`S\b /ZWYS 2WTTS`S\b
card on top of the quarter. Record any changes. • ice cube

Hold a liquid-crystal thermometer card above a

Step
cup of hot water. Note any changes. What shape
is the colored region? How is this different from
the colored regions in steps 1 and 2?
Hold an ice cube about 1 centimeter above a
thermometer card. What happens now?
A glassmaker
Draw Conclusions uses fire to melt
the glass before
Analyze How would you explain what you shaping it.
observed? Did your observations support Step
your prediction? Does heat flow between two
materials when they are touching? When they
are not touching?

Explore More
What would happen if you repeated step 2 and placed
a second card on top of the first? Make a prediction and
test it. Then analyze and present your results.

6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including calculators, computers,
balances, spring scales, microscopes, and binoculars) to perform tests, collect data, and display
data. • 6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.

199 200
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
 Heat Transfer
Heat is transferred
from the burner to the
frying pan to the food
through conduction.
All atoms in a solid vibrate in
place and transfer their movement to
one another. When a faster-moving,
warmer atom collides with a slower-
moving, cooler atom, it passes some
of its kinetic energy to the slower-
moving atom. As a solid such as the
burner on an electric stove heats up,
its atoms vibrate more quickly, and
its temperature rises. If you put a pot
on the burner, these vibrating atoms
will transfer some of their motion
from the burner to the atoms on the
bottom of the pot. The faster-vibrating
atoms on the bottom of the pot then
transfer energy to those next to them.
What is convection?
When you heat a pot of soup, some of the heat is
transferred, or conducted, through direct contact of the pot
with the soup. However, most of the heat is transferred as
the heated soup at the bottom rises and flows throughout the
pot. The transfer of energy by the flow of a liquid or a gas is
called convection . Convection can occur in liquids and gases
but not in solids.
Convection occurs because most gases and liquids
(both of which are known as fluids) become less dense
when they are heated. In the atmosphere, warmer air rises
because it has a lower density than cooler air. Cooler air
is denser and sinks. Hotter, less-dense fluid rises through
colder, denser fluid because of the hotter fluid’s greater
buoyancy. Buoyancy is an upward force on an object or a
substance that is in a liquid or a gas. Buoyancy and density
are directly related. For example, oil is less dense and more
buoyant than water, so oil floats on the water’s surface.
Reading Photos
▼ The air in the inner tube is less dense
How does the food in the pan cook?
than the water, so the girl can float.
Clue: What role does the frying pan play?
Energy is transferred from atom to
atom until the entire pot is hot. Atoms
in liquids and gases are not as close to
each other as they are in solids. Their
vibrations cause them to move around.
Quick Check
Compare and Contrast How
is heat transferred between two
solids at different temperatures?
At the same temperature?
Critical Thinking How does the
vibration of atoms conduct heat
through a solid?
201 202
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 Conduction and Convection Do some materials warm
faster than others?
abSO[W`]\ Which warms faster?
1]\dSQbW]\Qc``S\baW\3O`bV¸a[O\bZS It takes less energy to warm
QOcaS[]dS[S\bW\bVSQ`cab Write a hypothesis about which some materials than others. The
material—water or plastic foam— amount of energy needed to increase
you think will warm up more the temperature of a substance one
Q]\dSQbW]\Qc``S\b
quickly. Make a list of variables
b`S\QV Q`cab degree is a physical property. Some
that affect how rapidly the two
materials warm up. kinds of matter, such as water, take
[O\bZS
6SObWab`O\aTS``SR
a lot of energy to increase their
PgQ]\RcQbW]\eVS\ Fill a beaker half full of water and
bVSV]bW`]\b]cQVSa another half full of plastic-foam
temperature. Other kinds of matter
bVSQZ]bV peanuts. Place a thermometer in require less energy.
each beaker. Record the starting
Q]`S temperatures. Place both beakers Scientists call this physical property
under a desk lamp, and turn the specific heat capacity. Since it takes a
lamp on. lot of heat to increase the temperature
Measure Take the temperature of of water one degree, water is often
b`S\QV each beaker after 2, 4, 6, and 8 used for heating and cooling in homes
minutes. and automobiles. The table below lists
Infer When did you observe a some specific heat capacities.
change in temperature? What was
b`S\QV `WRUS Reading Diagrams the result of your experiment? Specific Heat Capacities
Do your observations support Material Specific Heat Capacity
How is heat transferred in the your hypothesis? Air 1.004
liquid part of Earth?
Aluminum 0.897
Clue: The labels can help you
interpret the diagram. Copper 0.385

Water 4.181
Convection Currents Ice 2.114
As a hot fluid rises away from its because of its lower density. Cooler air Sand 0.835
source of heat, it may cool, become is denser and sinks. However, density is Wood 0.42
denser, sink back to the heat source, not the same as weight. An object can Brick 0.84
and be warmed again. The resulting be denser than another but weigh less. Concrete 0.88
circulation of hot and cold fluids is
called a convection current . This Quick Check
current helps warm a pot of soup Quick Check
Compare and Contrast What is
evenly, even though most of the heat
the difference between conduction Compare and Contrast Which
is applied to the bottom of the pot
in a solid and convection in a material in the table takes the least
that is touching the burner.
liquid or gas? amount of energy to warm up?
Convection currents can move
through gases or liquids. In the Critical Thinking How does a Critical Thinking On a sunny day
atmosphere warmer air carries heat convection current carry heat why does sand at the beach heat up
energy upward. The warm air rises throughout a liquid or gas? before the water?

203 204
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Inquiry Structured
Conduction is the
Main Idea How does heat flow in solids, Materials
liquids, and gases? What are conduction and convection?
movement of energy
through direct contact. Vocabulary Heat transfer by direct
(p. 200–201) contact is called . Make a Prediction
Heat energy can move through solids by a process called
Compare and Contrast What is the
metal rod conduction. In fluids heat energy can move by conduction and
difference between conduction and
1]\dSQbW]\Qc``S\baW\3O`bV¸a[O\bZS abSO[W`]\
Convection is the through convection currents. Heat energy moves at different rates
QOcaS[]dS[S\bW\bVSQ`cab convection?
Q]\dSQbW]\Qc``S\b
b`S\QV Q`cab transfer of energy through different solids and fluids. Metals are considered good
[O\bZS
6SObWab`O\aTS``SR
PgQ]\RcQbW]\eVS\ 2WTTS`S\b /ZWYS 2WTTS`S\b
bVSV]bW`]\b]cQVSa
bVSQZ]bV by the flow of a liquid conductors because heat energy moves through them rapidly.
Q]`S

or a gas. How can you measure conduction of energy in a solid? Write your
b`S\QV

(p. 202–203) answer as a prediction in the form “If heat moves through a solid
b`S\QV `WRUS
thermal strip by conduction, then you can measure the movement by . . .”

Specific heat capacity Be Careful. Be careful while handling warm water. Clean up
is the energy required spills immediately.
to increase the Critical Thinking Explain why many
metal pots and pans have wooden or Test Your Prediction Step
temperature of 1 gram ruler
of material 1 degree. plastic handles. Measure Use the ruler to
Test Practice Use the table on page measure the length of the metal
204. Which of the following will rod. Use a marker to place a dot
Make a take the most energy to increase its at each inch along the length of
temperature? the metal rod. Record the length
Study Guide transparent
A concrete of the rod, and draw a picture of
Take a sheet of paper tape it in your journal.
B brick
and tape your lesson Step
C aluminum Place your thumb on the thermal
study guides as
D copper strip for 1 second. Record the
shown. Use the study
guides to answer the Test Practice What is the upward color change in your journal.
questions on these force on an object that is in a liquid Use transparent tape to attach
pages. or a gas called? graph paper the thermal strip to the rod. Line
A buoyancy up the end of the strip with the
B conduction first mark. You will need to be
C convection able to see the marks on the rod
D energy Step
throughout the activity.
Place one end of the rod in a cup
Writing Link Math Link markers of warm water. Start a timer, and
record how many seconds it takes
Explanatory Letter Arrange a Data Series
the changing color on the thermal
Write a letter to the builders of a new Arrange the items in the chart on page
strip to travel to each mark.
house. Explain what materials they 204 from greatest to least specific heat
should use to limit heat transfer in the capacity. Find the mean and median of Repeat step 4 two more times,
new house. the series. and record your data.

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 6 IE 7.c. Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop
205 206
qualitative statements about the relationships between variables.
EVALUATE EXTEND
 CHAPTER 3 Review
Draw Conclusions Fill each blank with the best term
Graph Construct a line graph, and plot your three trials on the
Summarize the Main Ideas from the list.
graph. Heat energy flows from
a warmer object to a biomass frequency, p. 177
Analyze Using your data describe the process of conduction.
cooler object until both conversion, p. 189
Describe any trends or differences you saw among the three heat, p. 167
objects are the same
trials. conduction, p. 200
temperature. kinetic
Infer What do you think would happen if the water you used (pp. 162–171) convection energy, p. 165
were hotter?
current, p. 203
potential
Energy moves from electromagnetic energy,
Inquiry Guided one place to another waves, p. 182 p. 165
by heat flow or by
What causes convection waves. All waves have a 1. The movement of energy from one
wavelength, a frequency, substance to another is .
currents in water? and an amplitude. 6 PS 3.a
(pp. 174–183)
Form a Hypothesis 2. The movement of energy through
How do convection currents begin in a body of water? Write your When a fuel burns, direct contact is . 6 PS 3.c
answer as a hypothesis in the form “If warm water is added to stored chemical energy
cooler water, then . . .” changes into heat 3. A boulder perched at the top of a cliff
energy and light energy. has . 6 PS 3.a
(pp. 186–195)
Test Your Hypothesis 4. Alternating currents of electric and
Design an experiment to investigate how heat energy moves magnetic fields that carry energy
through convection currents. Write out the materials you will from the Sun to Earth are called
need and the steps you will follow. Carry out your experiment, Heat flows in solids by . 6 PS 3.a
and record your results and observations. conduction and in fluids
by conduction and 5. The method of changing plant and
convection. animal materials into high-quality
Draw Conclusions (pp. 198–205) fuels is called . 6 PS 3.b
Did your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not?
Present your results to your classmates. 6. Warm fluids rising and cooling while
denser fluids are sinking and warming
Make a is an example of a(n) .
Inquiry Open Remember to follow the 6 PS 3.c
Study Guide
steps of the scientific process.
What are some conductive properties of metals? Take a sheet of 7. The energy of any moving object,
For example, are some metals better conductors than Ask a Question paper and tape such as a molecule in a gas, is called
others? Think of a question, and design an experiment your lesson study . 6 PS 3.a
to investigate it. Plan your experiment to test one Form a Hypothesis guides as shown.
variable, or one item being changed. Write out the Use the study 8. The number of complete wave
steps so another group could try it by following your guides to answer vibrations, or cycles, per unit of
Test Your Hypothesis
instructions. the questions on time is the . 6 PS 3.a
these pages.
Draw Conclusions

207 208
EXTEND
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
Answer each of the following
in complete sentences.
9. Sequence Describe the path of a
sound wave from a ringing school
bell to your brain. 6 PS 3.a
10. Cause and Effect Describe what a
hockey game would look like if there
were no friction. 6 PS 3.b
11. Infer Suppose you had to hold up a
very heavy suitcase for several hours
without moving. Why is this situation
not considered to be work? 6 PS 3.b
12. Compare and Contrast Explain how
sound waves and light waves are
alike and different. 6 PS 3.a
13. Explanatory Writing Compare the
energy conversions that occur
when people’s bodies use food as
fuel with the energy conversions
that occur when an automobile
uses gasoline for fuel. 6 PS 3.b
How does heat move from one
object to another?
16/>B3@!
What a Ride!
La Marcus Adna Thompson created the
first successful roller coaster, introduced
at Coney Island, in New York City, in
1884. Your goal is to think like an inventor
and design your own roller coaster.
What to Do
1. Design your own roller coaster, with
at least one big hill and several smaller
hills. Think about how you will get the
cars to the top of the first hill.
2. Identify the potential and kinetic
energy along the path of your roller
coaster.
Analyze Your Results
▶ Where would you find the maximum
potential energy on your roller
coaster? Where is the minimum
potential energy and maximum kinetic
energy?
▶ Where on your roller coaster is work
being done?
209
1 Why do the molecules of a gas
have a higher temperature than
the molecules of a solid? 6 PS 3.a
A They move more rapidly and have
more energy.
B They vibrate in place, rubbing
against each other.
C They move in a straight line and
vibrate in place.
D They move less rapidly and are
closer together.
2 Which part of the picture below
shows the wavelength? 6 PS 3.a
A a
B b
C c
D d
3 = Why are metals good conductors of
heat? 6 PS 3.c
A The temperature of metals does not
change much when heat is added.
B Metals absorb heat but do not
distribute it evenly.
C Metals absorb heat and distribute
it evenly.
D Metals prevent heat from flowing
in or out of a material.
210
4 What is the best description of how
sound waves travel? 6 PS 3.a
A in a straight path to your ear
B back and forth from the source
C outward in all directions
D upward from the source
5 What happens to stored chemical
energy when a fuel burns? 6 PS 3.b
A The energy decreases until no part
of it is left.
B The energy stays in the form of
chemical energy.
C The energy turns into heat energy
and light energy.
D The energy turns into potential
energy and kinetic energy.
6 In the chemical reaction for
burning methane, which of these
is a reactant? 6 PS 3.b
A water vapor
B oxygen
C carbon dioxide
D heat
7 How does heat travel through
solids? 6 PS 3.c
A conduction
B convection
C radiation
D emission
8 8 A student hypothesizes that sound 10 0 Two objects are placed together so
travels faster through glass than that their sides are touching. One
through plastic or wood. He performs object is 30°C warmer than the other
an experiment and gathers his data. object. What will happen? 6 PS 3.c
The following graph shows his data. A Coolness will flow from the cooler
object to the warmer object.
B Heat will flow from the warmer

object to the cooler object.
&
C There will be no change, because
$ solid objects do not transfer heat.
" D They will heat up until they are both
30°C warmer than before.

BW[SW\[WZZWaSQ]\Ra
>ZOabWQ 5ZOaa E]]R 11 The table below shows the specific
;ObS`WOZ heat capacity of different materials.
Materials with higher values
need more energy to raise their
Which conclusion is correct? 6 IE 7.e temperature.
A Wood is better than plastic or glass.
Material Specific Heat Capacity
B Glass is better than plastic or wood.
C Sound travels fastest through wood. Aluminum 0.897

D Sound travels fastest through plastic. Copper 0.385

Wood 0.42
9 Fuel stored in food is used to help Brick 0.84
you do work. When you push a ball
up a hill, an energy change takes Which material requires the most
place in the ball. What is this energy energy to raise its temperature?
change that is taking place? 6 PS 3.b 6 PS 3.c
A Kinetic energy is converted into
A aluminum
potential energy. B copper
B Potential energy is converted into
C wood
kinetic energy. D brick
C Kinetic energy is converted into
compression waves. 12 Insulation is used to 6 PS 3.c
D Chemical energy is converted into
A conduct thermal energy.
kinetic energy.
B measure thermal energy.
C prevent heat flow.
D increase heat flow.

Materials prepared by PASS at 211

CHAPTER 4
Lesson 1
Electromagnetic
Spectrum

PAGE 216
Energy in the Lesson 2
Solar Radiation

Earth System PAGE 228

Lesson 3
The Power of
Convection Currents

PAGE 240
6 PS 4. Many phenomena on Earth’s surface are
affected by the transfer of energy through radiation
and convection currents.

How do radiation and convection currents

affect phenomena on Earth?

212 213
 from MONKEYSHINES ON HEALTH AND SCIENCE

Literature
MAGAZINE ARTICLE

ELA R 6.2.2. A Scientific Breakthrough

Analyze text that
uses the compare-and- Most light, whether from a candle or a high-powered spotlight, is
contrast organizational composed of many different colors and quickly spreads over a wide
pattern. • ELA W 6.2.2.
area as it travels away from its source. Laser light, however, can
Write expository
compositions (e.g., be concentrated into a very fine line which can travel thousands
description, explanation, of miles unless something blocks it.
comparison and contrast,
problem and solution). Lasers, invented in the early 1950s, have revolutionized
communications, astronomy, surgery, and a multitude of other
scientific fields. A laser is a specialized lamp producing light waves
which are extremely bright, are pure in color, and can be highly
focused.
Light, television, and radio signals are all forms of
electromagnetic waves. Microwaves, like those used to cook
food in microwave ovens, are a few inches long. Dr. Charles
Townes of New York’s Columbia University invented a way to
amplify and transmit microwaves in 1954, calling it a maser,
short for “microwave amplification by the stimulated emission of
radiation.”
Lasers consist of four basic parts: an energy source, an active
medium, an amplification system, and an output unit. Many lasers
are made using crystal rubies, but lasers also can be made using
various gases and liquids. Many recent laser designs incorporate
the same kinds of semiconductor materials found in computer
microchips. As laser research continues and industry continues to
develop new laser applications, lasers probably will come to play
an even greater role in our everyday lives.

Write About It
Response to Literature In this article the author
tells about the invention of the laser. How did this
invention come about? What impact has it had on
science? Write an essay comparing and contrasting
lasers and other forms of light. What do they have in
common? How do they differ?

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com

214 215
Lesson 1
Which material best heats water? Materials

Make a Prediction
Electromagnetic Which material—white paper, black construction
paper, or aluminum foil—will most quickly raise
the temperature of water when placed in direct
sunlight? Write your answer as a prediction in the
Spectrum form “If I wrap three jars using white paper, black
construction paper, and aluminum foil, then . . .”
• 3 medium-size jars
Test Your Prediction
• black construction
Experiment Fill three jars with the same paper
amount of water. Wrap one of the materials
• white paper
around each jar, and secure each with a piece
of tape. Place the jars on a level surface • aluminum foil
in a location that receives direct sunlight. • tape
Place a thermometer in each jar, and stir the water. • 3 thermometers
Record the temperature of the water in each jar.
Wait 30 minutes, stir the water, and record the Step
temperature of the water in each jar again.

Draw Conclusions
Use Numbers For each jar, subtract the initial
temperature of the water from the temperature
recorded after 30 minutes in the sunlight.
In which jar was the temperature of the water
most increased? Was your prediction correct?
Infer What caused the water temperature in the
jars to rise? Step

A rainbow appears when falling raindrops bend Explore More

sunlight. Like a prism, each raindrop divides white
light into bands of different colors—the part of the
electromagnetic spectrum people can see. There are
other parts that people cannot see. Parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum warm the air on a hot day.
Set the jars in a place that does not receive direct
sunlight. Which jar will lose the most heat? Wait 30
minutes, stir the water, and record the temperature.
Which jar lost the most heat? Analyze the data and
present your results.

6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an investigation

in written reports and oral presentations. • 6 IE 7.e. Recognize
whether evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.

6 PS 3.d. Students know heat energy is also transferred between objects by

radiation (radiation can travel through space). • 6 ES 4.b. Students know solar
216 energy reaches Earth through radiation, mostly in the form of visible light. 217
ENGAGE EXPLORE
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

What is the electromagnetic

6 PS 3.d
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 4.b spectrum?
Heat travels from the Sun
to Earth by radiation in the
The Sun’s energy is carried to Earth by
form of electromagnetic electromagnetic waves. The electromagnetic
waves. spectrum is the wide range of electromagnetic
radiation ordered by wavelength. A wavelength
▶ Vocabulary is the distance along a wave before it repeats.
electromagnetic spectrum, Shorter wavelengths have higher energy, while
p. 218
longer wavelengths have lower energy.
radiation, p. 220
absorption, p. 220 The electromagnetic spectrum, arranged from
emission, p. 221 waves with the lowest amount of energy to waves
with the highest amount of energy, consists of
-Glossary radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible
@ www.macmillanmh.com light, ultraviolet light, X rays, and gamma rays.
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths and
▶ Reading Skill include transmissions of AM radio, shortwave
Sequencing radio, TV, and FM radio. Microwaves, used Reading Diagrams
4W`ab to power radar and satellite systems, as well
Which has a wider range of frequencies:
visible light or radio waves?

<Sfb as ovens that cook food quickly, are Clue: Compare the ranges of the
frequencies.
in the next part of the spectrum.
Infrared rays, which people feel as
:Oab
heat, are given off by the Sun and other
sources, such as active volcanoes. Some
Explore the restaurants use infrared lamps to keep wavelengths and carry so much energy
elctromagnetic
spectrum with
food warm. that they can even pass through metals
an engineer. In the middle of the spectrum are and concrete.
the wavelengths of visible light. We see
these wavelengths as colors that range Quick Check
from red to violet. Sequencing How are the forms of
The next part of the spectrum electromagnetic radiation arranged
includes ultraviolet light waves. from lowest energy to highest
Ultraviolet waves carry more energy energy?
than visible light waves. Overexposure
Critical Thinking Compare the
to ultraviolet rays and other high-energy
waves can be harmful to humans. After characteristics of radio waves and
ultraviolet rays are X rays and gamma gamma rays.
rays. Gamma rays have very short
▲ the colors of visible light

218 219
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

How does electromagnetic
radiation reach Earth?
Electromagnetic waves travel
about 150 million kilometers
(93 million miles) to reach Earth
from the Sun. There is no air in
the empty space between Earth’s
atmosphere and the Sun. Without
air, there is no substance for
waves to travel through. How do
electromagnetic waves reach Earth?
The answer is that they travel by
radiation. Radiation is the transfer of
energy by electromagnetic waves. The
energy given off by the Sun is called
radiant energy. It does not require two
objects to be touching, as conduction
does. Nor does it require that the
objects be joined by a liquid or a gas,
as convection does.
The light produced by the Sun is
the most common example of radiation,
but all objects give off a wide range
of electromagnetic waves. The strength
of each type of radiation depends on
the temperature of the object.
220
EXPLAIN
▲ The International Space Station collects
solar radiation to make electricity.
Absorption and Emission
of Radiant Energy
When radiant energy falls on an
object, part of it is reflected, and part of
it is absorbed. Absorption is the process
of taking in radiant energy. A perfect
absorber of electromagnetic radiation
appears black, because it absorbs all
colors of visible light as well as other
types of radiation. Objects that appear
dark absorb some electromagnetic
radiation, while objects that appear
white or light-colored reflect more
radiation than they absorb. That is
why the jar you wrapped in black
paper in the Explore activity heated
the water to a higher temperature.
You might notice that dark objects
absorb more radiant energy if, on a hot
day, you touch a black metal surface
such as a car. The surface will feel
hotter than a white metal surface. It
has absorbed more infrared radiation,
which people feel as heat energy.
Emission is the process of giving Air molecules, water vapor, clouds,
off absorbed electromagnetic waves. dust, and pollutants play a role in
A good absorber is also a good emitter. this process.
Therefore a black, metal object takes Wavelengths of visible light are
in more electromagnetic radiation, but not greatly absorbed by anything
it also emits more. This means that once in the atmosphere, so they are able
a dark object is away from the source to reach Earth’s surface. Each visible
of radiation, it will cool off faster than color has its own properties and
a similar, light-colored object. scatters differently. For example, blue
Solar radiation is the electromagnetic light, which has a shorter wavelength,
radiation emitted by the Sun. With is scattered more easily than red or
a surface temperature of about 5,500°C yellow light. This is why the sky looks
to 6,000°C (9,900°F to 11,000°F), blue and the Sun looks yellow.
the Sun emits a great amount of high-
energy, short-wavelength radiation. Quick Check
Most of it lies in the visible and near- Sequencing What events lead
visible, or infrared, parts of the up to the emission of radiation
electromagnetic spectrum. A small from an object?
percentage falls in the ultraviolet range
of the spectrum. Critical Thinking Why might
light-colored clothing be more
As the Sun’s incoming energy passes
suitable than dark-colored
through Earth’s atmosphere, it may
clothing in hot weather?
be absorbed, reflected, or scattered.
Absorption and Emission
Reading Photos
Why do you think the hot desert air cools
quickly at night?
Clue: What is the difference between the
two photographs? 221
EXPLAIN
What forms of radiation are useful?
Radiation in the electromagnetic
spectrum can be divided into two
categories: ionizing radiation and
non-ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing
radiation falls at the long-wavelength
end of the spectrum. Every time you
use a microwave oven, you see non-
ionizing radiation at work. Microwave
energy shakes the water molecules in
beverages and foods, creating friction.
The friction caused by the moving water
molecules heats the beverage or food.
In a microwave oven, all foods do not
Uses of Radiation
microwaves
non-ionizing
radiation
radio waves
222
EXPLAIN
Electromagnetic radiation is
generally safe in small quantities
heat at the same rate. This is why you when used properly. People can take
have to stir some foods to distribute advantage of its properties for daily
the heat. tasks as well as special uses.
High-energy radiation falls at
the short-wavelength end of the Quick Check
electromagnetic spectrum. This type
Sequencing Explain how a
of radiation has extremely high energy.
microwave oven heats food.
High-energy radiation has the power
to generate electricity, kill cancer cells, Critical Thinking Why do you
and drive manufacturing processes. think that the ionizing radiation
used for cancer treatment has to
be administered in small doses?
infrared light
X rays
ionizing
radiation
Reading Diagrams
visible light
Does a microwave oven use a higher or
lower frequency than an X-ray machine?
Clue: Look at the part of the spectrum
where microwaves and X rays are marked.
Distance and Energy
What happens to the light beam
from a flashlight as you move the
flashlight farther from a piece
of paper? Tape a sheet of graph
paper to the wall, and write an x
in the middle of the paper.
Measure Hold a flashlight 2
centimeters away from the paper.
Turn on the light, and keep the x
in the middle of the beam. Trace
a circle around the spot of light.
Count and record the number of
squares inside the circle.
Predict What will happen to
the size of the circle if you move
the flashlight to 4 centimeters
and then 8 centimeters from the
paper? How will this affect the
brightness of the light and the
size of the circle? Why?
Infer How does distance from the
light source affect the amount of
energy each square receives?
Infer If a planet were twice as far
from the Sun as Earth is, would it
receive half as much energy from
the Sun as Earth does? Explain.
What effect would this have on
the planet’s temperature?
223
EXPLAIN
What forms of radiation are harmful?
Although radiation is used by
people in many ways, large quantities
of certain types of radiation can cause
harm. These types of radiation, which
include ultraviolet light, X rays, and
gamma rays, are the highest energy
on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Ultraviolet rays from the Sun can
cause suntans and sunburns. Ultraviolet
rays cause pigment-producing cells
in the skin to produce a brown color.
In addition, the radiation damages the
DNA in skin cells. This damage may
lead to skin cancer. Ultraviolet radiation
also ages the skin and can harm the
eyes. Children under the age of 18 are
at greater risk from ultraviolet radiation
because their skin is more sensitive.
X rays, in large quantities, can
harm living tissue by damaging or
killing cells. The effects can include
reddened or burned skin, eye damage,
cancer, and a reduction of the white
blood cells that help the body fight
off infections. However, small doses Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
of X rays are not considered harmful. Main Idea How does solar energy
The electromagnetic
A chest X ray exposes a person to reach Earth?
spectrum is the
about the same level of radiation as wide range of Vocabulary The transfer of energy by
he or she would get while flying across electromagnetic electromagnetic waves is .
the United States in a jet plane. radiation organized
Sequencing What happens to the
by wavelength.
Gamma rays are very high- Sun’s incoming energy as it passes
(pp. 218–219)
frequency, high-energy waves that are through Earth’s atmosphere?
given off by nuclear explosions and in Unlike conduction
4W`ab
nature by radioactive elements such as and convection,
radiation can travel
uranium. Gamma rays have enough
through empty space.
energy to pass through several <Sfb
(pp. 220–221)
centimeters of solid lead, and they are
very dangerous to living cells.
:Oab
Small amounts of
Quick Check ionizing radiation are
Critical Thinking Provide arguments
useful for medical and
Sequencing How can becoming against the common misunderstanding
energy needs.
sunburned lead to skin cancer? that all radiation is harmful.
(pp. 222–223)
Test Practice Which of the following
Critical Thinking Why do you think types of radiation is used for
dentists make you wear lead aprons communication?
when they take X rays of your teeth? A gamma ray
Make a B ultraviolet
Study Guide C microwave
Make a half-book (see pp. 487–490). Use D solar
Scientists take many precautions
the title shown. On the inside of the fold,
when they work with gamma rays. Test Practice What type of radiation
write two sentences about the main idea
from the Sun can cause sunburns?
of the topic.
A non-ionizing
B ultraviolet
C X-ray
D infrared

Writing Link Social Studies Link

Exploratory Writing
Think about all the forms of radiation
that you have encountered. Write a
paragraph explaining the positive and
negative effects of radiation on your life.
Evaluate Limited Resource
Find out how the use of the radio-wave
part of the electromagnetic spectrum
is managed and regulated and why this
is important.

224 -Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 225

EXPLAIN EVALUATE
Form a Hypothesis
The Sun emits a huge amount of
electromagnetic radiation, including
wavelengths we can see and some we cannot.
Waves with shorter wavelengths have higher
energy. Scientists use information like this that
they read, as well as the results of experiments
they do, to help them form a hypothesis, or
make an educated guess, about something.
Then they read more, experiment more, and
draw conclusions.
Learn It
When you form a hypothesis, you make a testable statement
about what you think is true. You can test the statement to
support or disprove the hypothesis. Record all your findings and
observations. You are gathering the evidence you need to support
or disprove the hypothesis.
▶ Now use your data to answer these questions. What part
of the spectrum emits the most heat? What is the order of
temperatures, from highest to lowest? Do your data support
your hypothesis?
Apply It
▶ Would the temperatures in this kind of experiment be the same if
the box were lined with black paper? With aluminum foil? If you
used a desk lamp instead of sunlight? If you had a deeper box?
▶ Choose one of these variables, or make up one of your own,
and form a hypothesis about what you believe would happen.
▶ Then test your idea, and record the results to either support or
disprove your hypothesis.

Try It
▶ In this activity you will form a hypothesis about which part of the
electromagnetic spectrum emits the most heat. You will test your
hypothesis by measuring the temperatures in different parts of
the spectrum. You will need a cardboard box, white paper, tape,
a glass prism, 4 thermometers, and a watch or a clock.

▶ Tape white paper in the bottom of the box. Attach the prism
to one top edge of the box. Place the box by a window so
sunlight shines through the prism to make a spectrum. Tape
the thermometers in the box so you can read the numbers.
Tape one on the blue band of the spectrum, one on the yellow
band, one just beyond the red band, and one in a shaded area.
Form a hypothesis about which thermometer will register the
highest temperature and what the order of the readings will
be, from highest to lowest. Record your hypothesis on a chart
like the one on page 227. Wait 1 minute, and then read each
thermometer. Record the results on your chart. Continue to
read the thermometers at 1-minute intervals for a total of 6
minutes, and record the data.

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis.

226 227
EXTEND EXTEND
Lesson 2
How can light energy Materials

create motion?
Form a Hypothesis
Solar Radiation A radiometer spins when exposed to sunlight. What
do you think will happen if it is exposed to different
sources of light? Write your answer as a hypothesis
in the form “If a radiometer is exposed to different
light sources, then . . .”

Test Your Hypothesis

Place the radiometer in bright, natural sunlight.
Record your observations.
• radiometer
Try using different light sources and light • light sources
sources with different intensities. Record your
observations. Does the radiometer speed up, • black cloth
slow down, or stay the same?
Step
Place a black cloth over the radiometer. Look
underneath and observe the vanes. Record
your observations.

Draw Conclusions
Analyze How would you explain what you
observed?
Did your observations support your hypothesis?
Infer Do you think there is air inside the
radiometer? Why or why not?

The Sun is the major source of energy for

life on Earth. How does that energy Explore More
affect life on Earth? How do you think the motion of the radiometer would
change if it were placed in direct sunlight for a whole
day? Form a hypothesis and test it. Then analyze and
present your results.

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools

and technology (including calculators, computers, balances, spring scales,
microscopes, and binoculars) to perform tests, collect data, and display data.
6 ES 4.a. Students know the sun is the major source of energy for
phenomena on Earth’s surface; it powers winds, ocean currents,
and the water cycle. • 6 ES 4.b. Students know solar energy reaches
228 Earth through radiation, mostly in the form of visible light.
229
ENGAGE EXPLORE
 Solar Radiation
How is the Sun an important Energy from the Sun that
6 ES 4.a
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 4.b energy source? shines on Earth’s surface is called
Almost all energy on Earth solar radiation . Plants use it to carry
At any given moment, the Sun is shining on
comes from the Sun in the some part of Earth’s surface. Sunlight warms out photosynthesis. They convert solar
form of light. the surface of the planet. The heat from the Sun radiation to chemical energy, which
causes air currents and water currents to form. can be used by other organisms. This
▶ Vocabulary energy is passed along the food chain.
solar radiation, p. 231
On Earth, living things use the Sun’s energy to
carry out everyday functions. When a plant or animal dies, the
energy it contains becomes food for
-Glossary decomposers or in time, it may become
@ www.macmillanmh.com
a fossil fuel.
▶ Reading Skill Energy from the Sun Solar radiation helped create fossil
Summarize fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
These fuels were formed from plant
6% reflected by and animal remains buried under
the atmosphere layers of mud and other materials. The
Ac[[O`g
plants and animals contained stored
energy from the Sun. Over millions of
years, heat and pressure turned this
stored energy into fossil fuels that we
use today.
Energy from the Sun also affects
25% reflected nonliving things. For example, uneven
by clouds heating of Earth’s surface causes winds
15% absorbed by and contributes to ocean currents.
the atmosphere Solar energy drives the water cycle
4% reflected from and influences a region’s weather and
Earth’s surface climate. All of these factors determine
the kinds of organisms that live in
the region.

50% directly
Quick Check
or indirectly
Summarize How do animals
absorbed by
Earth’s surface obtain energy from the Sun?
Critical Thinking How did the
Sun’s energy become trapped
in fossil fuels? ▲ Plants use energy from the Sun to carry
out photosynthesis and to produce
food. Animals, such as this giraffe, take
in some of this energy when they eat.

230 231
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 Temperatures in the atmosphere are
Solar Energy and the Water Cycle
cooler than those at Earth’s surface,
because the atmosphere absorbs less of
the Sun’s energy than the surface does. Solar Still
With less energy from the Sun available, You can use the Sun’s energy to
the water molecules in the atmosphere separate a solution of salt and
slow down. They begin to change from water. Make a saltwater solution
water vapor into liquid water. The by dissolving 2 tablespoons of salt
per cup of fresh water. Fill a large
molecules collide and join together as
bowl with salt water to a depth
drops of water through condensation, of about 2 inches.
and in time they form a cloud.
Place an empty glass in the center
When enough water accumulates in of the bowl. The top of the glass
a cloud, the water falls as precipitation. should be below the edge of the
Depending on the air temperature, the bowl but above the surface of the
salt water.
precipitation may take the form of rain,
sleet, snow, or hail. Precipitation provides Cover the bowl with plastic wrap.
water for living things and fills Earth’s Use tape, if necessary, to make
a tight seal.
Reading Diagrams
oceans, lakes, rivers, and streams.
Place a heavy object, such as a
rock, in the center of the plastic
How does the Sun What happens after water vapor Quick Check
wrap over the glass.
condenses?
affect the water cycle? Summarize What happens to water
Clue: Follow the arrows to trace
Solar radiation powers the water cycle, the path through this cycle. molecules in the air after they have
or the movement of water between Earth’s cooled due to a loss of energy?
Watch solar
surface and the air. Energy from the Sun energy and the water cycle Critical Thinking What part of the
helps recycle Earth’s supply of water, which @ www.macmillanmh.com water cycle does solar radiation
is essential to life. affect most directly?
The main processes that occur during the water cycle
are evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. During
evaporation, solar radiation warms the water on Earth’s
surface. The water molecules absorb energy from the Sun and Leave the still in direct sunlight
for a few hours. Then remove the
move faster. Then the molecules near the surface of the water
plastic wrap. Has water collected
escape into the atmosphere as water vapor. in the glass?
Evaporation of water from Earth’s surface requires a great Predict Do you think the water
deal of energy. More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered in the glass is salty or fresh?
by oceans, so an enormous amount of water vapor rises into Why? How would you test your
the atmosphere every day. The Sun supplies the energy for all prediction?
of this evaporation. Sequence Explain the role of
▶ Solar radiation provides evaporation and condensation
the energy to obtain salt in transferring water to the glass.
from seawater at this
salt-production facility.

232 233
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
How does the Sun affect
climate and weather?
The Sun is the major source of
heat energy for Earth. Earth’s surface
absorbs heat from sunlight, and the
surface heats the air above it. The
amount of heat energy that reaches
Earth in a place affects the area’s
climate and weather.
Solar Radiation and Climate
`
Ob]
S_c
Reading Diagrams
How have the penguins adapted to life in a
region that receives limited solar radiation?
Clue: Look at the pictures of the penguins
and the camel. How do these animals differ?
234
EXPLAIN
Climate
Climate is influenced by factors
such as temperature, precipitation,
wind, mountain ranges, ocean currents,
latitude, and altitude. Energy from
the Sun affects a region’s climate in a
variety of ways. It warms the air, land,
and oceans, and it helps determine
patterns of precipitation, wind, and
ocean currents.
ga
\ a`O
Ac
Sunlight does not strike Earth’s
surface at the same angle at all times or
in all places. It shines more directly at
the equator and more indirectly at the
poles. Areas near the equator receive
the most heat energy from the Sun and
high pressure
generally have warm climates. Closer to
the poles, the Sun’s rays strike Earth at dry weather
a low angle, spreading their energy over
a large area and creating a cool climate.
To see how this works, shine a
flashlight at a sheet of graph paper.
Move the light upward from a low
angle to the paper until it is directly
above the paper. Notice that fewer
squares are lit as you move the
flashlight upward. In the same way,
when light from the Sun strikes
low pressure
Earth at a higher angle, the energy
is concentrated in a smaller area. wet weather
Weather
Weather is the state of the Differences in air pressure are also
atmosphere at a given place and the cause of wind, or moving air. Air
time. The local conditions that make moves from areas of high pressure to
up weather are air temperature, air areas of low pressure. By determining
pressure, humidity, wind, clouds, air pressure, heat energy from the Sun
and precipitation. All of these elements also affects wind patterns. Winds, in
are connected to the Sun’s energy. turn, drive the currents on the surfaces
For example, humidity, clouds, rain, of Earth’s oceans.
and snow result from evaporation,
which is caused by solar radiation. Quick Check
Air pressure is the force put on an Summarize How does the angle at
area by the weight of the air above it. which the Sun’s rays strike Earth’s
Air pressure depends on the density of surface affect climate?
the air. As air is heated by the Sun, the
molecules in the air move faster and Critical Thinking What type of
weather often follows an increase
move farther apart from one another.
For this reason the heated air becomes in air temperature?
less dense and exerts less pressure on
Earth’s surface.
235
EXPLAIN
How does Earth gain
and lose energy?
Almost all the heat on Earth comes
from the Sun. Earth also gives off,
or radiates, heat into space. If Earth
were not able to give off some of the
energy from the Sun, the planet would
be too hot for life. When the balance
of heat energy is maintained, Earth’s
average surface temperature remains
about 14°C (59°F). A disruption in
the balance can cause the average
temperature to rise or fall.
The atmosphere plays an important
role in maintaining the balance of
heat energy on Earth. When the Sun’s
energy reaches the atmosphere, part of
it is reflected back into space by water
droplets in clouds and dust particles.
Another part is absorbed by water vapor
in the atmosphere. Only about half of
incoming heat energy reaches Earth’s
surface and is absorbed by it.
236
EXPLAIN
Different materials on Earth
absorb energy differently. Dark-
colored objects become hotter than Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
light-colored objects when exposed to
Main Idea How does energy from
the same amount of sunlight. This is Solar radiation is the
sunlight affect Earth?
why, on a hot day, people might walk source for almost all
barefoot comfortably over a concrete the energy on Earth. Vocabulary Energy from the Sun that
(pp. 230–231) shines on Earth’s surface is .
sidewalk but hop painfully over a
black, asphalt driveway. Summarize What happens as air is
heated by the Sun?
The ocean and the land also absorb The water cycle moves
heat energy differently. Water heats up Ac\
water between Earth’s
and cools down more slowly than land, ^`SQW^WbObW]\
surface and its air.
a]ZO`S\S`Ug
because it takes more heat to raise Solar radiation powers
`c\]TT
the water cycle. Ac[[O`g
W\TWZb`ObW]\
the temperature of water than it takes
(pp. 232–233)
to raise the temperature of land. The
resulting differences in temperature Energy from the Sun Critical Thinking How might Earth’s
influence weather and climate. affects the climate and surface temperature be affected if it
weather of a region. had no oceans?
Quick Check (pp. 234–236)
Test Practice Which of the following
processes is not a main part of the
Summarize What happens after
water cycle?
the Sun’s energy reaches Earth’s
A evaporation
atmosphere? Make a B precipitation
Critical Thinking Explain how
Study Guide C absorption
Make a three-tab book (see pp. 487– D condensation
water vapor in the atmosphere
490). Use the titles shown. On the inside Test Practice Which of the following
keeps Earth’s surface warm.
of each tab, summarize how that topic does not influence climate?
can help you A temperature
understand how B precipitation
energy from C ocean currents
sunlight affects D moonlight
◀ Even on a warm day, Earth.
ocean water can be cool.
Writing Link Math Link
Write a Story Compare Temperatures
How important is the Sun to you? The average temperature on the
Write a story about some of the things surface of Earth is 14°C. The surface
that you can do because of the Sun’s of the Sun is about 400 times hotter.
energy. What is the average temperature of
the surface of the Sun?
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 237
EVALUATE

Wildfire Alert
Every year wildfires blaze throughout Southern
California. The wildfires are fueled by the Santa Ana
winds. These warm, dry winds blow out of the desert
when it is cold, from October through March. They can
gust up to 50 or 60 knots through canyons and passes,
nearly as fast as a car on the freeway. The winds occur
when high atmospheric pressure builds to the north
and east of Southern California. Cold air then begins
to sink and flow downhill from the mountains, where
it compresses and warms. As the temperature rises, this
air starts to dry up, creating the fast, hot, dry Santa
Ana winds.
These winds can bring disaster to the residential
areas of Southern California that have been built on
the grasslands. The extremely low humidity helps dry
out vegetation, making it a better fuel for a fire. In
addition, the winds can cause a fire to change direction
in ways that are complex and difficult to predict.
wildfire beginning peak of wildfire
ELA R 6.2.3. Connect and clarify main ideas by identifying
238 their relationships to other sources and related topics.
EXTEND
Science, Technology, and Society
The USDA Forest Service monitors the speed and
direction of the Santa Ana winds to predict what impact
they may have on a fire.
Scientists also use data from satellites above Earth that
help them see fires from up above. Imagine if you had to
battle a wildfire using only information you could get from
the ground. By the time you got people out to the perimeter
of the fire, it might have spread in new directions. You
would need an incredible number of people and a lot of time
just to be able to survey the fire area.
NASA’s Terra and Aqua satellites fly 644 kilometers
(400 miles) above Earth. Data collected from these satellites
is transmitted rapidly to the forest service. The information
helps the forest service know the whereabouts of a fire
almost immediately. By working as a team, scientists and
firefighters are able to control wildfires better than before.
Sequencing
▶ Look for steps that
happen first and last.
▶ Think about how steps
relate to each other.
Write About It
Sequence
1. How do the Santa Ana winds affect
vegetation before the outbreak of a wildfire?
2. What happens if the Santa Ana winds blow
during a wildfire?
wildfire burning out
-Journal Write about it online @ www.macmillanmh.com
239
EXTEND
Lesson 3
How does heat move Materials

in liquids and gases?

Make a Prediction
The Power When an ice cube melts in room-temperature
water, what do you think happens to the melted
water? Where does it go? Write your answer as
of Convection a prediction in the form “If an ice cube melts in
room-temperature water, then . . .”
• clear plastic
Test Your Prediction container
Currents Fill the plastic container about two-thirds full of • ice cube dyed
water. The water should be at room temperature with blue food
and perfectly still. Gently place the blue ice cube coloring
in the water at one end of the container. Add • red food coloring
two drops of red food coloring to the water at
• color pencils
the opposite end of the container.
• paper
Observe Carefully observe where the blue
water flows and where the red water flows. Step
Use color pencils to draw the flows of the two
different-color waters.

When glaciers flow into the sea, they break into huge
blocks of ice known as icebergs. As icebergs travel
toward the equator, they shrink in size and decrease in
number. Which portion of an iceberg melts faster, the
part above the water or the part that is submerged?
Draw Conclusions
Analyze How would you explain what you
observed?
Did your observations support your prediction?
What caused the behavior of the blue water?
Why did the water in the tank appear to circulate?
What happens when warm and cool water
meet? Explain your answer.
Explore More
What would happen if you placed a dyed ice cube
in very cold water? Form a hypothesis and test it.
Then analyze and present your results. Does circulation
take place in air? What examples can you find to
demonstrate warm air’s rising or cold air’s sinking?

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and

results from an investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

6 ES 4.c. Students know heat from Earth’s interior reaches the surface
primarily through convection. • 6 ES 4.d. Students know convection
240 currents distribute heat in the atmosphere and oceans. 241
ENGAGE EXPLORE

6 ES 4.c
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 4.d
Most heat transfer in the
atmosphere, in the ocean,
and in Earth’s interior
occurs through convection.
▶ Vocabulary
wind, p. 244
Santa Ana wind, p. 244
ocean current, p. 246
Gulf Stream, p. 246
California Current, p. 247
ENSO, p. 248
The Isles of Scilly
What are convection currents?
A hot-air balloon can rise only if the pilot
uses a burner to heat the air inside the balloon.
As the air is heated, the molecules in the air move
apart. As the air inside the balloon is heated,
it becomes less dense than the air surrounding
the balloon. This enables the balloon to rise.
To slow the motion of the balloon or to descend,
the pilot opens a valve located at the top of the
balloon. This releases hot air.

-Glossary Reading Photos

@ www.macmillanmh.com
▶ Reading Skill
Sequencing
4W`ab
Currents at Work
The molecules in gases and in most
<Sfb liquids are not as close to each other
as they are in solids. When cold air
sinks toward Earth’s surface, it is
:Oab
heated by the ground, becomes less
dense, and rises. More cold air moves
Explore convection in to take its place. This creates a
with a chef.
pattern of rising and sinking air called
a convection current.
As you saw in the Explore activity,
the same pattern takes place in water.
Convection also takes place in the
thick rock that flows in Earth’s
mantle. Convection currents affect
other things on Earth’s surface, such
as plate tectonics and different types
of weather. For example, the Isles
of Scilly, part of Great Britain, enjoy
a mild, almost tropical climate
242
EXPLAIN
Why are subtropical plants able
to grow in the Isles of Scilly, off
southwest England?
Clue: Look at arrows that show the
Gulf Stream on the locator map.
despite their location in the northern
latitudes. The Gulf Stream and its warm
currents enable subtropical plants to
thrive in this unlikely spot. In the
following sections, you will learn
how convection powers wind, ocean
currents, and the transfer of heat in
the layers of Earth.
Quick Check
Sequencing What happens in
the atmosphere after cold air
sinks toward Earth’s surface?
Critical Thinking What
characteristics are shared by
the materials in the atmosphere,
the ocean, and Earth’s mantle?
243
EXPLAIN
What makes wind blow?
Wind is air that moves horizontally
near Earth’s surface. The ultimate
source of wind is the Sun. As you
know, the uneven heating of Earth’s
surface by the Sun produces convection
currents. The up-and-down motions
of air that occur during the convection
process cause differences in air
pressure. Wind is the air that flows
from areas of higher pressure to areas
of lower pressure.
Regions near the equator receive the
most direct and most intense sunlight,
which makes the air very warm. This
heat causes a great deal of water to
evaporate, so the air is moist. Warm,
moist air over the equator creates a
zone of low pressure.
Because of the low angles at which
the Sun’s rays strike Earth’s surface at
the poles, incoming energy is spread
out over a wider area. As a result the
temperatures are cold, and the air is
dense. The warm air from the equator
rises and moves toward the poles.
Meanwhile the cooler air at the poles
sinks and moves toward the equator.
This movement creates a global pattern
of air moving from high-pressure zones
to low-pressure zones.
There are two types of winds: local
winds and global winds. Local winds
can blow from any direction and cover
short distances. Global winds blow
from a specific direction and typically
cover longer distances.
Sometimes people who are affected
by local winds give them specific
names. The Santa Ana winds are
244
EXPLAIN
well-known in California. These
winds begin with an area of high
air pressure to the north and east of
Southern California. The air flows
down through the deserts toward low
pressure offshore. These hot winds dry
out vegetation in the area, providing
fuel for raging wildfires.
Factors That Affect Winds
The global pattern of air moving
from high-pressure zones to low-
pressure zones does not follow a straight
north-to-south path. The rotation of
Earth toward the east curves the paths
of the winds. Winds in the Northern
Hemisphere curve to the right, or
clockwise, as they move, and winds in
the Southern Hemisphere curve to the
left, or counterclockwise. This deflection
of the winds is called the Coriolis effect.
Expanding and
Contracting Air
wildfire in Sonoma
County, California
The land’s geography also affects
the movement of air. For example, land
features such as mountains affect local
winds. Between sunrise and midday,
mountains absorb a greater amount
of heat from the Sun than valleys do.
As a result warm air rises off the slopes
of mountains. Cool air moves out of the
valleys to replace the warm air. This is
called a valley breeze. In the afternoon
the valley radiates heat. The mountain
peaks circulate cool air into the valley.
This is called a mountain breeze.
Quick Check
Sequencing What happens after
warm air from the equator moves
toward the poles?
Critical Thinking Besides the
Coriolis effect and the geography of
the land, what might deflect winds?
Place a balloon over the opening
of a bottle as shown in the picture.
What do you think will happen
if you heat or cool the air in the
bottle? Hold the bottle for a
minute or two in a pail of warm
water. Observe what happens
to the balloon.
Infer Explain what happened to
the air in the bottle. What evidence
do you have for your explanation?
Now hold the bottle in a pail of
ice water for a few minutes. What
happens to the balloon?
Infer Use your observations to
answer these questions. As the
bottle cooled, what happened
to the air pressure inside? How
did the pressure outside compare
to the pressure inside? What
caused the changes to the balloon?
Draw “before” and “after” pictures
of the bottle. Use arrows to show
what happened to the air pressure.
245
EXPLAIN
 Major Ocean Currents
the California Current carries cold However, deepwater currents take up
:O water toward the equator along the a much larger part of the ocean than
P`
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WTb

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the left, or counterclockwise, in the coastline. Because land heats up faster
b]`WOZ
Southern Hemisphere. The currents than water, the air above land is warmer
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coasts or landmasses also affects the the water moves in and replaces the
Reading Maps `WTb flow of the surface currents. rising warm air. A sea breeze is a wind
EO`[Qc``S\ba Suppose you put a message in a that blows from the sea toward the land.
1]ZRQc``S\ba
bottle and dropped it into the ocean Deepwater Currents
off the California coast. Where might
At night the process reverses. The
the bottle travel to? Colder, saltier water is denser than air over the land cools more rapidly
Clue: Look at the map, and determine
warmer, less-salty water. Cold, dense than the air over the water. Winds blow
What causes ocean water flowing from polar regions moves from the land to the sea, producing
where the currents flow off the coast
currents? of California. under warmer, less-dense water. As a land breeze.
An ocean current is a continuous the colder currents move toward the
flow of water along a definite path. equator, they become warmer and rise Quick Check
To visualize an ocean current, try to Surface Currents to the surface. Warm waters from these
Sequencing Describe the events
imagine a river, such as the Mississippi Winds blowing steadily across the regions flow toward the poles, where
that produce a sea breeze.
River, flowing through the sea. Like ocean cause the top layer of water to they cool down and begin to sink.
wind currents, ocean currents form move in huge, circular patterns. Surface The water in a deepwater Critical Thinking Why does the
because of the uneven heating of currents can move at speeds of about current moves much more water in a deepwater current move
Earth’s surface by the Sun. Ocean 120 kilometers (75 miles) per day. These slowly than the water more slowly than the water in a
currents carry warm water away from currents may move water hundreds of in a surface current— surface current?
areas near the equator to the polar kilometers through the ocean. just a few meters per day.
regions. These convection currents As currents flow along the edges of
also move cold water from the polar continents, the currents affect the land’s
regions to lower latitudes. climate. One of the strongest ocean
humpback whale
Winds propel some ocean currents currents in the world is the Gulf Stream ,
on the surface. Other currents move which carries warm water from the
deep beneath the surface. Factors such southern tip of Florida north along
as temperature and density influence the the eastern coast of the United States.
movement of ocean currents. Salinity, The Gulf Stream not only keeps the
the amount of salt in water, changes the east coast of the United States warm
density of the water. Salinity can also but also keeps parts of northern
affect the currents. Europe from freezing. By contrast
246 247
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
What is El Niño/
Southern Oscillation?
Convection currents in oceans
have a tremendous influence on world
climates. Winds move currents as
they blow across the oceans. Ocean
currents, in turn, interact with the
atmosphere. Any disruption in these
systems can cause climate changes.
Under normal conditions the trade
winds near the equator blow toward the
west. Warm surface water builds up in
the western Pacific Ocean. Along the
western coast of South America, water
from deeper levels of the ocean moves
up to the surface. The cold, nutrient-rich
water supports large numbers of fish.
Every few years the surface waters
near Peru and Ecuador become
unusually warm. As a result the water
holds fewer nutrients, so there are
fewer fish, and fish-eating birds die.
People working in the area have been
aware of this pattern, called El Niño
(el NEEN•yoh), for centuries. During
most years strong winds from the
North American and South American
coastlines push warm water across the
Pacific toward Australia and Japan.
When the warm water moves to the
west, cold water rises to the surface to
replace it. During El Niño years, which
occur every three to seven years, the
wind is weak, and little water is pushed
across the Pacific. With no cold water
rising, the ocean stays warm.
Scientists use the term ENSO , or El
Niño/Southern Oscillation, to refer to
the disruption of the ocean-atmosphere
system in the Pacific Ocean and
248
EXPLAIN
Results of El Niño
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the impact that it has on weather
around the globe. The word oscillate
(AH•si•layt) means “to swing back and
forth.” The Southern Oscillation is a
back-and-forth pattern of reversing
surface air pressure between the eastern
and western Pacific Ocean along
the equator. ENSO may come and
go quickly, or it may last for several
months. When the equatorial Pacific
waters become unusually cold,
a La Niña (lah NEE•nyah) may form.
Effects of ENSO
Scientists are not sure of the cause-
and-effect relationship between the
changes in the atmosphere and the
changes in the ocean during El Niño.
They do not know whether pressure
reversals in the atmosphere cause
ENSO or ENSO causes the changes ENSO
in the atmosphere. They do know
that there are very dramatic climate
changes during ENSO. In the ocean the
cold water carries nutrients for marine
life. Without the new nutrients, large
numbers of fish and other organisms
die. During ENSO, the entire food
chain is affected.
On land, weather patterns across normal year
the world change. Areas that are
usually dry may receive a great deal Strong winds keep warm surface
of rain, and area that are usually wet water in the western Pacific Ocean.
may experience droughts. Cooler water rises to the surface of
the eastern Pacific Ocean.
ENSO often brings heavy storms
to the Gulf of Mexico, Peru, Ecuador,
Bolivia, and Cuba, causing landslides
and floods. Other areas, such as
southern Africa, Central and South
America, Indonesia, the Philippines,
and India, are hit with extreme
drought. This can lead to famine and
loss of life. During the last ENSO, El Niño year
California experienced serious storms
that led to floods and mudslides. Warm waters in the western Pacific
Ocean move east and prevent cool
In addition to its impact on regions
water from rising to the surface.
in the Pacific, ENSO causes changes in
the path of the jet stream, a current of
fast-moving air in the upper atmosphere.
The jet stream is one factor that
determines weather in North America.
Quick Check
Sequencing What happens in the
regions of the eastern Pacific Ocean La Niña year
during El Niño?
Critical Thinking Why does ENSO Very strong winds push warm water to
the western Pacific Ocean. Cool water
affect weather around the globe?
surfaces near California, bringing drier
weather to much of the United States.
249
EXPLAIN
How do convection currents work underground?
Earth consists of three main
sections: the crust, the mantle, and
the core. The temperature of the
inner core reaches 5,500°C (9,932°F).
Temperatures in the mantle are much
cooler but still quite hot. The mantle
consists of soft, yielding rock material
that slowly moves in currents like other
fluids. This material is cooler and
denser closer to the crust.
Because rock is a poor conductor
of heat, most of the transfer of heat
in Earth’s interior occurs through
convection currents. The rock material
in Earth’s mantle rises and falls. The
cooler material sinks toward the core.
Warmer, less-dense material rises. This
cycle distributes heat from Earth’s core
throughout the mantle.
Earth’s Convection Currents
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250
EXPLAIN
Only a small amount of heat
from Earth’s interior reaches the Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
atmosphere. The rocks in Earth’s Main Idea What causes most heat
Convection currents
interior insulate the surface from the transfer on Earth?
distribute heat in the
core’s heat better than the clouds and atmosphere, the ocean, Vocabulary A continuous flow of water
atmosphere insulate the surface from and the thick molten along a definite path is a(n) .
the Sun. Heat from the core takes rock material in Earth’s
Sequencing Describe what causes the
longer to reach Earth’s surface than mantle.
Santa Ana winds.
the Sun’s heat takes to reach Earth. (pp. 242–243)
Because of this, most of the heat on Wind flows from areas 4W`ab
Earth’s surface is from the Sun, not of higher pressure to
from Earth’s core. areas of lower pressure.
<Sfb
(pp. 244–245)
Power for Plate Tectonics
:Oab
Convection currents in the mantle
Ocean currents
push rock against the bottom of Earth’s form because of Critical Thinking What causes the
crust. This movement causes Earth’s uneven heating of variation in the density of the rock
plates to move along Earth’s surface, Earth’s surface. material in Earth’s mantle?
causing earthquakes and slow motions (pp. 246–249)
Test Practice What causes winds
of the crust. and water currents to bend to the
Sometimes convection rises as right in the Northern Hemisphere?
a column, or plume, of molten rock, Make a A ENSO
Study Guide B the Coriolis effect
producing a hot spot. These hot
Make a layered- C the Gulf Stream
spots erupt as volcanoes. Examples D convection currents
look book (see pp.
of convection hot spots are the
487–490). Use the Test Practice What carries cold water
Hawaiian Islands and the volcanic titles shown. On
toward the equator along the west
features of Yellowstone National Park, the inside of each coast of the United States?
such as geysers and hot springs. tab, write several A a sea breeze
sentences that B the Gulf Stream
summarize each C ENSO
Quick Check of the topics.
D the California Current
Sequencing Explain the
relationship between the Writing Link Social Studies Link
convection currents in Earth’s
mantle and the movement of Write a Short Story Watch World Weather
Earth’s crust. Write an original short story that Identify an area of the world that is
helps younger students understand affected by ENSO. Determine what
Critical Thinking What the movement of convection currents weather patterns might be connected
characteristics of Earth’s layers in Earth’s layers. Be sure your story to ENSO. Present your findings to
cause convection currents in includes characters, setting, and plot. the class.
the mantle?
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 251
EVALUATE
 A growing number of people in the United States
Good expository are moving to underground homes. Most of these
writing homes, however, are not completely underground.
▶ introduces the They often have a roof that lets in sunlight and fresh
main idea and air. Many have one or two sides above ground level.
develops it with Underground homes have many advantages over
facts and details. aboveground ones. Unlike aboveground houses, they
▶ organizes facts let in very little dust or pollen. They stay warm in
and details in a winter and cool in summer. Your family could save
logical order. money on oil, gas, and electricity.
▶ draws a conclusion Underground homes need less painting and repair.
based on the facts They are also safer. The earth protects the house from
and details. fires, storms, and earthquakes. If you add up these facts,
then the underground house may be a good choice.
Solar Heating: What Are the Costs?
Solar energy is a renewable source of both heat
Write About It (thermal) energy and light energy. Solar collectors, Finding yearly cost
Expository Writing Choose one of these topics to compare and contrast: such as solar panels, absorb heat from the Sun and can ▶ To determine the
1. Compare and contrast the price of an energy-saving air conditioner or provide hot water or heat for homes and businesses. yearly energy cost
refrigerator to the savings in energy costs. How long would it take the
for an item, multiply
appliance to save as much as it cost?
Solve It the cost per day,
2. Compare and contrast two brands of refrigerators. Which is more week, or month by
energy efficient? 1. A 60-watt lightbulb uses 4 kilowatt hours (kWh)
per month. (A watt is a unit of electrical power;
the appropriate
-Journal Write about it online @ www.macmillanmh.com a kilowatt is 1,000 watts.) How many kWh does number.
it use per year? ▶ To determine the
2. A home heated with solar panels uses 2,250 cost of using either
kWh of electricity per year. A home heated with solar or power plant–
power plant–generated electricity uses 9,000 generated electricity,
kWh of electricity per year. At a cost of 40 cents multiply the amount
per kWh for solar energy and 12 cents per kWh of electricity used by
for power plant–generated electricity, which the cost per kWh.
home has lower electricity costs per year? What
is the difference in electricity costs between the
two homes, expressed as a percent?
3. Do you have the information you need to solve the following
problem? If not, what else do you need to know? One family
with solar heating spent $12,000 to install the solar panels. If
they spend $900 per year for electricity, how many years will
it take for them to use 10,000 kWh?
ELA W 6.2.2. Write expository compositions (e.g., description, explanation, comparison
and contrast, problem and solution): a. State the thesis or purpose. b. Explain the MA MR 6.1.1. Analyze problems by identifying relationships, distinguishing
252 situation. c. Follow an organizational pattern appropriate to the type of composition. relevant from irrelevant information, identifying missing information, 253
EXTEND d. Offer persuasive evidence to validate arguments and conclusions as needed. sequencing and prioritizing information, and observing patterns. EXTEND
 Inquiry Structured Draw Conclusions
Materials Define Based on Observations What did the smoke do when
What can convection currents do? you first removed the cardboard in step 3? Why did that
happen?
Form a Hypothesis
Communicate What happened to the smoke when you flipped
Convection currents can be seen in air and in water. They even occur the jars over?
in Earth’s mantle. The heating and cooling of air causes convection
currents. A circular pattern is created, in which warm air rises and Infer What do you think the smoke would do if you placed the
2 jars model in a hot-water bath? Try it.
cooler air moves in to take the place of the warm air. Convection
currents cause wind and other weather patterns. How does the
temperature of the air affect the movement of convection currents?
Inquiry Guided
Write your answer as a hypothesis in the form “If air is cooled, then . . .”
small piece of Be Careful. Be careful using matches. What happens when cold
cardboard
Test Your Hypothesis Step
air meets warm air?
Experiment Place one jar in a Form a Hypothesis
matches plastic tub filled with ice. Place the
other jar in a tub of warm water. How do convection currents behave in the atmosphere? Write
Leave the jars for 10 minutes. your answer as a hypothesis in the form “If warm air and cold air
come together, then the warm air will . . .”
Remove the jar from the tub of ice.
Have your teacher light a match
ice and immediately blow it out.
Test Your Hypothesis
Step Design an experiment to create and test a model that
Hold the opening of the jar over
the smoking match to trap some demonstrates convection currents in the air. Write out the steps
of the smoke. Place a piece of you will follow. Record your results and observations.
cardboard on the opening of the
jar, and turn the jar right side up. Draw Conclusions
Make a Model Place the jar from Did your experiment support your hypothesis? Why
the tub of warm water over the or why not? What did you observe in your convection-current
2 plastic tubs jar from the tub filled with ice. model? Could your observations explain how wind is created?
(1 for ice, 1 for Step
Remove the cardboard. Make
warm water) sure to keep the jars together
so the smoke cannot escape. Inquiry Open
Remember to follow the
Observe the movement of steps of the scientific process.
What else can you learn about convection currents?
the smoke, and record your
For example, how can convection currents be affected Ask a Question
observations in your journal.
by the rotation of Earth? Design an experiment to
Observe While still keeping the answer your question. Your experiment must be
jars together, flip the jars over. Form a Hypothesis
Step
organized to test only one variable, or one item being
Observe the smoke, and record changed. Your experiment must be written so that
your observations in your journal. another group could complete the experiment by Test Your Hypothesis
following your instructions.
Draw Conclusions

6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results

254 from an investigation in written reports and oral 255
EXTEND presentations. EXTEND
CHAPTER 4 Review
Fill each blank with the best term Answer each of the following Save the Ozone
Summarize the Main Ideas from the list. in complete sentences.
Heat travels from Ozone in Earth’s atmosphere absorbs
absorption, p. 220 ocean currents, p. 246 9. Infer People recovering from burns most of the harmful ultraviolet radiation
the Sun to Earth by
often wear protective clothing when from the Sun. However, chemicals are
radiation in the form of electromagnetic Santa Ana in the Sun. Explain why this clothing destroying the ozone layer. The dark
electromagnetic waves. spectrum, p. 218 winds, p. 244 is light in color. 6 PS 3.a, d; 6 ES 4.b circles in the illustration below show an
(pp. 216–225)
emission, p. 221 solar area where the amount of ozone in the
10. Critical Thinking On thermograms,
radiation, p. 231 atmosphere has been depleted. Your
The Sun is the source ENSO, p. 248 or heat pictures, brighter colors
task is to convince world leaders that
of almost all energy wind, p. 244 indicate areas of greater heat. How
protecting the ozone layer is vital.
on Earth. can these be used to detect ocean
(pp. 228–237) 1. Radio waves, microwaves, visible light, currents? 6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.b, d What to Do
infrared light, and X rays are all part of 1. Prepare a visual presentation that
the . 6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.b; 6 LS 5.a 11. Cause and Effect What is the
explains what ultraviolet rays are
relationship between wavelength on
Convection currents are and why they are harmful.
2. During photosynthesis plants convert the electromagnetic spectrum and
movements of materials 2. Write a position paper that states
into chemical energy. degree of harmfulness to humans?
due to differences in 6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.b; 6 LS 5.a 6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.b your opinion. Develop at least three
temperature. supporting details that defend your
(pp. 240–251) 3. Local winds that begin with an area 12. Sequence Follow the path of a rock position.
of high air pressure to the north and that has recently been submerged
east of Southern California are the and melted in Earth’s mantle. Point Analyze Your Results
Make a . 6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.d, e out where it contributes to the ▶ What are the risks involved with ozone
Study Guide movement of Earth’s continents. depletion?
4. When an object such as a black 6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.c
Take a sheet of paper and tape
seat in a car takes in radiant energy, ▶ What can be done to reduce ozone
your lesson study guides as shown.
the process is called . 13. Explanatory Writing South depletion?
Use the study guides to answer
6 PS 3.a, d; 6 ES 4.b American people who caught fish
the questions on these pages.
in the ocean have been aware of El
5. A disruption in the ocean-atmosphere
Niño for centuries. Write a letter to
system in the Pacific Ocean that can
these people, explaining why this
cause changes in global weather
phenomenon occurs. 6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.b
patterns is commonly referred to as
. 6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.b
How do radiation and convection
6. When an object gives off absorbed currents affect phenomena on
electromagnetic waves, the process Earth?
is called . 6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.b

7. Some carry warm water

away from areas near the equator
toward the polar regions. 6 PS 3.d;
6 ES 4.b, d

8. The movement of air due to differences

in air pressure is .
6 PS 3.d; 6 ES 4.b, d, e

256 257
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
1 Which kind of energy can be
transferred through empty
space? 6 PS 3.d
A sound energy
B potential energy
C food energy
D light energy
2 The graph below shows temperatures
recorded at a lake on a sunny day.
It compares the temperature of the
water with that of the sandy beach.
Based on the graph, which
conclusion can you draw? 6 IE 7.e
A Water heats faster than sand.
B Sand heats faster than water.
C Many fish live in the lake.
D The plants living in the lake
keep it cooler.
258
3 Which of the following is the
best example of heating by
radiation? 6 PS 3.d
A a pan heating on the stove
B an oven baking cookies
C sunlight warming a pool
D water boiling in a kettle
4 If you wanted to measure the
temperature of an object sitting
in sunlight for an hour, you
would use 6 PS 3.d
A a microscope.
B binoculars.
C a balance scale.
D a thermometer.
5 What kinds of radiation are the
most harmful? 6 ES 4.b
A gamma rays, X rays, and
ultraviolet light
B infrared light and magnetism
C radio waves and microwaves
D visible light, sound waves, and
solar waves
6 Solar energy from the Sun is changed
to chemical energy by 6 ES 4.a
A chemists who work in laboratories.
B plants that change solar energy
into food.
C animals that absorb the Sun’s
energy.
D animals that change solar energy
into food.
7 The picture below shows a hot-air
balloon in flight. The pilot uses
a burner to heat the air inside the
balloon.
Why does the balloon rise when the
air inside it is heated? 6 ES 4.d
A The balloon becomes smaller and
less heavy.
B The balloon becomes larger and
less heavy.
C The air in the balloon becomes less
dense than the surrounding air.
D The air in the balloon becomes
denser than the surrounding air.
8 What happens to air molecules as
they absorb solar radiation? 6 ES 4.a
A They move faster and farther apart.
B They move slower and closer
together.
C They absorb water and cause rain
to fall.
D They thicken and form clouds.
9 How does the Sun affect the water
cycle? 6 ES 4.a
A It slows condensation.
B It causes evaporation.
C It decreases photosynthesis.
D It absorbs radiation.
10 For heat to be transferred by
convection, 6 ES 4.c
A the molecules must be in a liquid
or gas.
B both substances must be cold.
C both substances must be on the
surface of Earth.
D the molecules of the warmer
substance must sink to the bottom.
11 What happens to molecules in
a liquid or gas when they are
heated? 6 ES 4.c
A The molecules absorb the heat
energy and move away from
each other.
B The molecules absorb the heat
energy and move closer to each
other.
C The molecules move closer to
the heat.
D The molecules change into other
substances.
12 What happens to cold air as it sinks
toward the ground? 6 ES 4.d
A It becomes drier.
B It turns into fog.
C It becomes warmer and less dense
and rises.
D It becomes denser and produces
rain and snow.
Materials prepared by PASS at 259
 ▼ pit viper
Pit Vipers: Heat Hunters
Beyond our visible spectrum on
the opposite side is the infrared range.
Although we cannot see it, we feel
infrared radiation on our skin as heat.
Other animals sense heat with much
greater accuracy. Snakes called pit
We open our eyes each day, trusting that what we see vipers see as we do through their eyes,
is really there. As strange as it may seem, however, but they have other sensory organs
other animals see the same world in very different between their eyes and nostrils. These
“pits” detect very slight variations
ways. What the world looks like—and therefore what in heat. This means that the snakes
is “real” to you—depends on your sense of sight! can sense warm-blooded prey even
in darkness. A hungry snake “sees”
The Spectrum: a mouse because the animal’s warm
are a bright shade of blue-green to body stands out from the cooler
How Animals See It bees. Other flowers are decorated with environment around it. The snake adds
We see the part of the electromagnetic patterns and lines. Like lights on an this information to what it sees with
spectrum called visible light. This airport runway, they guide bees in for its eyes to produce a picture of
light—in red, orange, yellow, green, blue, a landing and direct them to the center the mouse’s exact location.
and violet—illuminates our world. All of the flower. There the bee gathers
the radiation beyond these frequencies nectar and may pollinate the flower.
is invisible to us. Certain other animals,
though, have a visible spectrum that
extends beyond ours. We can only begin flower seen in flower seen in
to imagine how they see the world. normal light ultraviolet light

Bees: Flower Finders

A bee’s visible range is shifted
slightly toward the higher-frequency
end of the spectrum. Bees do not see
the color red. They do see beyond
violet into the ultraviolet range. Our
eyes cannot detect ultraviolet light, but
we can use an ultraviolet filter to get
an idea of what a bee sees. Amazingly
some flowers that look white to us

6 ES 4. Many phenomena on Earth’s surface are affected by the transfer of

260 energy through radiation and convection currents. • ELA R 6.2.2. Analyze 261
text that uses the compare-and-contrast organizational pattern.
Heating-and-Air-Conditioning
Technician
Air conditioning helps people survive the
steamy days of summer. In northern climates
people depend on heating systems during cold
winters. What happens when these systems break
down? The problems are solved by heating-
and-air-conditioning technicians. They install,
maintain, and repair heating, air-conditioning,
refrigeration, and ventilation systems. To
work in this profession, people would need a
high-school education as well as training and
apprenticeships, in which they learn, while
working alongside experienced workers. In most
areas certification and licensing are required
in order to work with refrigerant gases and
heating-and-air-conditioning units.

Physics Teacher
When you see a roller coaster
complete a loop, do you think about
the forces that keep the machine on
the track? If you like physics, would
you enjoy sharing your interest with
the next generation? If so, a career as
a physics teacher might be for you.
Physics teachers use their knowledge and
creativity to lead discussions, perform
scientific demonstrations, and even
do research with their students. Most
states require a college degree in physics
and science education as well as state
teaching certification. Advanced degrees
are needed to teach at the college or
university level.

262
-Careers @ www.macmillanmh.com
 CHAPTER 5
Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7

Plate Tectonics
and Earth’s
Structure

What geologic forces have

shaped Earth’s landscape?
Rocks at the bottom of the Grand Canyon
are 2 billion years old.

264
Mt. Whitney, Sequoia National Park, California
 Lesson 1 Literature
Earth’s Moving Plates MAGAZINE ARTICLE

ELA R 6.2.7.
Make reasonable
assertions about a
PAGE 268 text through accurate,
supporting citations.
• ELA W 6.2.1. Write
Lesson 2 narratives.
Plate Tectonics:
A Unifying Theory

PAGE 280
Lesson 3
Earthquakes

PAGE 296
Lesson 4
Volcanoes

PAGE 308
Lesson 5
How Plate Tectonics
Affects California

PAGE 324
6 ES 1. Plate tectonics accounts for important features of
Earth’s surface and major geologic events.

265 266
 from CURRENT SCIENCE

Lesson 1

by Nicola Jones Earth’s Moving

Take a close look at Hawaii and you’ll notice something
interesting. The Aloha State is a string of volcanic islands.
If you follow the islands to the northwest, you’ll find
that they get progressively older, smaller, and less active.
Look under the ocean and you’ll discover that the line
Plates
continues for thousands of kilometers, with very old, dead
volcanoes, called the Emperor Seamounts, lying on the
seafloor at its farthest reaches.
It’s also interesting that the volcanoes of Hawaii pop up
right in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Most volcanoes
are found at the boundaries between two tectonic plates—
giant, slowly moving slabs of Earth’s crust. Molten rock
forms in the cracks at plate boundaries and trickles upward
to create volcanoes.
But Hawaii is nowhere near a plate boundary. It is
located smack-dab in the middle of a plate—the Pacific Plate.
What on Earth is going on? For decades, researchers
thought they knew how Hawaii formed, but now they’re
not sure. New theories are shaking up their understanding
of how Earth works.

Write About It
Response to Literature In this article the author
describes a string of volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean.
Some of these volcanoes make up the Hawaiian
Islands. Others are located on the seafloor. Which
volcanoes are older? Which ones are most active? Look at the coastlines of Africa and South
Write a story about a scientific expedition to study the America. They look as if they could fit together
volcanoes of the Pacific. Describe how the researchers like gigantic puzzle pieces. Have Earth’s continents
would travel and what they might find.
always been in the same locations? Are they moving
now? How will they be arranged in the future?
-Journal Write about it online
@ www.macmillanmh.com

6 ES 1.a. Students know evidence of plate tectonics is derived from the fit of the
continents; the location of earthquakes, volcanoes, and midocean ridges; and the
distribution of fossils, rock types, and ancient climatic zones. • 6 IE 7.g. Interpret events by
267 268 sequence and time from natural phenomena (e.g., the relative age of rocks and intrusions).
ENGAGE
 What forces shape Earth?
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.a
Many things change over time. Many changes
Materials Moving plates cause
happen quickly, but many other changes happen
Are the continents moving? Earth’s surface to change. very slowly. Even Earth’s surface has changed
over time. Mountains rise, only to be worn
Form a Hypothesis ▶ Vocabulary down by water, wind, and particles of rock.
Were the separate continents we know today one
continental drift, p. 270 The ground is so firm it can support the tallest
huge supercontinent in the past? Do the outlines
Pangaea, p. 271 buildings with ease. However, the ground can
of continents fit together? Write your answer as a
hypothesis in the form “If the continents were once geologist, p. 271 suddenly shift, bringing those buildings down.
a supercontinent, then . . .” mid-ocean ridge, p. 274 Even something as large as the continent you
ocean trench, p. 275 live on has slowly moved to its present position.
Test Your Hypothesis volcano, p. 276 The idea that the position of huge continents can
• world map
Place tracing paper over a map of the world. earthquake, p. 276 change over time might seem strange.
• tracing paper
Trace the coastlines of North America, South Alfred Wegener was a German scientist
America, Europe and Asia (including India), • pencil -Glossary who proposed a theory to explain changes in
Africa, Australia, and Antarctica. • safety scissors @ www.macmillanmh.com
Earth’s surface over long time periods. Like
Be Careful. Cut the traced continents along • safety goggles many other people, he noticed how closely Africa
their coastlines, and label them. ▶ Reading Skill
Step
and South America would fit together if the
Using the continent cutouts like pieces of a jigsaw Draw Conclusions
two continents were pushed against each other.
puzzle, find ways the continents fit together. BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a Wegener wondered if the other continents
Draw a sketch showing ways you can fit them
would fit in similar ways if they were moved
together.
together. In 1912 Wegener proposed a hypothesis
Draw Conclusions of continental drift : the idea that a past
Explore Earth’s
supercontinent split apart into pieces, which
Analyze Which continents have coastlines that
fit together most closely? moving plates with drifted over time to their present locations.
a seismologist.
Did your results support your hypothesis?
Infer Which of your sketches shows the
greatest number of continents fitting together? Step
older weathered mountains newer rugged mountains
Do all of the coastlines in the sketch fit together
equally well?

Explore More
What if the continents in your finished puzzle moved
apart to the positions they are in today? If they kept
moving, how might they be arranged in the distant
future? Make a prediction and test it. Then analyze
and present your results.

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether

evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.

269 270
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
Motion of Continents
Continental Drift
According to Wegener’s hypothesis,
Earth once had one single landmass,
or “supercontinent.” Wegener called
this landmass Pangaea (pan•JEE•uh),
from the Greek words meaning “all
land.” About 200 million years ago,
Pangaea split into two parts, which are
225
million years called Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
ago Later these two landmasses broke
apart to form North America, Eurasia,
South America, Africa, Australia, and
Antarctica. Over millions of years,
these continents slowly drifted to their
present locations.
A geologist (jee•AHL•uh•jist) is a
135 scientist who studies Earth’s origin,
million history, structure, composition, and
years ago
processes. In the 1960s new discoveries
led geologists to take another look
at Wegener’s work. However, during
Wegener’s lifetime few geologists
accepted his theory.
Quick Check
65
million Draw Conclusions What does
years ago
the term Pangaea refer to?
Critical Thinking Compare
the map of the continents
135 million years ago to the
map of the continents today.
How have the positions of the
continents changed?
present
day
Reading Maps
What evidence suggests that Africa and
South America were once connected?
Clue: How have the positions of the
continents changed over time? 271
EXPLAIN
What evidence supports Fossil Evidence
continental drift?
Wegener provided several kinds of
Fossils of
evidence to support his explanation Glossopteris, a fern,
of continental drift. He noted similar have been found
fossils and rocks on distant continents. in South America,
He also pointed out changes in the Africa, India,
Antarctica, and
continents’ climates over millions of
Australia.
years.
Evidence from Rocks Fossils of Cynognathus, a Triassic land
reptile about 3 m (10 ft) long, have been
Rock formations can provide found in South America and Africa.
evidence about past events that took
place in a particular location. For
example, parts of Africa and
South America contain rocks
of the same age and type. If
these continents were once
joined, similar rock layers
would continue across their
borders. Mountain ranges
and mineral deposits across
today’s continents would also
line up in the same way. These facts
suggest that the continents drifted
apart. Evidence from Rocks’ Ages
How can scientists tell which rocks
Other evidence indicates that
are older? Scientists compare the age
the continents have also drifted to
different climate zones. For example, of one rock with the age of another to
North America and Antarctica contain find the rocks’ relative ages. When two
coal deposits. Coal is formed from rock layers are found in the same rock
decaying tropical plants found near formation, normally the lower rock
the equator. Today neither North layer is older. Scientists also compare
America nor Antarctica lies near the ages of similar rock layers that formed
in different areas. Sometimes the types
equator. For coal to be found on these
continents, North America must have of fossils found in a rock can help
moved north from a tropical region, scientists determine the age of the rock.
Index fossils—fossils of organisms that
and Antarctica must have moved
south. lived only during a particular time—
can help narrow down the age of the
rocks in which they are found.
272
EXPLAIN

The map shows where fossils of
ancient organisms have been found
in the southern continents. It also
shows how these continents would
once have fit together in a way that
explains the distribution of the fossils.
Evidence from Fossils
Ancient fossils of some extinct
animals and plants have been found in
parts of Africa, South America, India,
Australia, and Antarctica. These fossils
include three reptiles—Lystrosaurus,
Cynognathus, and Mesosaurus—and
a plant, Glossopteris. These organisms
would not have been able to travel
across an ocean. However, their fossils
have been found on continents that are
separated by vast oceans today. This
suggests that the continents they lived
on were once connected.
Another bit of fossil evidence
supports the hypothesis of continental
drift. Fossils of Glossopteris and
Lystrosaurus have been found in
What clues are found Mid-Ocean Ridge
on the ocean floor?
Technology that was not available [WR]QSO\`WRUS
to Wegener in the early 1900s helped
answer this question. Scientists
]QSO\WQQ`cab ]QSO\WQQ`cab
discovered that Earth’s crust seemed
Fossils of Mesosaurus,
to be made of a number of large
a freshwater reptile, pieces. These large pieces of Earth’s
have been found in surface are called plates. The plates
South America and may include continents, ocean floors,
Africa.
or both. When plates move, they carry
the continents and oceans with them.
Plates may move apart, move together,
or slide past one another.
Fossils of the Triassic land reptile
Lystrosaurus have been found in When plates move apart, new rock The addition of new rock has built
Africa, India, and Antarctica. from below the surface may form up a vast underwater mountain chain
between them. In the 1960s scientists called the mid-ocean ridge . As new
found evidence that new rock from rock is added, it moves away from
below was being added to plates the ridge in opposite directions. This
moving apart under the oceans. process is called seafloor spreading.
a thermal spring in Iceland
Antarctica. They could not survive in
Antarctica today because it is too cold.
This suggests that Antarctica drifted
from a warmer region to a colder
one. Despite all of the evidence, some
scientists remained skeptical that the
continents were together at one time.
Quick Check
Draw Conclusions What do the coal
deposits found in North America and
Antarctica indicate about the way
these continents may have drifted?
Critical Thinking What evidence
supports the hypothesis of
continental drift?
273 274
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 Ocean Trench
]QSO\WQb`S\QV
The rock located farther from the
ridge is older than the rock located
at the center.
The mid-ocean ridge extends
through the Atlantic, Pacific, and
Indian oceans. In some places parts
of the ridge have emerged as islands.
Iceland is an island of this kind. As
part of the ridge, Iceland is attached
to the ocean floor.
Continental Drift:
Clues from Ocean Trenches
Another feature of the ocean floor
occurs where plates move together.
When plates move toward each
other, one sinks under the other,
and this movement creates an ocean
trench. Ocean trenches are long,
narrow, deep valleys on the ocean
floor. They are the deepest parts of the
oceans. Most ocean trenches are found
around the rim of the Pacific Ocean.
Many are thousands of kilometers
(miles) long. The Challenger Deep,
Model Plate Movement
Stack sheets of paper into two
piles.
Slowly push the short ends of the
two paper piles together.
Observe What happens? How is
this model similar to the formation
of a mountain range such as the
Himalayas?
part of a trench in the western Pacific,
is the deepest part of the Pacific Ocean.
It lies about 11,000 m (36,000 ft)
below sea level. It is deeper than
Mount Everest—the world’s tallest
mountain—is high.
Quick Check
Draw Conclusions Do ocean
trenches occur where plates are
moving apart or where they are
moving together?
Critical Thinking What is unusual
about the mid-ocean ridge?
275
EXPLAIN
What other events occur where most earthquakes and volcanic
at plate boundaries? eruptions occur.
Besides ridges and trenches, other In some places where plates move
geologic events take place along plate toward each other, the rocks crumple
boundaries and change Earth’s surface. and fold and are pushed up onto the
One of the most spectacular events in continents. These folded bands of rock
nature is the eruption of a volcano. form mountain ranges. The Himalayas
A volcano is a place where molten in Asia and the Appalachian Mountains
rock, hot gases, and solid rock erupt in North America are examples of
through an opening in the crust. mountain ranges that formed this way.
A mountain that formed from these
materials is also called a volcano. Quick Check
Another dramatic natural event
Draw Conclusions Examine the
is an earthquake , the shaking of the
map on this page. Where do most
ground that occurs when plates shift
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
and change positions. It may be mild
occur?
enough to be hardly felt, or it may be
violent enough to cause great damage. Critical Thinking Compare and
Look at the map on this page to see contrast volcanoes and earthquakes.
Earthquake and Volcano Activity
/@1B71=13/<
>/17471
=13/<
7<27/<
=13/< /B:/<B71
=13/<
/QbWdSd]ZQO\]
;OX]`SO`bV_cOYS Reading Maps
BSQb]\WQ^ZObS
Along which ocean’s coastline do earthquakes occur
closest to the shore?
276 Clue: Where are most of the earthquake icons located?
EXPLAIN
 Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Continental drift is
Main Idea Earth’s surface changes Draw Conclusions
due to . Scientists read a lot of data and collect data
the theory that a past
supercontinent split Vocabulary The vast underwater themselves through exploration and experimentation.
apart to form separate mountain chain is called the . Then they study the data, analyze them, and draw
continents. conclusions, or decide what is and is not true. In the
Draw Conclusions What evidence did
(pp. 270–271) previous lesson, you learned about the evidence
Alfred Wegener have to support his
theory? that helped scientists draw the conclusion that the
]QSO\WQb`S\QV Evidence from rocks,
continental drift theory was correct.
fossils, and the ocean
BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a
floor supports the
theory of continental
Learn It
drift. When you draw conclusions, you have to look at all the
(pp. 272–275) data and facts before you can decide what is true. You have
B71=13/<
/@1B71=13/<
Critical Thinking Describe the theory to be careful not to jump to conclusions. Here is an example:
Volcanoes and of continental drift. It’s time to go home from school, but you discover that your new
earthquakes take place jacket is missing. Outside you see a student you don’t know wearing
along plate boundaries Test Practice Which of the following
a jacket just like yours. Can you draw the conclusion that this person
and change Earth’s is a long, narrow, deep valley on the
took your jacket?
>/17471
surface. ocean floor?
=13/< A ocean trench No, that assumption would be jumping to a conclusion. You need
(p. 276)
<
< /B:/<B71 B mid-ocean ridge to ask questions and maybe even examine the jacket carefully to find
=13/<
C earthquake all the facts. Suppose you do, and then you discover that the other
Make a D volcano person’s jacket merely looks like yours. The only conclusion you can
Study Guide draw is that the other person has really good taste, just as you do.
Test Practice Evidence from
Make a three-tab book
supports the theory of continental drift. Try It
(see pp. 487–490). Use
A trees
the titles shown. On the
B fish ▶ Use a hard-boiled egg as a model of Earth to gather evidence
inside of each tab, draw
C fossils about moving plates. Use the evidence to draw conclusions.
conclusions about the
D weather You will need a hard-boiled egg, a paper plate, and glue.
terms on each tab.
▶ Crack the egg. Pull off the pieces of eggshell, and pile them
on the paper plate. They represent Earth’s plates. Record the
number of pieces on a table like the one on this page. Set
the egg and the pieces of the shell aside for 20 minutes.
Can you draw a conclusion at this time
Writing Link Math Link about whether the pieces of eggshell can
Write a Story Seafloor Spreading be replaced to completely cover the egg?
Suppose you could observe continental Scientists estimate that the seafloor ▶ Try to glue the shell pieces back on the
drift in action. Write a story that can spread at a rate of about 3 cm egg. Use a light dab of glue on each piece.
explains what happens as Pangaea per year. How long would it take for Then pick up the egg, and squeeze gently.
breaks apart and moves. Use scientific 1 km of new seafloor to be added? What happens? Record your observations
terms and descriptive language. on the chart.

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 277 278

6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.
EVALUATE EXTEND
 Lesson 2
Apply It
▶ Now use all the information you have gathered to
draw conclusions, and answer these questions. Record
your conclusions on a chart like the one begun here. Plate Tectonics:
▶ How are Earth’s plates similar to the pieces of the eggshell?

▶ Why did the pieces of eggshell push against each other

when you picked the egg up?

▶ What might happen if Earth’s plates broke into as many

pieces as the eggshell?
A Unifying
Theory

Have you ever wondered what Earth is made

of? Scientists have learned a great deal about
what lies beneath the continents and the ocean
floor. What would a model of Earth’s interior
look like?

6 ES 1.b. Students know Earth is composed of several layers: a cold, brittle

lithosphere; a hot, convecting mantle; and a dense, metallic core. • 6 ES 1.c.
Students know lithospheric plates the size of continents and oceans move
279 280 at rates of centimeters per year in response to movements in the mantle.
EXTEND ENGAGE
 How do scientists study
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.b, c Earth’s structure?
How can you make a model Materials Earth is made up of several Scientists study features on Earth’s surface
different layers. The to determine how and when these surfaces were
of Earth’s interior? outermost part of Earth formed. They are not able to dig holes deep
consists of a number of
separate, rigid plates
enough to see what goes on in the center of the
Purpose
that move. planet with their own eyes. How do you suppose
In this activity you will make a model to compare
they are able to understand the forces that create
the thickness of Earth’s layers.
▶ Vocabulary these surface features?
• chalk seismic wave, p. 283
Procedure
• measuring tape crust, p. 284
Make a Model Draw a small X on the ground.
or meter stick mantle, p. 285
This will be your center point for making three
circles. • string core, p. 285
San Andreas Fault
lithosphere, p. 286
Measure Tie one end of a string to a piece of Step
semimolten, p. 287
chalk. Then measure the string to a length of 185
cm. Hold the string at your center point in the asthenosphere, p. 287
center of the X, and have a partner draw a circle magma, p. 287
around the X, keeping the string straight and lava, p. 287
taut all the way around. convective flow, p. 288
Repeat the process two times, first cutting your plate tectonics, p. 290
string to 182 cm and then cutting it to 100 cm. subduction, p. 291

Draw Conclusions -Glossary

Analyze The scale for your model is 1 cm = 35 km. @ www.macmillanmh.com
How many real kilometers are represented by
each layer in your model? ▶ Reading Skill
Are the layers in your model the same thickness? Main Idea
According to your model, what is the distance ;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa
from the surface of Earth to its center?

Explore More
Research different ways to travel to the center of Earth, using
different modes of transportation. Determine how long it
would take to travel there. Analyze and present your results.

6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including calculators,
computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and binoculars) to perform tests,
collect data, and display data. • 6 MA NS 1.2. Interpret and use ratios in different contexts
(e.g., batting averages, miles per hour) to show the relative sizes of two quantities, using
appropriate notations (a/b, a to b, a:b).

281 282
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
Waves
One way scientists learn about
Earth’s interior and its structure
is by studying seismic (SIZE•mik)
waves. A seismic wave is a vibration
that travels through Earth. Seismic
waves are produced by earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions. Sometimes
explosions can also cause seismic
waves. There are two main kinds of
seismic waves: surface waves and body
waves. Each kind vibrates and travels
in a different way and at a different
speed. Waves that are trapped near
the surface of Earth are called surface
waves. Surface waves move more
slowly than body waves. They travel
along the surface of the planet like
ripples on the surface of a pond.
Waves that travel through the
interior of Earth are called body
waves. There are two kinds of body
waves. P waves, also called primary
waves, are the fastest seismic waves.
They travel through gases, liquids,
and solids. P waves travel by pushing
and pulling against the material they
pass through. When the waves push,
they compress, or bunch, the material
▶ Seismographs detect, measure,
and record the energy of
earthquake vibrations. As the
ground vibrates, the pen traces
a record of these seismic waves.
together. When they pull, they stretch
or expand the material. This pushing
and pulling causes the material the
wave is moving through to vibrate
forward and backward in the same
direction in which the waves are
moving.
S waves, or secondary waves, are
much slower than P waves. They travel
only through solids. They vibrate at a
right angle to their direction of travel.
This means that if an S wave is moving
ahead, the vibrations will move either
up and down or from side to side. This
causes the material that the wave is
passing through to shake up and down
or from side to side. Instruments on
Earth’s surface record these movements
or vibrations. By studying these waves,
scientists learn about the different
layers of Earth.
Quick Check
Main Idea How are S waves
different from P waves?
Critical Thinking How might
scientists use P waves and S
waves to study Earth’s interior?
283
EXPLAIN
What are the main layers of Earth?
By studying seismic waves, scientists have learned that
Earth has three main layers. Each layer has a different
composition, thickness, temperature, and density. Density is
a measure of how much material there is in a given amount
of space. Materials with lower densities often float in water,
and materials with higher densities often sink in water. To
observe this, try the Quick Lab on the next page.
Layers
The crust is the thin layer of solid rock that makes up
the outermost part of Earth. The thickness of the crust varies
from place to place. Earth’s crust is very thin. To picture
how thin it is, think about the skin of an apple compared
to the rest of the apple. Almost all of the natural resources
people use are found within this thin crust. It is the layer
on which people walk, build buildings, and grow crops.
Earth’s Layers
The thin rigid crust
(6–70 km thick)
surrounds Earth.
The mantle (about 2,900
km thick) is less dense
near the crust, denser
near the core.
Lower pressure allows
the outer core (about
2,300 km thick) to
remain liquid.
Intense pressure makes
the inner core a solid
ball about 2,400 km
in diameter.
284
EXPLAIN

Measuring Density
▲ Diamonds form under great pressure.
The mantle is the thick layer of solid
and molten rock that lies beneath the
crust. While the entire mantle is made
of rock, some of the rock in this layer
can move or flow slowly because of
great pressure and high temperatures.
The core is the central part of
Earth. It lies beneath the mantle and
is made up of an outer, liquid part
and an inner, solid part. Earth’s core
is made of iron and nickel, metals
that are denser than rock. The core is
almost twice as dense as the mantle.
The core is a sphere, and the distance
across it through Earth’s center is
about 6,900 km (4,300 mi).
Quick Check
How are the main layers
of Earth subdivided?
There are two types of crust:
Measure 1 cup of vegetable oil, continental crust and oceanic crust.
1 cup of water, and 1 cup of corn Continental crust makes up Earth’s land,
syrup. while oceanic crust is the floor of the
Add four drops of a different ocean. Continental crust, made mostly
shade of food coloring to each of a relatively lightweight kind of rock
cup. Stir each cup.
called granite, is thicker and less dense
Observe Pour the three cups than oceanic crust. Continental crust
together into a large glass bowl. has an average thickness of about 32 km
Record your observations.
(20 mi). Oceanic crust is made mostly of
What happened? Why do you basalt, a denser rock than granite. The
think you saw these results?
thickness of the oceanic crust averages
Which layer of Earth corresponds about 6 or 7 km (4 or 5 mi).
to the vegetable oil? The water?
The corn syrup?
Lithospheric Plates
EURASIAN
PLATE
NORTH
AMERICAN
JUAN
DE FUCA PLATE
PLATE
PHILIPPINE
PLATE
COCOS
PLATE
PACIFIC
AUSTRALIAN
PLATE
PLATE
The mantle is divided into two
parts: the upper mantle and the lower
mantle. Both continental crust and
oceanic crust form the lithosphere.
The lithosphere (LITH•uh•sfeer) is
the rigid outer part of Earth made up
of rocks in the crust attached to the
upper part of the mantle. The name
comes from the Greek word lithos,
meaning “stone.” The lithosphere
is broken up into plates that move
slowly. These plates are also called
lithospheric plates.
▼ Each plate is constantly in
motion in a set direction. This
causes pressure to build in
locations between plates.
EURASIAN
PLATE
CARIBBEAN
ARABIAN
PLATE AFRICAN
PLATE
INDIAN
PLATE
PLATE
SOUTH
NAZCA AMERICAN
PLATE PLATE

Pressure and Temperature Main Idea Describe the three main

Suppose you could move through layers of Earth. SCOTIA PLATE

Earth’s layers to the core. As you Critical Thinking From which layer Convergent boundary
moved deeper, pressure would increase. of Earth do people get most of their Divergent boundary ANTARCTIC PLATE
The weight of the material above you resources? Reading Maps
Transform boundary
would cause this increase in pressure.
The temperature would also increase In which direction is the African Plate moving?
as you traveled deeper into Earth. Clue: Examine the arrows.

285 286
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
Mantle
Because of intense heat and pressure, mantle rocks
below the lithosphere are semimolten , or almost
melted. These rocks can actually flow, bend,
stretch, and compress. They make up
the asthenosphere (as•THEE•nuh•sfeer),
the layer of semimolten mantle rock Q]\bW\S\bOZ
Q`cab
that lies directly below the lithosphere.
The name of this layer comes from ZWbV]a^VS`S
the Greek word asthenos, meaning
OabVS\]a^VS`S
“weak.” These rocks are not as strong
and solid as the rocks closer to Earth’s
surface. The lithospheric plates “float”
on the asthenosphere. They are supported and
moved around by the movements of the rocks of the
asthenosphere, in much the same way that logs are
carried and moved around by currents in a river.
Magma
Magma is molten, or melted, rock deep
below the surface of Earth. Its temperature
is between 650°C and 1,200°C (1,202°F and
2,192°F). Magma forms only under specific
conditions in Earth’s asthenosphere. Magma
forms when heat melts parts of the mantle and
lower crust. Because it is much hotter and less
dense than surrounding rock, magma rises
toward the surface. Magma is often found in
magma chambers under Earth’s surface, below
volcanoes. When volcanoes erupt, magma can
surface as rock or as lava , the surface form of
magma. When magma reaches the surface, it
cools and solidifies over time and crystallizes
into igneous rock.
What moves the plates?
Scientists do not fully understand what causes Earth’s
plates to move. Most agree that it is caused by movements in
the rock in the part of the mantle that lies below the plates—
a process called convective flow. Convective flow is the
continuous circular pattern of materials as they are heated
]QSO\WQ and cooled.
Q`cab
Warm matter rises, and cool matter sinks. This principle
is true of solids, of liquids, and of gases. Think about a
pot of boiling water. When the pot of water is heated, the
c^^S`[O\bZS
warmer water rises to the surface. In this example warmer
water is less dense than cooler water. When the water
molecules reach the surface, they begin to cool slightly and
move sideways across the surface. As they cool more, the
molecules grow closer together, so their density increases.
Once they become just a little cooler and denser, they sink
back to the bottom of the pot to be heated again. This is
only one example of convective flow.
Convection Currents
Convection currents
distribute heat through
the pot of boiling water.
cool
water
sinks
Concept sketch

Quick Check warm

water
Main Idea What causes magma to rise water is rises
heated
out of fissures and cracks in the ground?
Critical Thinking Distinguish between
the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

287 288
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 Plate Movement
Convective Flow in the Mantle
Convective flow in Earth’s mantle
occurs in almost the same way as
it does in water. Hotter, less dense
rock at the bottom of the mantle rises
toward the bottom of the plates. As
it rises, it becomes cooler and denser,
and it moves sideways. In time it
becomes cool enough and dense
enough to move downward. As the
rock descends, it becomes hotter and
less dense, and it rises once more.
This circular pattern of movement
is repeated over and over.
Convective flow in the mantle takes
place much more slowly than it does in
a pot of boiling water. As the moving
Reading Diagrams
What happens to warm matter?
Clue: Examine the arrows.
Watch plate
movement @ www.macmillanmh.com
rock in the mantle comes up below
the rigid plates and moves sideways,
the plates above it move as well.
Because convective flow is slow, the
movement of plates along their
boundaries is also slow.
Quick Check
Main Idea In what part of Earth
does convective flow take place?
Critical Thinking Why does
convective flow happen more
slowly in the mantle than it does
in a pot of boiling water?
289
EXPLAIN
What is plate tectonics?
Plate tectonics (playt tek•TAHN•iks)
is the theory that Earth’s surface is
made up of separate, rigid plates that
move slowly across the mantle. These
plates are called tectonic plates. The
word tectonic comes from the Greek
word tekton, meaning “builder.”
Earth’s plates are curved like
Earth’s surface. There are seven large
plates and about a dozen smaller
ones. The plates move along their
boundaries in different ways and at
different speeds. Although some may
move much faster, most plates move
only a few centimeters or inches each
year, about as much as your fingernails
grow each year.
Types of Plate Boundaries
trench
continental
plate
lithosphere
convection
current
290
EXPLAIN
Most plate boundaries cannot be
seen the way continents and coastlines
can. Most continental plates include
both continents and parts of the ocean
floor, so many of the boundaries lie
below the oceans.
Movements along plate boundaries
produce earthquakes, volcanic activity,
the building of great mountain ranges,
and other dramatic surface events.
These events help show where the
plate boundaries lie.
How Plates Move
Tectonic plates can move in different
directions. Boundaries between plates
that are moving away from each other,
or pulling apart, are called divergent
boundaries. The word divergent means
“moving away from each other.”
mid-ocean
ridge
rift
convection
current
 At a divergent plate boundary, new
crust is formed as magma wells up
and moves away from the ridge. This
is the process of seafloor spreading. As
spreading continues the Atlantic Ocean
is slowly becoming wider.
Boundaries between plates that are
moving toward each other, or colliding,
are convergent boundaries. The word
convergent means “coming together.”
When plates converge, usually one plate
sinks or slides under the other one. This
is called subduction . Whether a plate
moves up or down depends on whether
the leading edges are continental or
oceanic. The leading edge of a plate
is the front part that leads it in the
direction it is moving.
When a dense oceanic plate and a
less dense, more buoyant continental
plate converge, the leading edge of the
continental
plate
oceanic plate pulls the rest of the
oceanic plate down. The oceanic plate
moves under the continental plate. The
convergence of these plates forms deep
ocean trenches and, at the same time,
can push up mountains.
When two oceanic plates collide,
one plate sinks below the other plate.
This kind of convergence is common
where the mainly oceanic Pacific Plate
converges with other oceanic plates.
Movements here have formed many
volcanic islands and some of the
world’s deepest trenches.
Something entirely different
happens when two continental plates
collide. In this case the crust buckles
and folds. It is pushed upward or
sideways, creating vast, complex
mountain ranges. The Himalayas
in Asia and the folded Appalachian
Mountains in North America are
examples.
Boundaries between plates that
slide past each other are called
transform boundaries. Most transform
boundaries occur on the ocean floor,
but some appear on Earth’s surface.
For example, the San Andreas Fault
lies along the boundary between the
Pacific and North American plates
in California.
Quick Check
Main Idea In what three ways
do tectonic plates move?
Critical Thinking Define
subduction in your own words.
291
EXPLAIN
What is a unifying theory?
A unifying theory ties other
theories together to give a complete
picture of natural occurences. Plate
tectonics is a unifying theory that
explains much about the history of
Earth. Plate tectonics explains what
Earth was like in the past, how
and why it has changed, and how it
continues to change.
Alfred Wegener, the scientist who
developed the hypothesis of continental
drift, thought the continents were
floating away from one another. The
discovery of seafloor spreading in the
1960s showed scientists that more than
just continents were moving. Scientists
Many species of plants and
animals have become extinct
since Pangaea broke apart.
However, the coelacanth,
above, and the sea turtle,
right, have changed little
since that time.
292
EXPLAIN
then began to develop a new theory
that came to be called plate tectonics.
The theory states that Earth’s surface
is broken into continental and oceanic
plates that move. Plate tectonics
combines the continental drift theory
with other evidence that supports it,
such as the formation of new crust
and the distribution of volcanoes and
earthquakes. The evidence fits together
with Wegener’s theory to create a
unifying theory.
Most scientists now accept the
theory of plate tectonics. However,
there is still much to learn about the
forces that shape Earth’s surface.
Quick Check
Main Idea Why do many scientists
accept the theory of continental drift?
Critical Thinking What might be an
example of another unifying theory?
 Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Earth’s main layers are
Main Idea The outermost part of Earth Make a Model
consists of a number of separate, rigid A map is a useful tool that provides information, or
the crust, the mantle,
. data, about Earth. When scientists create a map, they
and the core.
(pp. 284–285) Vocabulary The central part of the make a model that shows information about a place
Earth is the . or a region. To use a map, you need to learn how to
interpret the information on it.
Main Idea Why is Earth’s crust rigid?
The lithosphere is
solid rock that makes ;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa Learn It
up the plates and lies Road maps show streets, roads, and
above the semimolten highways. Other maps include different
asthenosphere. data, such as borders of countries or
(pp. 286–289) bodies of water. When you make a drawing
Critical Thinking Compare and
contrast the theories of continental drift showing streets in your neighborhood, you
Plate tectonics is the
and plate tectonics. make a model of the area.
theory that the surface
Q]\bW\S\bOZ
^ZObS of Earth is made up of All maps have legends, which include
ZWbV]a^VS`S
Test Practice What is the theory that
rigid plates that move. Earth’s surface is made up of plates additional information to help you read the
(pp. 290–292) that move slowly across the mantle? maps. For example, the legend on a road map shows the
Q]\dSQbW]\
Qc``S\b map’s scale. Knowing the scale lets you determine distances.
A continental drift
B plate tectonics
Make a C seismic waves Try It
Study Guide D convective flow ▶ Now you will examine two different kinds of maps. The first map
Make a half-book Test Practice A(n) is a is a geologic map. It shows the geological features of California,
(see pp. 487–490). place where Earth’s plates move apart. such as the kinds of rocks found in the state. A geologic map
Use the titles shown. A ocean plate can also show features such as faults and volcanoes. Scientists
On the inside of B convergent boundary include these kinds of information on maps in order to make a
the tab, write three C divergent boundary model that shows an area’s geological features.
sentences about D seismic wave
▶ Look at the map, and select one place to study. Use the legend
plate tectonics.
to find out the meaning of the color used in the place you chose.
What information does the legend contribute to the map?

▶ The second map is a topographic map. This map shows only a

Writing Link Math Link
Descriptive Writing Estimate Time
Write a descriptive paragraph about Los Angeles is about 8,800 km from
each of Earth’s three layers. Be sure to Tokyo. The cities are on plates that are
include scientific terms. moving away from each other at the rate
of about 2.5 cm per year. In how many
years will the cities be 10,000 km apart?
small part of California, near San Francisco. Topographic maps
show the shape of Earth’s surface. They use special contour
lines, which show points that are the same height. Contour
lines allow scientists to make a model that tells the height of a
hill above sea level or the depth of the ocean below its surface.
When contour lines are far apart, they tell you that changes
in altitude are gradual. When contour lines are close together,
they tell you that changes in altitude are steeper.
▶ Select a point on one of the contour lines on the map. What is
the height of Earth’s surface at the point you chose?

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 293 294

EVALUATE EXTEND
 Lesson 3
Apply It
▶ How do geologic maps and topographic maps differ?

▶ Of the two types of maps shown here, which would be a

good type to use when planning a hike in the mountains? Earthquakes
Why do you think so?

▶ Make a model by drawing a map of the area around your

earthquake damage, San Francisco, California
school. Find ways to indicate differences in height. In your
legend include the scale you used and keys to any features
on your map.

Geologic

Topographic

Earthquakes are sudden motions in the

crust along plate boundaries. These sudden
motions can cause great damage and loss of
life. How can something that happens at plate
boundaries cause so much destruction?

6 ES 1.d. Students know that earthquakes are sudden motions along breaks in
the crust called faults and that volcanoes and fissures are locations where magma
reaches the surface. • 6 ES 1.g. Students know how to determine the epicenter
of an earthquake and know that the effects of an earthquake on any region vary,
6 IE 7.f. Read a topographic map and a geologic map for evidence depending on the size of the earthquake, the distance of the region from the
provided on the maps and construct and interpret a simple scale map.
295 296 epicenter, the local geology, and the type of construction in the region.
EXTEND ENGAGE
 Can earthquakes happen
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.d anywhere?
Materials Faults are breaks in the An earthquake is a trembling or shaking
What happens when Earth’s lithosphere along plate of the ground caused by the release of energy
surface breaks? boundaries. Movements following movement along a fault. Some of the
along faults cause
most damaging earthquakes in U.S. history
Make a Prediction earthquakes.
have happened in the state of California. In
What would a scientist observe if Earth’s surfaces ▶ Vocabulary fact, in the last 300 years, California has
were pushed together, pulled apart, or slid against
each other? Write your answer as a prediction in faults, p. 299 been shaken by 76 strong earthquakes that
the form “If Earth’s surfaces were pushed, pulled, fault zone, p. 299 have caused loss of life and extensive property
or slid against each other, then . . .” focus, p. 301 damage.
epicenter, p. 301
Test Your Prediction triangulation, p. 301
Be Careful. Place the candy bar on a flat • chocolate candy magnitude, p. 302
bar with caramel
surface, and cut it in half through the center. Richter scale, p. 302
and nougat
Identify which layers of the bar represent the intensity, p. 303
• plastic knife
layers of Earth. Mercalli scale, p. 303
Then push the pieces together. Pull the pieces Step
apart. Take one of those pieces and pull it into -Glossary
two pieces. Slide the pieces past each other. @ www.macmillanmh.com
Move the pieces up and down in relation to
each other. ▶ Reading Skill
Summarize
Draw Conclusions
Analyze How would you explain what you
observed?
Did your observations support your prediction? Step
Ac[[O`g
Infer What layer of the candy bar (“layer of
Earth”) was deformed the most? Why do you
think this happened?

Explore More
▶ San Francisco
Try to relate each movement of the candy-bar pieces
earthquake
to an actual Earth event. Explain. Then analyze each
of 1906
and present your results.

6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an investigation

in written reports and oral presentations. • 6 IE 7.e. Recognize
whether evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.

297 298
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
 California Earthquakes How do scientists learn These wavy lines represent P waves
and S waves. These waves start at
1OaQORS;b\a about earthquakes? the same time and place, but P
;bAVOabO
9ZO[ObV Scientists study seismic waves to find waves travel faster than S waves.
;b\a out where earthquakes begin and how The difference between their
:OaaS\>SOY
@SRRW\U strong they are. They use a special tool arrival times at the seismograph
AW called a seismograph. A seismograph enables scientists to calculate the

1
3c`SYO S` :OYSBOV]S

S
`O
\ < is an instrument that detects, measures, distance the waves traveled to
b
` Sd and records the energy of earthquake reach the stations.
O O
AOQ`O[S\b] Z

R
D vibrations at a given location. To understand this, think

O
O ;bEVWb\Sg
ZZ Seismograph stations are set up all about a thunderstorm. People see
S
g 2SObV over the world. Many of them are near
AO\4`O\QWaQ] the flash of lightning before they hear
4`Sa\]
DOZZSg one another.

1]
Z]
`O
the clap of thunder. This is because
> / 17 47 1 As the ground vibrates, a roll of light waves travel faster than sound

R]
@
= 13 / < paper in the seismograph vibrates with waves. When there is a little time

WdS
`
it. A pen is suspended above the roll of between the lightning and the thunder,
AO\/\R`SOa4OcZb
paper with a heavy weight attached to people know that the storm is some
AO\0S`\O`RW\]
/ it to keep it steady. The pen held above distance away. When the lightning
AO\bO0O`PO`O the roll of paper does not vibrate with and the thunder happen at almost the
:]a/\USZSa
the ground. As the roll of paper turns, same time, people know the storm is
Reading Maps AO\2WSU] the pen traces a record of vibrations nearby. This same concept applies to
that appear as wavy lines on the paper. earthquake waves.
Where are most earthquakes in
California located?
Clue: Look at where the fault line
is located on the map.
Focus and Epicenter

Fault Zones
Faults are breaks, or cracks,
in the rocks of the lithosphere
along which movements take place.
Fault zones are areas where there
are many interconnected faults. Most
faults and fault zones are located along
the boundaries between tectonic plates.
When stresses within Earth
become great enough to overcome
the strength of the rocks along faults,
the rocks move, and energy is released,
producing seismic waves, also called
earthquake waves. These vibrations
radiate away from the earthquake.
An earthquake can be one of the most
destructive of Earth’s natural forces.
Only a few earthquakes cause serious
damage. In California earthquakes are
common in the fault zone that includes
the San Andreas Fault.
Quick Check
Reading Diagrams
Summarize What are fault zones?
Critical Thinking Before an Where does an earthquake begin?
earthquake occurs, what events Clue: Where do the waves spread
have to take place? out from?

299 300
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

abObW]\!
abObW]\
S^WQS\bS`
abObW]\
▲ The point at which all three circles
come together is the epicenter of
the earthquake.
Using a Seismograph
Seismographs can also help
scientists find an earthquake’s focus
and epicenter. The focus is the point
below the surface of Earth where an
earthquake begins. The epicenter is the
point on the surface of Earth directly
above the focus. It is the place where
the strongest shocks are felt and where
the greatest damage usually occurs.
To locate the epicenter, scientists
use triangulation. Triangulation is a
way of using information from at least
three seismograph stations to find the
location of the epicenter. To pinpoint
the epicenter, a circle is drawn around
each seismograph station on a map.
The sizes of these circles show how
Earthquake Safety
Add sand to a pan, filling it deeply
and evenly.
Add water to the sand below its
surface.
Place a brick on the sand on
its shortest side, as if it were
a building.
Gently tap the side of the pan
with the hammer one time.
Be Careful.
Observe Write down what you
saw happen to the brick and the
surrounding sand. What would
happen if you hit the pan a
second time, but harder? Try it.
far away the earthquake was in all
directions from the station. The place
where all three circles intersect is the
approximate location of the epicenter
of the earthquake.
Quick Check
Summarize What does a
seismograph show?
Critical Thinking Why is it helpful
to have at least three stations record
an earthquake?
301
EXPLAIN
How is the strength of an
earthquake measured?
The information recorded by a
seismograph is also used to measure
how strong an earthquake was.
Earthquakes are classified in two
different ways: by magnitude and by
intensity. Magnitude is the measure
of the energy released during an
earthquake. It is measured based
on the amplitude of the seismic
waves recorded on the seismograph.
Amplitude is the measure of how far
the wavy lines on the seismograph go
above or below a central baseline.
▲ A seismologist monitors the strength
of an earthquake.
302
EXPLAIN
Measuring Magnitude
The Richter scale , developed
in 1935, is a set of numbers used
to describe the magnitude of an
earthquake. The magnitude is
calculated from the height of the
largest seismic wave recorded by the
seismograph. On the Richter scale,
magnitude is expressed in whole
numbers and decimals. Each increase
of 1 on the Richter scale means an
increase of about 30 times the energy
released. The strongest earthquake ever
recorded occurred in Chile in 1960.
It registered 9.5 on the Richter scale.
Summary of the Richter Scale
Magnitude Descripton
Recorded on local
1–2+ seismographs but not
generally felt
3–4+ Often felt, no damage
Widely felt, slight damage near
5+
epicenter
Damage to poorly constructed
buildings and other structures
6+
within tens of miles or
kilometers from epicenter
“Major” earthquake causing
7+ serious damage within up to
100 km (60 mi) of epicenter
“Great” earthquake causing
8+
great destruction and loss of
life in areas more than 100 km
(60 mi) from epicenter
“Rare great” earthquake causing
major damage over a large
9+
region more than 1,000 km
(600 mi) from epicenter
 ◀ An earthquake
measured at
How can we prepare for earthquakes?
intensity VI on the The largest earthquake in recorded of the wave motion of an earthquake
Mercalli scale can California history was the Fort Tejon so that the building sways instead
cause damage
earthquake of 1857. The earthquake of collapsing. Newer, more flexible
inside a building.
was named for Fort Tejon, the midway materials also have a better chance
point along a giant crack in the ground of bending without breaking during
and the only place near the fault where an earthquake. Highways are made
people lived at the time. If the Fort seismically safe by special supporting
Tejon earthquake were to hit the same structures.
area today, property damage and loss Earthquakes cannot be prevented
of life would be much greater. or predicted, but there are steps people
Many California cities and towns can take to minimize the effects of an
have taken action to limit the damage earthquake.
caused by earthquakes. They now
Summary of the Mercalli Scale require that buildings and highways Quick Check
Intensity Descripton be designed to keep from collapsing—
Summarize How are buildings made
Felt by persons at rest or
to be seismically safe.
II in places more favorable to
more resistant to earthquakes?
sensing tremors Many new buildings have huge
shock absorbers built into their Critical Thinking Why is it
Felt indoors and outdoors;
Measuring Intensity IV
like vibrations of passing foundations. These absorb much important for buildings to be
heavy trucks; windows,
doors, and dishes rattle
seismically safe?
The strength of an earthquake
is also measured by its intensity. Felt by almost everyone,
walking is unsteady, pictures
VI
Intensity is the strength of an fall off walls, furniture may Earthquake Safety
move or fall over
earthquake that can be felt at the
Walls may collapse,
surface. Prior to the Richter scale, VIII
monuments may fall After an Earthquake
the Mercalli (mer•KAH•lee) scale
Most buildings are destroyed, During an Earthquake • Check yourself for
was used to measure the intensity of X large landslides occur, train injuries.
tracks are bent slightly Before an Earthquake • If you are outside,
earthquakes. The Mercalli scale tells • Remind your parents
Damage nearly total, objects • Make an emergency move into the open,
what people feel and observe when XII thrown into the air, some to turn off sources of
escape plan with away from buildings,
an earthquake occurs. It includes 12 landforms moved your family. streetlights, and utility natural gas, electricity,
levels of increasing intensity numbered wires. and water.
• Put together an
with Roman numerals. It is based on earthquake kit that • If you are in your house, • Know how and when
includes drinking go to the corner of to dial 9-1-1 or your
observed effects, not on mathematics.
water, a flashlight, the room, away from local emergency
Because earthquake waves become number and which
extra batteries, windows, shelves, or
weaker the farther they radiate from Quick Check
a portable radio, mirrors. radio station to tune
the epicenter, people who live at and a first-aid kit. to for emergency
Summarize Why do scientists rely • If you are in school,
different distances from the epicenter information.
more on the Richter scale than on • Take a course in first get under your desk,
will observe different effects. That aid and CPR. and follow the school • Stay away from
the Mercalli scale? emergency plan. damaged buildings.
makes this scale much less scientific
and therefore much less reliable than Critical Thinking Define intensity
the Richter scale. in your own words.
303 304
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea
Faults are breaks in
the lithosphere where
movements take place
and earthquakes occur.
(pp. 298–299)
Scientists use
seismographs to
determine the focus
and the epicenter of
an earthquake.
(pp. 300–301)
Magnitude is the
measure of energy
released during an
earthquake.
(pp. 302–303)
Make a
Study Guide
Make a half-book
(see pp. 487–490).
Use the titles shown.
On the inside of the
tab, write a summary
paragraph about
earthquakes.
Writing Link
Persuasive Writing
Write a letter to the editor of a local
newspaper to persuade people to take
appropriate actions to make the town
safer in the event of an earthquake.
Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea What causes earthquakes?
Vocabulary The point below the
surface of Earth where an earthquake
begins is called the . ▶ explains how
Summarize What is the difference
between the focus and the epicenter
of an earthquake?
Ac[[O`g
Critical Thinking What are some
things you and your family could do
to prepare for an earthquake?
Test Practice What is the point on
Earth’s surface above the focus
of an earthquake?
A fault
B epicenter
C seismograph
D magnitude
Test Practice What is the measure
of the energy released during an
earthquake?
A triangulation
B focus
C magnitude
D intensity
Math Link
Measure Earthquakes
Find the difference in the energy
released by two earthquakes measured
on the Richter scale: an 8.2 earthquake
and a 7.7 earthquake. Show how you
found your answer.
G I A N T Good explanatory
writing
to complete
a specific task.
Earthquakes can create a series of low, long waves
▶ presents step-by-
called a tsunami (tsoo•NAH•mee). The waves race
step instructions
across the ocean at speeds of up to 800 kilometers
in a logical way.
(500 miles) per hour. They can form a wall of water
up to 30 meters (100 feet) high. When a tsunami ▶ gives clear details
crashes onto land, it can destroy a village or town. that are easy to
Fortunately tsunami-warning systems have been follow.
established around the Pacific Ocean, including along
▶ uses time-order
the western coast of the United States. What can you
words, such as first,
do if you learn that a tsunami is coming? next, and last, to
First, gather household members. Turn on the radio
make instructions
or television, and listen carefully to any instructions. clear.
Next, have an adult turn off any gas, water, and
electricity. Gather disaster supplies, such as a flashlight,
batteries, a portable radio, a first-aid kit, water, and
food. Then, quickly move to higher ground.
Write About It
Explanatory Writing Do online research
using the keywords earthquake safety
tip to find information about how to stay An earthquake in the Indian
safe during an earthquake. Work with Ocean on December 26, 2004,
a small group to write and illustrate an created a tsunami disaster.
information booklet for people moving
to California. Use time-order words or
spatial words in your instructions.
-Journal Write about it online
@ www.macmillanmh.com

ELA W 6.1.4. Use organizational features of electronic text (e.g., bulletin boards,
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 305 306 databases, keyword searches, e-mail addresses) to locate information.
EVALUATE EXTEND
 Lesson 4
What Is the Difference
Between High and Low Volcanoes
Elevations?
Many mountain ranges are the result of
the movement of tectonic plates. Some lower
elevations, such as trenches and rifts, were
also created by tectonic-plate movements.
Other low elevations, such as basins and
valleys, resulted from extinct volcanoes.
Elevations are measured with positive and
negative integers. Knowing how to use
integers can help you find the differences Use integers
between high and low elevations on Earth. To add or subtract
integers, use these
Elevation Elevation algorithms:
Place (meters) (feet)
▶ Adding a negative
Mount Everest, Nepal/China 8,850 29,035
number is the same
Bentley Subglacial Trench, Antarctica –2,555 – 8,383 as subtracting a
positive number.
Mount Whitney, California 4,421 14,505
36 + (–2) = 34
Mammoth Mountain, California 3,371 11,059
▶ Subtracting a
Denver, Colorado 1,609 5,280
negative number is
Death Valley, California – 86 –282 the same as adding
a positive number. What is the most spectacular natural event
36 – (–2) = 38 that you can think of? Many people would
Solve It say a volcano. Erupting volcanoes are some of
1. What is the difference in elevation between Mount Whitney
nature’s best “sound-and-light shows.” How
and Death Valley in meters and feet? can you make a model of a volcanic eruption?
2. What is the distance in meters and feet from the top of Mount
Everest to the bottom of the Bentley Subglacial Trench?
3. Make up your own integer problem about elevation. Trade 6 ES 1.a. Students know evidence of plate tectonics is derived from the fit of the
continents; the location of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mid-ocean ridges; and the
papers with a classmate, and solve each other’s problem.
distribution of fossils, rock types, and ancient climatic zones. • 6 ES 1.d. Students
know that earthquakes are sudden motions along breaks in the crust called faults
and that volcanoes and fissures are locations where magma reaches the surface.
MA NS 6.2.3. Solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems, • 6 ES 1.e. Students know major geologic events, such as earthquakes, volcanic
including those arising in concrete situations, that use positive and negative 307 308 eruptions, and mountain building, result from plate motions.
integers and combinations of these operations. EXTEND ENGAGE
 What are volcanoes?
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.a, d, e
When you think of a volcano, you may
picture a smooth-sided mountain shaped like
How can you make a model Materials Volcanoes and related
features are located a cone. Some of the world’s most famous
volcano erupt? along plate boundaries mountains are volcanic peaks. However, not all
where magma and other volcanoes are mountains.
Make a Prediction materials reach the
Volcanoes are vents in Earth’s crust through
What do you think will happen if you try to make surface.
which magma, gases, and other materials are
a volcano with baking soda and vinegar? Will it
▶ Vocabulary forced out. Magma is molten, or hot and melted,
behave like a real volcano? Write your answer as
a prediction in the form “If a model of a volcano rock cycle, p. 313 rock below Earth’s surface. Lava is magma
• deep-sided plastic
is made out of baking soda and vinegar, then . . .” tray cinder cone volcano, p. 314 that flows out onto Earth’s surface. Openings
1 shield volcano, p. 314 through which volcanic materials erupt
• 2 cup clear vinegar
Test Your Prediction composite volcano, p. 315 are called vents. Long, narrow
• red food coloring vents are called fissures.
Fill the plastic container with a few inches of mountain belt, p. 318
baking soda, and place it in the middle of the • narrow plastic volcanic island arc, p. 318
tray. Be Careful. Wear goggles. container
Ring of Fire, p. 319
Build the sand up around the container, leaving • sand hot spot, p. 319 How Volcanoes Form
the top of the jar exposed. • baking soda hot spring, p. 320
Add a few drops of food coloring to the vinegar. • safety goggles geyser, p. 320

Slowly and carefully pour the colored vinegar

Step
into the container. Observe and record what -Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com
happens.

Draw Conclusions ▶ Reading Skill

Analyze How would you explain what you Draw Conclusions
observed? Was it like a real volcano?
BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a
Did your observations support your prediction?
Infer What do you think would have happened
if there had been a lid on the container?

Explore More Step

What would happen if the opening of the container
were larger? If it were smaller? Make a prediction
and test it. Then analyze and present your results.

6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an

investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

309 310
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
Lassen Peak Volcanic Forces
Most volcanoes, like most
1914 earthquakes, occur along the boundaries
between shifting tectonic plates.
Volcanoes are created by powerful
forces within Earth. As one tectonic
plate moves under another, the rock in
the mantle melts and becomes magma.
Melting rock produces gases that
become mixed with the magma. Over
time, gas-filled magma rises because
it is less dense than the solid rock
around it. Rising magma accumulates
1994
in a weak part of the overlying rock,
forming a magma chamber. Magma
chambers are the reservoirs from
which volcanic materials erupt.
What are the three main types of rocks?
Earth has many kinds of rocks, but all rocks can be
classified as one of three main types. Each of the three
main types of rocks is described below.
Igneous Rocks
When a volcano erupts, lava flows or shoots out
of the volcano. Rocks that form from lava cool and
harden very quickly. They have a fine texture. Many
look shiny like glass. Basalt is an igneous rock that
forms from lava.
Rocks that form from magma, below Earth’s surface,
cool very slowly. These rocks have a coarse texture.
Granite is an igneous rock that forms below Earth’s
surface. granite
Sedimentary Rocks

Reading Photos
Has this volcano erupted recently?
Clue: What is covering the volcano
in the later picture?
The rocks above press down on
the magma, creating great pressure.
When the pressure is released, volcanic
materials erupt and move out to the
surface through vents and fissures.
Lava hardens into rocks. Lava rocks
and other volcanic materials pile up
around the vent. As they continue to
accumulate, they build up landforms.
Forceful explosions may blow out the
tops of these landforms to form craters.
Craters are bowl-shaped depressions.
Although volcanoes are destructive,
they can create new islands and enlarge
existing islands.
Quick Check
Draw Conclusions How are
volcanoes different from mountains?
Critical Thinking What might be
some signs that tell scientists that
volcanic eruptions have occurred
under the ocean?
Sedimentary rocks are made of bits and pieces
of other rocks. Water and wind wear away rocks,
breaking them down into smaller pieces. These pieces
are carried by wind or water or moved by gravity.
Over time these pieces are deposited, and layers of
bits and pieces build up. As the number of layers
increases, pressure builds up on the bottom layers.
Particles squeeze together and harden into rocks.
Sedimentary rocks that form in water often
contain pieces of shell or fossils of animals or plants.
Sedimentary rocks may also contain crystals of
minerals that were once dissolved in the water. When
the water dries, the minerals remain behind as crystals. sandstone
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been
changed. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous,
sedimentary, or even other metamorphic rocks
that were exposed to high temperatures, and great
pressure. The high temperatures and pressure
changed the form of the original rocks.
Metamorphic rocks often form deep underground.
They can form when rocks come in contact with hot
magma or lava. As magma rises in the crust, the
layers of rock that it pushes through or against can
be changed into metamorphic rock. marble

311 312
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 Rock Cycle
Q]]ZW\UO\R
Q`gabOZZWhW\U
^`Saac`S
[SZbW\U
VSOb
[OU[O [SbO[]`^VWQ`]QY
aSRW[S\bO`g`]QY
How Rocks Change
Over and Over
Here is a question to think about.
Where do rocks come from? Your
first thoughts might be: “Igneous
rocks come from magma or lava.”
“Sedimentary rocks come from
sediment.” The simplest answer is
that all rocks come from other rocks.
Rocks are continually changed from
one type to another in a never-ending
cycle called the rock cycle .
Although the rock cycle has no
beginning and no end, all rocks had
to begin somewhere. There is evidence
that Earth started out totally molten.
What kinds of volcanic
aSRW[S\ba
landforms are there?
aSRW[S\bO`g No two volcanoes are exactly
`]QY alike. Volcanoes differ in the kinds of
WU\S]ca
`]QY materials they eject, in the intensity
and frequency of eruptions, and in the
types of landforms that result. There
[SbO[]`^VWQ are three main kinds of landforms
`]QY
[OU[O created by volcanic eruptions.
One kind is a cinder cone volcano ,
composite cone
a volcano mainly made up of small
rock particles, or cinders. As erupting
`]QYP`]YS\
R]e\O\R lava shoots into the air, it breaks into
QO``WSROeOg small fragments that cool and harden
as they fall back to the ground. These
fragments pile up around the vent,
forming a small cone with steep sides. A cinder cone volcano
forms when the ejected
Paricutín in Mexico is an example debris piles up around the
WU\S]ca`]QY of a cinder cone volcano. It began in vent. These volcanoes are
often small and steep.
a cornfield, and within a year it had
Reading Diagrams reached a height of 450 m (1,500 ft).
How do rocks change from A second kind of volcanic landform
one form to another? is a shield volcano. A shield volcano
Clue: Follow the arrows. is made up of layers of lava rocks. As
liquid lava flows out at the surface
from a vent, it spreads out in all
There was no solid rock, only directions. The lava eventually cools
magma. It seems likely that the very and hardens into rock. Successive
first rocks to form and begin the rock layers of lava rock build up to form
cycle were igneous rocks. a volcano with broad, gently sloping
sides. Its dome shape resembles an
Quick Check outward surface of a shield carried by
ancient warriors.
Draw Conclusions Would igneous
rocks be likely to contain fossils?
Critical Thinking Granite is
common underneath the crust
of the continents. Basalt is more
common as part of the ocean floor. shield volcano
Explain why.
313 314
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

A composite cone forms
when volcanic rocks
alternate with magma.
These volcanoes cause
the most damage.
cinder cone
A shield volcano is built
over time by lava flow.
Because the lava flows
slowly over time, there
are no major eruptions.
Shield volcanoes are some of the
world’s largest volcanoes. The largest
is Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Thousands
of overlapping lava flows have raised
this mountain to an elevation of
4,170 m (13,680 ft) above sea level.
Measured from its base on the ocean
floor to its highest point, Mauna
Loa is taller than Mount Everest, the
world’s tallest land mountain.
The third kind of volcanic
landform is a composite volcano ,
a landform made up of layers of lava
flows alternating with layers of ash,
cinders, and rocks. These layers form
symmetrical cones with steep sides that
are concave, or curving inward. Many
composite volcanoes are higher than
2,740 m (9,000 ft) from their bases.
▲ devastation from the 1980 eruption
Mount Peleé, on the island of of Mount Saint Helens
Martinique in the Caribbean, is an
example of a composite volcano. When How do eruptions differ?
it erupted in 1902, it destroyed the In some cases volcanoes erupt in builds up shield volcanoes. Lava rock
town of St. Pierre. Only a few of St. violent explosions. In other cases lava may be formed as the lava cools and
Pierre’s thousands of inhabitants simply flows out slowly and quietly. hardens.
survived. Another example is Mount There are also examples of volcanoes
Vesuvius. This volcano erupted in a.d. Strombolian eruptions are named
that erupt in ways that lie between for a volcanic island off the coast of
79, causing the destruction of Pompeii these two extremes. Some lava flows
and Herculaneum in what is now Italy. Italy. Thick magma accumulates in
move as quickly as a car speeding down the vent and builds up pressure that
a highway. Others move more slowly is released, emitting fragments that
Quick Check than a person strolling through a park. pile up into cinder cones. Strombolian
Draw Conclusions What three Scientists who study volcanoes eruptions occur frequently and are
kinds of landforms are created by classify eruptions according to their fairly gentle because pressure is
the eruptions of volcanoes? violence. The different types of released gradually.
eruptions are named for the places
Critical Thinking Why do you think Vulcanian eruptions take their
where they typically occur or have name from Vulcano, a volcano
it would take a long time for a shield
typically occurred. near the island of Sicily. Vulcanian
volcano such as Mauna Loa to form?
Hawaiian eruptions, named for the eruptions typically begin with huge,
volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands, are loud explosions followed by smaller
the least violent type. Highly liquid ones. Ash, dust, and other volcanic
lava generally flows out slowly and materials are blown into the air.
315 316
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

The most violent
volcanic eruptions are
called Peléean, named
for Mount Pelée in the
Caribbean. Gases trapped
in sticky magma build up
tremendous pressure. As pressure
is released, tons of rock and ash are
thrown into the air as parts of the
mountain are blown away. Clouds of
hot, poisonous gases rush down from
the vent. The 1980 eruption of Mount
Saint Helens in Washington State was a
Peléean eruption.
Scientists also classify volcanoes
according to how often they erupt.
A volcano may be considered active,
intermittent, dormant, or extinct.
Active volcanoes erupt constantly.
Intermittent volcanoes erupt at fairly
frequent intervals. Dormant volcanoes
have become inactive, but people are
not certain that they will not erupt
again. Dormant is from the French
word for “sleep.” Volcanoes that have
not erupted within recorded history
are considered extinct.
Tourists view the
What are subduction zones, 9OcOW
crater of Mount island arcs, and hot spots?
Vesuvius. Mount
Vesuvius, below, Rocks of the lithosphere are constantly destroyed
overlooks the ruins and created by tectonic activity. The lithosphere is slowly
of Pompeii. being recycled. Recycling takes place along convergent
boundaries between tectonic plates.
When an oceanic plate and a continental plate collide,
the oceanic plate slides beneath the continental plate.
The rocks in the overriding continental plate are folded,
faulted, and pushed up to form mountains. Some of these
mountains are volcanoes. The Cascade Range includes Hawaii is the
volcanoes such as Mount Shasta, Mount Saint Helens, and youngest island
in the chain.
Mount Rainier. Closely spaced mountains form mountain
Lava is still being
ranges. Several mountain ranges that lie parallel to one
poured onto the
another make up a mountain belt .
island to form new
When two oceanic plates move toward each other, one structures.
may be subducted, or forced under the other. This process
causes volcanoes to form. Heated rock in the subducted plate
melts into magma. Erupting lava and other materials pile up
on the overriding plate to form marine volcanoes. Eventually
these volcanoes rise above sea level to emerge as islands. A
long, curved chain of volcanic islands is a volcanic island arc .
Subduction
d]ZQO\WQ WaZO\RO`Q
WaZO\R

Quick Check
Draw Conclusions How do the
types of volcanic eruptions differ?
]QSO\
Critical Thinking Do you think
that a quick lava flow is more
dangerous or less dangerous [SZbW\U ]QSO\
than a slow one? Give a reason ^ZObS
to support your answer.

Subduction can occur when two plates

collide. The denser plate slides under the
317 318 other plate and becomes part of the mantle.
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

=OVc
;]Z]YOW
;OcW
6OeOWW
V]b
a^]b
The Ring of Fire
Island arcs are common in the
Pacific Ocean, where they border
deep ocean trenches. Examples are
the Aleutian Islands, Japan, and the
Philippines. Island arcs are part of
what is known as the Ring of Fire.
The Ring of Fire is a zone of frequent
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
The Ring of Fire encircles the Pacific
Basin.
Although most volcanoes occur
along plate boundaries, the volcanic
islands of Hawaii are exceptions. These
islands are situated far from the nearest
plate boundaries. They were formed
over hot spots. A hot spot is a region
of volcanic activity in the middle of
a tectonic plate. Here material from
the mantle rises, forming magma that
eventually erupts.
Cooling Candle Lava
Watch while your teacher holds
a lighted candle about 1 ft above
the tray so that a drop of melted
wax falls on the tray.
Observe This procedure will
be repeated several times, with
your teacher holding the candle
at different heights. Observe the
cooled drops.
From which height did the molten
wax spatter the most? The least?
What shape did the cooled wax
take?
How does this experiment explain
the cooled shapes of lava from
a volcanic eruption?
Hot spots remain fixed in their
positions as the plates above them
move. In this way new volcanic islands
are formed as older ones move away.
The illustration above shows the oldest
and newest Hawaiian islands that
formed as the Pacific Plate moved over
the fixed Hawaiian hot spot.
Quick Check
Draw Conclusions How do hot
spots form new land?
Critical Thinking Why does
subduction cause volcanoes to form?
319
EXPLAIN
What are hot springs, Old Faithful geyser
geysers, and fumaroles?
Geysers and hot springs are places
of new volcanic activity. They occur in
many parts of the world. Many of them
can be found in Yellowstone National
Park. This area sits above a hot spot in
the crust. Magma lies below Yellowstone,
producing heat for geysers and hot
springs. A hot spring is a stream of
hot, bubbling water that flows out of
the ground continuously. It occurs when
magma heats water in the ground. The
hot water is less dense and rises back to
the surface through cracks and fissures.
A geyser is a fountain of hot water
and steam that shoots into the air at
regular or irregular intervals. Steam
trapped underground builds up pressure. Quick Check
When the pressure is high enough, water
Draw Conclusions How are
and steam are forced out of the ground.
a fumarole and a geyser related?
A fumarole occurs when only steam
reaches the surface. The temperatures Critical Thinking What is a
of the water and steam are very hot and property of water vapor that
dangerous. causes a geyser to erupt?
hot spring, Yellowstone
National Park
320
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Inquiry Structured
Main Idea Where are volcanoes usually Materials
Lava is molten rock
located? What are some characteristics
that flows out from
a volcano onto the Vocabulary Molten rock that flows out of volcanic rock?
surface of Earth. onto the surface is called .
(pp. 310–311)
Draw Conclusions What is the Purpose
difference between magma and lava? The cooling of lava from volcanoes is one way igneous rocks
6OeOWW The Ring of Fire is are formed. The cooling rate determines the crystalline
a zone of frequent BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a
hand lens structure and the appearance of the rocks. When lava cools
earthquakes and active immediately, there are no visible crystals, and the rocks look
volcanoes encircling glassy. However, when lava takes a
the Pacific Basin. Step
V]b few days to cool, the crystals appear
a^]b (pp. 318–319)
Critical Thinking Do you think that an very small and look like grains of
extinct volcano will ever erupt? Why or sand. When the lava cools over the
Geysers and hot
why not? span of a few years, the crystals
springs are features igneous rock
become very large and create large
associated with Test Practice A is a samples
rocks. What are some characteristics
volcanic activity. landform made up of layers of lava of volcanic rocks? Write your answer
(p. 320) flows alternating with layers of ash, as a prediction in the form “If the rock
cinders, and rocks. is igneous, then . . .”
A cinder cone volcano Step

Make a B fumarole small cup

C composite volcano
Procedure
Study Guide
D geyser Observe Use a hand lens to look
Make a three-tab book at each rock sample.
(see pp. 487–490). Use Test Practice A is a stream
the titles shown. On the of hot, bubbling water that flows out Sketch the crystals, or grains,
inside of each tab, draw of the ground continuously. in your journal.
conclusions about each A geyser Define Based on Observations
topic. B hot spot Feel each rock. Describe the Step
C hot spring texture in your journal.
D mountain belt
Classify Record the color and
coarseness of the grains for each
sample.
Writing Link Math Link Experiment Place each rock
in a cup of water. Record your
Volcanoes and Weather Calculate Volcanoes observations.
Research the effects volcanoes have Alaska has about 40 active volcanoes, Step
had on weather conditions, using print or about 8 percent of all the active
and online sources. Write a one-page volcanoes on Earth. Calculate
report on your findings. approximately how many active
volcanoes there are on Earth.

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether evidence is
321 322
consistent with a proposed explanation.
EVALUATE EXTEND
 Lesson 5
Draw Conclusions
Analyze Are any of the characteristics the same in all of your
samples? Why do you think the similarities or differences
occurred?
Explain What factors influenced the color of the rocks that How Plate
you observed?

Inquiry Guided Tectonics

What happens when the pressure
changes inside a volcano?
Form a Hypothesis
Can changes in the amount of pressure in a volcano change the
Affects California
Death Valley, California
force of the eruption? Write your answer as a hypothesis in the
form “If the pressure in a volcano increases, then . . .”

Test Your Hypothesis

Design an experiment to investigate what happens inside a
volcano when there is an increase in magma or gas pressure.
Write out the materials you will need and the steps you will follow.
Record your results and observations.

Draw Conclusions
What changes did you make to your volcano to increase the
internal pressure? Did your experiment support your hypothesis?
Why or why not? Present your results to your classmates.

Inquiry Open

What else would you like to learn about volcanoes?
Would you like to know about the different types
of volcanoes? Design an experiment to answer your
question. Your experiment must be organized to
test only one variable, or one item being changed.
Record the research materials you used for your
experiment.
Remember to follow the
steps of the scientific process.
Ask a Question
What forces in Earth caused California to take
the shape it has today? What caused Mount
Form a Hypothesis
Shasta to soar 4,317 m (14,162 ft) above sea
level? Why is Death Valley so far below sea level?
Test Your Hypothesis

Draw Conclusions

6 ES 1.f. Students know how to explain major features of California geology

323 324 (including mountains, faults, volcanoes) in terms of plate tectonics.
EXTEND ENGAGE
 What parts of California lie
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.f on different plates?
Materials The major features of California lies on two lithospheric plates. Most
How do plate movements California’s landscape of the state rests on the North American Plate ,
affect California? are the result of plate which includes all of North America and part
tectonics.
of the Atlantic Ocean. A small part of California
Make a Prediction
▶ Vocabulary rests on the Pacific Plate . The Pacific Plate
Can you make a model of the forces that have
North American Plate, p. 326 consists of the Pacific Ocean and a narrow
shaped California? Write your answer as a
prediction in the form “If two plates slide past Pacific Plate, p. 326 piece of California west of the North American
each other, then . . .” • two pieces of San Andreas Fault, p. 326 Plate. In California the North American Plate
cardboard and the Pacific Plate slide past each other
Central Valley, p. 328
Test Your Prediction • sand or flour Los Angeles Basin, p. 328 along a deep crack in Earth’s crust called the
Place the pieces of cardboard on a flat surface, Step Ventura Basin, p. 328 San Andreas Fault .
and cover each with a layer of sand or flour.
Without disturbing the sand or flour, push the -Glossary
two pieces of cardboard together so that the @ www.macmillanmh.com
edges line up.
Slowly slide one piece of cardboard along the
▶ Reading Skill
edge of the other. Draw Conclusions

Observe What happens as one piece of BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a

cardboard slides past the other? Record your
observations.

Draw Conclusions
How does this model show what happens when
two plates move against each other? Place
two markers, such as lumps of clay or sugar
cubes, on either side of the fault. Describe their
relationship to each other after movement along
the fault. Draw a line through the sand across San Andreas fault line is where
the fault to represent a river. How is the river the Pacific Plate and the
affected by movement along the fault? North American Plate meet.

Explore More
How do the effects of movement compare when the two sides
slide past each other slowly and quickly? Design an experiment
that would compare the effects of two plates sliding past each
other at different rates.
6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including
calculators, computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and
binoculars) to perform tests, collect data, and display data.

325 326
EXPLORE EXPLAIN
The San Andreas Fault
The San Andreas Fault begins
at a point on the coast north of
San Francisco and runs about
1,300 km (800 mi) south into
Mexico and the Gulf of California.
Its location is marked at the surface
by ridges, troughs, offset streams, and
mismatched rocks across the fault line.
The Pacific Plate is slowly but steadily
moving northwest along the fault. It
moves at an average of about 5 cm
(2 in.) per year. Sometimes the Pacific
Plate does not move at all for years.
Then, suddenly, the rocks on both
San Andreas Fault Zone
What features of Coastal Construction
sides of the fault move as much as California are the result
several meters (several yards) apart.
The land west of the San Andreas of plate tectonics?
Fault was once a part of Mexico. Over California has not always looked
millions of years, it has moved about the way it does today. Many of the
320 km (200 mi) to where it is now. different landforms now visible in
California were created by the Pacific
Quick Check Plate pushing into the North American
Plate. Millions of years ago, much
Draw Conclusions How does the
of Central and Southern California Land, long ago pushed upward
Pacific Plate move?
was underwater. The western coast of and northward, helped form
Critical Thinking Where do you Big Sur’s rugged coastline.
North America ran south from Idaho
think the Pacific Plate will be through Eastern California.
located in 2 million years?
Valleys and Mountains
It is the largest valley in California,
The Central Valley is an area
of low land bordered by the Sierra covering about one-sixth of the state.
Nevada to the east and the Coast The Los Angeles Basin is
Ranges to the west. Deep layers of a depression lying between the
>]W\b rock that have washed down from Transverse and the Peninsular ranges.
2SZUORO

A7
the surrounding mountains make up The basin is filled with rock material

<=
3@

@
the valley floor. The Central Valley that has washed down from these

B 6
extends for a distance of about 800 mountains. The Ventura Basin is a

@/

/;
3

km (500 mi) from north to south, and depression in the Transverse Ranges

<

@71
its average width is 64 km (40 mi). where thick layers of rock material

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/2

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/

174
AO\

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Reading Maps /\R`SOa
4OcZb
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On which plate does most of
California lie? :]a/\USZSa 7[^S`WOZ
4OcZb
Clue: Look at the labels on the map, ◀ Produce from
and identify the different plates. the rich soil
AO\2WSU]
of the Central
AO\ Valley, such as
>ZObS 8OQW\b]
[]dS[S\b 4OcZb these tomatoes,
is enjoyed
year-round.

327 328
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

Reading Photos
A highway was built on the edge of the
Coast Ranges. What special difficulties
faced the builders of this road?
Clue: Look at the bridge and its
location.
have accumulated. Both the Los
Angeles Basin and the Ventura Basin
are unstable areas where tectonic
activity causes frequent earthquakes.
The Coast Ranges are a series of
narrow, low ridges that rise abruptly
from the sea. The ridges are made up
of layers of rock that have been lifted
up, folded, and deformed. The ridges
are separated by valleys.
The Klamath Mountains and the
Cascade Range lie along California’s
northern border. Long ago the
Klamath Mountains were an island.
The high peaks of the Cascade Range
are volcanic mountains.
The highest of California’s
mountain ranges is the Sierra Nevada.
Its name comes from the Spanish
words meaning “jagged, or sawlike,”
and “snowy.” This range extends for
Folded Mountains
Make a model by stacking three
layers of clay on top of one
another, placing a piece of plastic
wrap between layers.
Place the clay stack on a tabletop
between two bricks.
Slowly push the bricks toward
each other until the clay bends,
or folds.
Observe What happened? Did
you create a fold?
about 640 km (400 mi) from north to
south in Eastern California. The Sierra
Nevada was formed when a large
block of rock was lifted up and tilted.
The east face drops sharply in contrast
to the gentle western slope.
Quick Check
Draw Conclusions What
has created California’s major
landforms?
Critical Thinking How is the
Central Valley similar to the
Los Angeles Basin?
329
EXPLAIN
What are some of California’s
notable features?
California’s great variety of landforms
makes up some of our country’s most
remarkable scenery. Perhaps the most
famous feature of California is the
Sierra Nevada range, one of the largest
mountain ranges of its kind in the world.
Its natural beauty—jagged, snowcapped
peaks; glacial valleys; high waterfalls;
deep canyons; and forests of giant sequoia
trees—has been preserved in three
national parks: Yosemite, Kings Canyon,
and Sequoia.
Mount Whitney, at an elevation of
4,419 m (14,495 ft), is the highest point
in the state. Death Valley National Park,
just east of the southern part of the Sierra
Nevada, presents a very different picture.
Much of Death Valley lies below sea level,
and parts of it are barren desert. Its lowest
point, 86 m (282 ft) below sea level, is the
lowest point in North America.
Two famous snowcapped volcanic
peaks are part of Lassen Volcanic
National Park in the Cascade Range.
Mount Shasta last erupted in 1786.
Bridal Veil Falls, Yosemite
Lassen Peak last erupted continuously National Park, California
between 1914 and 1921.
California has three other national
parks, many national monuments, and Quick Check
many state parks where some of its most
interesting and unusual features can be Draw Conclusions What
seen. In other parts of California, you factors contribute to California’s
will find lava tubes, hot springs, geysers, remarkable scenery?
and evidence of folding and faulting. In
Critical Thinking What might
many ways California is the result of
account for the difference in
tectonic forces and these forces continue
elevation between the peak of
to reshape the state and influence people’s
Mount Whitney and the lowest
lives.
point of Death Valley?
330
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Most of California lies
on the North American
Plate. A small part
rests on the Pacific
Plate.
(pp. 326–327)
The Central Valley and
the Los Angeles Basin
were formed by plate
tectonics.
(pp. 328–329)
Main Idea What events formed
the major features of California’s
landscape?
Q u a k e P r e d i c to r s
Vocabulary A deep crack in Earth’s Scientists have a good idea of understanding and predicting quakes.
crust in California is the . where earthquakes will happen, but Today anyone can freely access
it’s much more difficult to predict real-time seismic data through the
Draw Conclusions What is the San
Andreas Fault, and where is it located? when an earthquake will occur. By Internet, which gives scientists and the
developing more advanced tools, public a continuous, global view of
BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a
scientists have become better at earthquake activity.

California’s great Critical Thinking Do you think that

variety of landforms the part of California west of the San
makes up some of Andreas Fault will always be a part of
this country’s most California? Explain.
remarkable scenery. Test Practice The is an
(p. 330) area of low land bordered by the Sierra
Nevada and the Coast Ranges.
Make a A Central Valley
Study Guide B Los Angeles Basin
C Ventura Basin
Make a three-tab book (see pp. 487–490). D Coast Ranges
Use the titles shown. On the inside of each
tab, draw conclusions about each topic. Test Practice On what does most
of California lie?
A the Pacific Plate
B the San Andreas Fault 1870s 1961
C the North American Plate
D the Los Angeles Basin
1870s Tracking Earthquakes from the Ground 1961 Organizing Earthquake Information
Geophysicist John Milne experiences earthquakes The World-Wide Standardized Seismic
firsthand in Japan. He knows that there must be Network (WWSSN) is established.
a way to measure the vibrations of Earth’s crust Scientists all over the globe can now share
Writing Link Social Studies Link during an earthquake. He works with a team of information to monitor both earthquakes
scientists to create a new tool that can detect and nuclear testing. Today the WWSSN
Persuasive Writing Research Plate Tectonics different types of earthquake waves and estimate continues as the Global Seismic Network
Write a letter to a friend in another Use library and online sources to learn their speeds. It’s the first seismometer. By 1913, (GSN), consisting of 128 permanent
state, urging the friend to visit about advances in technology that help seismometers are placed in 40 earthquake seismic recording stations spread out
observatories around the world. evenly over Earth’s surface.
California. Use information about plate scientists map the ocean floor. Present
tectonics as well as descriptive language your findings to the class.
and scientific terms.

ELA R 6.2.7. Make reasonable assertions

331 332 about a text through accurate, supporting
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com citations.
EVALUATE EXTEND
 History of Science
CHAPTER 5 Review
2001 Tracking Earthquakes and Plate Motions from Space 2003 Computer Modeling
The Southern California Integrated GPS Network (SCIGN) Scientists at NASA’s Jet lly ac ybla y y yb y r y
uses Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to track Propulsion Laboratory u ar y y a y a ro y yl
the movement of the North American and Pacific plates. develop computer models
Moving plates cause
This enables scientists to get accurate information about the of the San Andreas fault composite lithosphere, p. 286
shifting of plates during an earthquake. GPS includes a group system. Data from SCIGN is
Earth’s surface to
change. volcano, p. 315
of satellites that send entered into these models to Mercalli scale, p. 303
signals used to calculate help scientists understand (pp. 268–277) continental
Pangaea, p. 271
the precise position of earthquakes that occur. drift, p. 270
receivers on the ground. Within a decade these models Richter scale, p. 302
The same system is used may be able to forecast some convective
The outermost part San Andreas
to give driving directions types of earthquakes with flow, p. 288
of Earth consists of
in some cars. better accuracy. Fault, p. 326
a number of separate,
rigid plates.
(pp. 280–293) 1. The place where the North American
Plate and the Pacific Plate slide past
each other is called the .
Movements along faults 6 ES 1.f
cause earthquakes.
(pp. 296–305) 2. A landform made up of alternating
layers of lava and ash, cinders, and
rocks is a . 6 ES 1.d

3. Gathering information about an

Many volcanoes are
earthquake by interviewing people
located along plate
about what they felt involves the
boundaries.
. 6 ES 1.d
(pp. 308–321)
4. The rigid outer part of Earth is called
the . 6 ES 1.b
The major features of
California’s landscape 5. The theory that Earth once had a
2001 2003 are the result of plate single landmass that broke apart into
tectonics. pieces that drifted apart over time is
(pp. 324–331) called . 6 ES 1.a
Draw Conclusions 6. Describing the intensity of an
Write About It ▶ Review the facts a ya earthquake from the height of seismic
Draw Conclusions and details. u yy u y waves recorded by a seismograph
1. Before the invention of the involves the . 6 ES 1.d
▶ Think about what Take a sheet of
seismometer, how do you think
paper and tape your 7. The landmass that existed more
people measured earthquakes? they suggest about
lesson study guides than 200 million years ago is called
2. Why are satellites a useful the topic.
as shown. Use the . 6 ES 1.a
source of information about
study guides to
movement on Earth’s surface?
answer the questions 8. The continuous circular pattern of
-Journal Write about it online on these pages. fluids as they are heated and cooled
@ www.macmillanmh.com is . 6 ES 1.b

333 334
EXTEND
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
Answer each of the following
in complete sentences.
9. Cause and Effect Describe three
different kinds of plate collisions,
and describe the geologic activity
associated with each. 6 ES 1.b, e
10. Compare and Contrast Compare
the three main types of volcanoes.
Explain how they are alike and how
they are different. Include a diagram
if it will help you communicate the
information. 6 ES 1.d
11. Critical Thinking If you worked at an
earthquake center and had to locate
the epicenter of an earthquake, how
would you proceed? 6 ES 1.d
12. Infer What does the presence of
marine fossils tell you about the
history of the Mojave Desert? 6 ES 1.f
13. Explanatory Writing Explain the
topography of California and how
geologic activity shaped each
landform. 6 ES 1.f
What geologic forces have
shaped Earth’s landscape?
1 The large pieces of Earth’s surface, 4 Why do the tectonic plates on Earth
Bring Back the called plates, may include 6 ES 1.a move? 6 ES 1.b
Missing Piece A crust and core. A Earth’s gravity pulls them.
B earthquakes and volcanoes. B Ocean currents push them.
Alfred Wegener put together many
C continents and oceans. C Earth’s rotation pushes them.
of the pieces of evidence needed to
D mantle and core. D Convection currents move them.
support his theory of continental drift.
Your goal is to provide other evidence
Wegener could have used, had he had 2 Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, 5 The table below lists Earth’s layers
the technology we have today. and mountain building are geologic and their approximate maximum
events that take place along 6 ES 1.e temperatures.
What to Do A plate boundaries.
1. Write a short story about traveling B state lines. Temperatures of
back in time to meet with Alfred C national borders. Earth’s Layers
Wegener. Describe the evidence he D coastal cities.
had at the time and the problems Crust 1,480°C (2,700°F)
he faced.
3 The diagram below shows plate Mantle 3,980°C (7,200°F)
2. Describe the information you would movement.
bring back in time with you that would Core 7,480°C (13,500°F)
help explain how the continents could RWdS`US\b
drift apart. P]c\RO`g Q]\dS`US\b
P]c\RO`g
Which hypothesis could you develop
Analyze Your Results
from the data in the table? 6 IE 7.a
▶ How does technology help people
make advancements in science? / A The temperature of the crust is
0 1,480°C.
1 B If you go deeper into Earth, the
temperature increases.
C The temperature of the crust is
much hotter than the temperature
Q]\dSQbWdS of the core or the mantle.
TZ]e D As the pressure increases,
ZWbV]a^VS`WQ
^ZObS temperature decreases.
OabVS\]a^VS`S
6 Which of the following are sudden
What type of land feature will motions caused by breaks in Earth’s
be formed in section C on the crust along plate boundaries? 6 ES 1.d
diagram? 6 ES 1.c A plate tectonics
A a desert B earthquakes
B a valley C faults
C a mountain D volcanoes
D a shoreline
Pangaea
335 336
7 The diagram below shows
a transform boundary.
Which of the following events occurs
7
along this boundary? 6 ES 1.e
A volcanic eruptions
B earthquakes
C mountain formations
D island formations
11
8 Which of the following causes an
earthquake? 6 ES 1.d
A lava moving to the top of a volcano
B water penetrating Earth’s surface
C sudden motion along breaks in
Earth’s crust
D high temperatures in Earth’s core
9 Which of the following is the area
12
where the Pacific Plate slides past
the North American Plate? 6 ES 1.f
A Los Angeles Basin
B Ventura Basin
C San Andreas Fault
D Central Valley
Materials prepared by PASS at
10 Which of the following best
describes how volcanic landforms
are created? 6 ES 1.d
A Hot spots erupt, releasing lava and
magma which then harden into
landforms.
B Magma and lava are released into
the air, land on the surface of the
ocean, and create hot spots which
then harden into landforms.
C Hardened landforms erupt, creating
hot spots and releasing lava and
magma which then harden into new
landforms.
D Hot spots continuously erupt
and then harden into landforms,
releasing lava and magma.
Many landforms in California were
created by 6 ES 1.f
A the Rocky Mountains’ spreading to
the western part of the country.
B the Pacific Plate’s pushing into the
North American Plate.
C eruptions of Mount St. Helens over
the years.
D volcanoes that are now dormant.
Which of the following best
describes the formation of the
Sierra Nevada? 6 ES 1.f
A A large block of rock was lifted up
and tilted.
B Several glaciers melted and flooded
the plains.
C High temperatures and pressure in
Earth’s core formed them.
D Several volcanic eruptions in the
Cascade Range formed them.
337
CHAPTER 6
Lesson 1
Atmospheric Pressure,
Temperature, and
Weather
PAGE 342
Shaping Earth’s Lesson 2
Weathering, Erosion,
and Deposition

Surface PAGE 356

Lesson 3
Rivers and Streams

PAGE 368
Lesson 4
Beaches and
Wave Erosion

PAGE 380
Lesson 5
What effects do weathering, erosion, and Changing Habitats
deposition have on Earth’s landforms?
PAGE 390
6 ES 2. Topography is reshaped by the weathering
of rock and soil and by the transportation and deposition
of sediment.

338 339
 from SCIENCE WORLD

Literature
MAGAZINE ARTICLE

ELA R 6.2.4.
Clarify an
understanding of texts by
creating outlines, logical
notes, summaries, or
reports.• ELA W 6.2.5.
Write persuasive by Kim Y. Masibay
compositions.
Surfing buffs have a word for the perfect wave—
“tubular.” A wave curls into a tube and surfers ride
inside it toward shore. But the endless pounding
of surf can really grind down a beach. “About 86
percent of U.S. shoreline is eroding [washing away],”
says Chad Nelson, environmental director of the
Surfrider Foundation.
The reasons are many: Damming rivers and
building coastal structures cause some harm. And the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency thinks higher
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
[are] causing Earth’s temperature to warm, which
in turn could raise sea level a few feet in the next
century. Bye-bye beaches?
Not if geologists or engineers can help it. But beach
lovers are divided over how to best halt coastal erosion.
Why? Because tactics that keep sand where sunbathers
want it can also wipe out the wave action in the surf
zone, the area between the outermost breakers and the
shore. Can human ingenuity save the day?

Write About It
Response to Literature This article outlines
the problem of beach erosion. Geologists
and engineers are working on solutions to
the problem. Do you think they should take
the concerns of surfers or sunbathers into
account? Write a persuasive essay explaining
your point of view.

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com
340 341
Lesson 1
Where does precipitation Materials
come from?
Atmospheric Form a Hypothesis
When pressure is increased on a volume of air, its
temperature increases. When pressure is decreased,
the volume of air expands and cools. How do
Pressure, temperature and humidity affect the formation of
fog? Write your answer as a hypothesis in the form
“If moist air in a bottle is cooled, then . . .”

• room-temperature
Test Your Hypothesis
water
Temperature, Put a small amount of room-temperature water
in a plastic water bottle.
• plastic water
bottle
Have your teacher add smoke by lighting a • match
and Weather match, blowing it out, and holding the smoking
match inside the bottle. Step
coastal fog, Mount Tamalpais State Park, California After a few seconds, have your teacher take
the match out and screw on the bottle’s cap.
Experiment Squeeze the bottle to increase
the pressure on the air inside. Release the
pressure on the bottle.

Draw Conclusions
Analyze What happened when you released
Step
the pressure on the air in the bottle? How is this
related to the temperature of the air in the bottle?
Infer How does moist air’s temperature affect
a change from water vapor to water droplets?
How is this similar to the formation of fog?

A television meteorologist wraps up the weather forecast: Explore More

“Today was warm and humid. Temperatures are expected What would you see if you did this experiment first
to cool rapidly tonight, bringing fog during the early with warm water and then with cold water? Form
morning. Skies will clear by mid-morning as temperatures hypotheses and then test them with your teacher
rise again.” What causes fog? Where is fog likely to form? or another adult. Analyze and present your results.

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and

results from an investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

6 ES 4.e. Students know differences in pressure, heat,

342 air movement, and humidity result in changes of weather. 343
ENGAGE EXPLORE

▶ Main Idea 6 ES 4.e
Differences in air pressure
and temperature cause
winds, storms, and other
weather patterns. An area’s
climate is the long-term
average of its weather.
World Climates
What is the difference between
climate and weather?
An area’s climate (KLIGH•muht) is the
long-term average weather pattern of that
region. It includes atmospheric conditions such
as precipitation, temperature, and wind. Many
3_cOb]`
areas of the United States have climates with
warm summers and cold winters. Weather B`]^WQOZ 1]\bW\S\bOZ

▶ Vocabulary 5SPQJDBM
XFU 8BSN
TVNNFS

refers to the day-to-day conditions in an area. 5SPQJDBM
XFU

ESZ $PPM
TVNNFS
weather, p. 344 Even though the climate in many states in the ;WZR 4VCBSDUJD
.BSJOF
XFTU
DPBTU >]ZO`
humidity, p. 345 United States include hot summers, the weather
.FEJUFSSBOFBO
5VOESB
dew point, p. 348 on any single summer day may be cool. )VNJE
TVCUSPQJDBM *DFDBQ

Coriolis effect, p. 350 2`g Reading Maps

6WUVSZSdObW]\
4FNJBSJE
eddy, p. 352 )JHIMBOET
Different Climates "SJE
Describe the general locations of
Climates vary by latitude (distance from the warm climates and cold climates.
-Glossary and Montana, on the other hand,
@ www.macmillanmh.com equator) and by altitude (height above sea level). are often below freezing, and heavy Clue: Locate warm climates and
An area closer to the equator receives more of cold climates on the map.
snowfalls are frequent.
▶ Reading Skill the Sun’s heat, or radiation, than an area farther
Make Inferences from the equator. As a result the area near the Altitude also affects climate. The
equator has a warmer climate all year long. higher up you go on a mountain, the
1ZcSa EVObG]c 7\TS`S\QSa cooler you will find the temperature Humidity is the amount of water
9\]e For example, the southern United States has a
warmer climate than the northern United States. to be. Even at the same latitude, a vapor in the air. Precipitation, cloud
Winter temperatures in Southern California and mountain peak may have snow in the cover, ocean temperature, and wind
Florida rarely fall below freezing, and snow rarely spring and summer while a nearby patterns also affect weather. A change
falls there. Winter temperatures in North Dakota valley is warm enough for swimming in any of these factors alters the daily
Explore weather
patterns with
and other summer sports. Radiation weather in a particular location.
a meteorologist. from the Sun first heats the land. Then Weather conditions averaged over a
heat from Earth’s surface radiates into long period of time determine climate.
the atmosphere and warms it. The Constant high temperatures and rain
thinner air at higher altitudes contains characterize tropical climates. A place
fewer molecules to absorb heat, so it that is cold all year has a polar climate.
remains cooler. You may have noticed
this change in temperature if you have
traveled from the warm coast to the
Quick Check
This satellite photo of cooler inland mountains. Make Inferences Why is the
Earth shows how the climate in Alaska different from
ocean temperatures Changes in Weather the climate in California?
around the world vary.
Yellow areas are the Many factors make up daily Critical Thinking What is the
warmest. weather, including temperature, air difference between climate
pressure, and humidity (hew•MID•i•tee). and weather?
344 345
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
What is air pressure?
Air pressure is the force caused by
the weight of air above. Even though
air molecules cannot be seen, they
take up space and have weight. Air
pressure depends on temperature and
gravity. When the temperature rises, air
molecules move apart. This hotter, less
dense air exerts less pressure. When
the temperature is cooler, air molecules
slow down, and the cooler, denser air
exerts more pressure.
The force of gravity attracts air
particles and pulls them toward
Earth, increasing the air pressure.
At higher altitudes, fewer air particles
are attracted toward Earth, and air
pressure falls.
If you take a trip to the top of
a mountain, you may experience
a “popping” in your ears. The air
pressure around you decreases as you
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;]c\bEVWb\Sg
""&Y[
AO\2WSU]
Y[
346
EXPLAIN
climb the mountain. Soon, the pressure
inside your ear is no longer in balance
with the pressure outside your ear.
The popping is your body’s attempt to
equalize the pressure. Also, during your
trip up the mountain, you might notice
that you have to breathe more rapidly to
get enough oxygen as you climb. Fewer
molecules of oxygen exist at higher
altitudes, so you have to take more-
rapid breaths to get the same number
of molecules of oxygen into your lungs.
The table shows the change in air
pressure with altitude. For example,
4,418 m (14,495 ft) is the height of
Mount Whitney, the highest point in
the 48 adjoined United States, and
about 80.5 km (100 mi) is considered
by some to be the point at which space
begins. Air pressure is recorded in
Pascals, a unit of measure that equals
about 0.009 kg (0.02 pounds) per
0.09 square meter (0.96 square foot).
Air Pressure
and Altitude
Height Air Pressure
(in kilometers) (in Pascals)
80.5 0.64
70 3 pressure to an area of low pressure.
60 13
50 59
40 263
30 1,160
20 5,125
10 22,638
4.418 51,876
0 100,000
U.S. Weather Map
>]`bZO\R :]e
AO\4`O\QWaQ]
2S\dS`
9O\aOa1Wb
6WUV
6]cab]\
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:]e
High- and Low-Pressure Systems
How does air pressure affect
weather? Solar radiation does not heat
all areas of Earth in the same way.
Temperature affects air pressure.
Because temperature and pressure are
related to each other in the atmosphere,
differences in air pressure around the
world exist because of differences in the
amount of solar radiation. Differences
in air pressure create winds that blow
around the globe. The direction of the
wind is always from an area of high
The cool air in the center of a high-
pressure system sinks toward Earth
and spreads out along the ground.
Clouds rarely form when air sinks.
A high-pressure system, then, often
means fair weather. A cool high-
pressure system typically brings clear
skies and pleasant weather. In the
winter, though, a high-pressure system
can bring a cold wave. In the United
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States, for example, a winter high-
pressure system can bring frigid Arctic
air south across the country.
A low-pressure system often brings
cloudy weather. The warm air in the
center rises, cools, and condenses, and
this process creates clouds. In winter,
a low-pressure system can bring
heavy snowstorms or ice storms in
some parts of the country. During the
warmer months, low-pressure systems
often bring thunderstorms or other
severe weather.
Quick Check
Make Inferences What kind of air
pressure does outer space have?
Critical Thinking Why does the
air become thinner as you climb
to the top of a mountain?
347
EXPLAIN

What causes rain?
As energy from the Sun heats Earth,
the water in oceans, lakes, and rivers,
as well as groundwater, evaporates
and turns into water vapor, a gas.
Evaporation (ee•vap•uh•RAY•shuhn)
is the changing of a liquid into a gas.
Humid air is less dense than drier air,
and therefore, it rises. As the air rises,
its air pressure and temperature fall.
Condensation (con•den•SAY•shuhn)
occurs when a gas changes into
a liquid. Water vapor in the air
condenses into droplets, which then
collide and form larger droplets.
When the droplets become too
large and heavy to stay in the air,
they fall to Earth as precipitation
(pree•sip•i•TAY•shuhn) . Precipitation
includes all forms of water that fall to
the ground. The type of precipitation
is a result of changes in air pressure
and temperature.
348
EXPLAIN
Types of Precipitation
Temperature differences in the
atmosphere determine the type of
precipitation that falls. The four
Measuring Humidity
main types of precipitation are rain, Make a map of the inside and the
sleet, snow, and hail. All forms of outside of your school. Choose
precipitation begin as water droplets places to measure the humidity
in the air.
or as ice crystals in clouds. The
temperature of the lower atmosphere Obtain cobalt chloride strips
that the precipitation passes through as from your teacher. These strips
measure humidity
it falls to Earth determines which form
in the air by turning
it will take. pink.
Tape each cobalt
Quick Check chloride strip to a
Make Inferences What piece of white paper.
▲ These low clouds formed from determines whether precipitation Observe Hang the papers in the
water droplets. The arrows show falls as rain or snow? chosen locations. Wait at least
the path water on the surface 30 minutes. Then collect the
takes as it evaporates and then Critical Thinking Why can papers and examine the colors
condenses and forms clouds. warm air hold more water vapor of the strips.
than cooler air? Which location had the highest
humidity? Which one had the
lowest? Explain your results.
Dew Point
As the temperature falls, less water
vapor can stay in the air. When the
Precipitation
air cannot hold any more water, the Rain falls when the air temperatures are above freezing.
relative humidity is 100%. Relative
humidity measures the amount of
water vapor in the air compared
to the amount that will saturate Sleet occurs when raindrops fall through freezing air near
the air. At the saturation point, the Earth’s surface and turn into pellets of ice.
vapor condenses into a liquid. The
temperature at which this condensation
occurs is called the dew point . When Snow falls when water vapor passes through air that is
humid air near the ground cools to so cold that the water vapor crystallizes and builds into
its dew point during the night, that snowflakes.
condensation results in the water
droplets—the dew—that can often Hail forms when thunderstorm winds push water back up
be seen early in the morning on into the atmosphere, where the water turns into ice, is coated
blades of grass. with more water, and pushed up to freeze again. This process
repeats until the hailstone is heavy enough to fall.
349
EXPLAIN
How does wind
change weather?
More solar radiation reaches the
equator than reaches regions north or
south of the equator. The warmer air at
the equator rises and moves toward the
poles, creating air currents that move
across the world. These currents are
pushed to the west or east by Earth’s
rotation. For example, in Mexico and
the Caribbean, the winds usually blow
from the northeast to the southwest.
These are called trade winds. In the
United States, the wind usually comes
from the west or the southwest.
Prevailing Winds
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350
EXPLAIN
◀ During the day,
The Coriolis Effect winds usually
blow from the
The atmosphere around Earth water toward
moves constantly, with warm air the land.
rising and cold air falling. Winds,
powered by temperature differences
caused by solar radiation, blow from
areas of higher pressure to areas of
lower pressure. However, the winds
▶ At night, the wind
do not move in straight lines. They
changes direction
are pushed to the right or the left by and blows from
Earth’s rotation. This shift in wind the land toward
direction is called the Coriolis effect the water.
(kaw•ree•OH•luhs), after the French
scientist and engineer who described it.
As the diagram on the previous page The warmer air above the surface
shows, the Coriolis effect causes winds of the land heats, expands, and rises.
that blow south from the North Pole to This creates an area of low pressure.
^]ZO`T`]\b rotate to the right in northern latitudes Cooler, high-pressure air over the water
but change direction near the equator in moves in to replace the rising warm air
a clockwise direction. In the Southern above the land. This flow of air from
acPb`]^WQOZ Hemisphere, winds rotate to the left, water to land is called a sea breeze.
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\]`bVSOab Coriolis effect is more powerful on The land cools more quickly than the
b`ORSeW\Ra stronger winds than on weaker ones and nearby water, so the cool, high-pressure
more powerful on winds closer to the air is above the land, and the warm,
poles than on those closer to the equator. low-pressure air is above the water.
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Air always moves from an area of high
Sea and Land Breezes pressure to an area of low pressure,
If you have ever been at the beach and a land breeze develops as the wind
a]cbVSOab during a summer day, you may have blows from the land toward the water.
b`ORSeW\Ra
noticed that the wind blows in from
eSabS`ZWSa the ocean to the land. At night the Quick Check
Reading Diagrams
wind reverses and blows from the Make Inferences How did
Describe how prevailing land to the ocean. What causes this winds help early explorers sail
winds differ north and south change in the wind’s direction?
of the equator. around the globe?
Clue: Note the directions of
On a warm summer day, the
Critical Thinking What causes
the arrows on each part of Sun’s energy heats the land to a higher
sea breezes?
the diagram. temperature than the nearby water.
351
EXPLAIN
 Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea What is the long-term
An area’s climate is
average of an area’s weather called?
its long-term average
weather pattern. An Vocabulary The process by which
area’s weather is its water vapor turns into liquid form
day-to-day conditions. is known as .
(pp. 344–345)
Make Inferences If the air temperature
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Air pressure is the were 60°F (16°C), what type of
force that is exerted by precipitation would fall?
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the surface. 9\]e
(pp. 346–347)
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^]ZO`T`]\b The Coriolis effect
a]ZO`
`ORWObW]\ Critical Thinking You plan to sail from
acPb`]^WQOZ
VWUV results from Earth’s
▲ A cyclone often brings stormy weather. eSabS`ZWSa

\]`bVSOab California to Australia. What information

How else does wind
affect weather?
Sometimes smaller currents of air
spin off from the main currents of air
that flow around Earth and rotate in
the opposite direction from the main
currents. These currents are called
eddies. An eddy is a small, spinning
air current that often develops when
wind flows over buildings, mountains,
or other obstructions. Some eddies
form on the downwind, or sheltered,
side of a mountain or a building. The
size of the eddy depends on how big
the obstruction is and how quickly
the wind is blowing.
Cyclones
A cyclone is a huge mass of
spinning air that forms when an area
of low pressure is surrounded by high
pressure on all sides. The high-pressure
352
EXPLAIN
b`ORSeW\Ra
rotation and affects
S_cOb]`WOZ
a]ZO` Z]e could help you determine the weather
`ORWObW]\
the direction of airflow
a]cbVSOab along your route?
air flows inward and is deflected to the b`ORSeW\Ra
eSabS`ZWSa
and winds.
left or the right by the Coriolis effect. (pp. 350–351) Test Practice A is the
This effect means that in the Northern movement of cooler air from the
Hemisphere, the winds in a cyclone ocean to the warmer land.
blow inward and counterclockwise. Make a A sea breeze
Study Guide B westerly wind
Because they are low-pressure Make a three-tab book C trade wind
systems, cyclones often bring (see pp. 487–490). Use D land breeze
thunderstorms, tornadoes, and other the titles shown. On
Test Practice What is the force that
stormy weather. Under the right the inside of each tab,
air molecules exert on the objects
conditions, cyclones can turn into make inferences about
beneath them?
how each relates to
hurricanes. The powerful winds and A the Coriolis effect
Earth’s weather.
heavy rains that accompany hurricanes B the dew point
can cause great destruction. An C air pressure
anticyclone is an area of high pressure D low pressure
that usually brings fair weather.
Writing Link Social Studies Link
Quick Check Write a School Newspaper Article Compare Weather Around the World
Write a newspaper article about climbing Study the weather in one country in the
Make Inferences In which
a mountain. Include descriptions of how Northern Hemisphere and one in the
direction would the winds climbers deal with the effects of changes Southern Hemisphere, both at about the
in an anticyclone flow? in air pressure and altitude. same distance from the equator. What
Critical Thinking How does similarities and differences are there?
an eddy form?
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 353
EVALUATE
Analyze Data Apply It
Scientists study weather maps
and analyze data from them. They ▶ Now use data from the chart to create bar graphs, like the ones
look at temperature patterns in started here, to compare the high temperatures or the amount
of precipitation.
order to predict future weather in an
area. They also look for fronts where
cold and warm air meet. Then they
analyze the data to draw conclusions
and explain why things happen.

Learn It
When you analyze data, you use
information that has been gathered to find patterns,
answer questions, or solve problems. It is usually easier to
analyze the data if it has been organized and placed on a chart
or a graph. Then you can see at a glance any patterns and any
extreme changes in the data.

Try It
▶ Look at the map. It shows high and low temperatures for six
cities for one day in July. Then look at the chart. It lists the
average high and low temperatures and the rainfall for these
U.S. cities during July in past years. Analyze data from the
map and the chart to help you answer the questions.

Average July Temperatures and Precipitation by City

New York Miami Chicago Phoenix Dallas Bakersfield

High
80.8°F 88.5°F 84.4°F 109.0°F 95.2°F 98.4°F
temperature
Low
65.7°F 74.1°F 65.7°F 75.9°F 72.0°F 69.4°F
temperature

Precipitation 3.3 in. 8.1 in. 4.0 in. 0.6 in. 2.4 in. 0.0 in.

▶ How did the high and low temperatures for Bakersfield shown
on the map, differ from its average high and low temperatures?
▶ Finally, look at a weather map from your local newspaper.
▶ Which city had high and low temperatures closest to its
average high and low temperatures? Compile data from the map to make two bar graphs. Include
temperatures and precipitation for cities in California. Analyze
▶ Which city had temperatures cooler than its average high and data in your graph to predict what the weather may be in your
low temperatures? area tomorrow. Share your findings with your classmates.

6 IE 7.c. Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop qualitative statements about
the relationships between variables. • 6 IE 7.f. Read a topographic map and a geologic
354 355
map for evidence provided on the maps and construct and interpret a simple scale map.
EXTEND EXTEND
Lesson 2
How does the steepness of Materials

a slope affect stream erosion?

Weathering, Form a Hypothesis
A stream causes erosion by carrying sediment
and other materials away. Do you think a stream
in a steep streambed will cause more erosion
Erosion, and than a stream in a level streambed? Write your
answer as a hypothesis in the form “If a streambed
is steeper, then . . .” • dishpan or
plastic bin
Test Your Hypothesis
Deposition • mixture of sand,
Make a Model Fill the dishpan or bin with the gravel, and
mixture of sand, gravel, and pebbles to model pebbles
a streambed. • small watering can
Use the watering can to pour a thin stream • books or wood
of water down the middle of the model. blocks
What happens?
• toothpicks
Smooth out the streambed, and use a book or
wood block to prop up the dishpan or bin and Step
make the streambed slightly steeper. Pour water
down the middle of the model. What happens
now? Stick about two dozen toothpicks into
the slope to represent trees. Pour water again.
Do the trees make a difference?

Flowing water can be a beautiful and powerful force. It
can move soil, cut through rock, and change the shape of
the land. How does flowing water change the landscape?
What other forces shape the land?
Draw Conclusions
Analyze Make a chart to organize your data.
Did your observations support your hypothesis?
Infer What do you think would happen if there
were many plants or trees along a stream’s banks?
Explore More
What would happen if you used two books or wood
blocks to make the streambed steeper? Form a hypothesis
and test it. Then analyze and present your results.
6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.h. Identify changes in
natural phenomena over time without manipulating the phenomena
(e.g., a tree limb, a grove of trees, a stream, a hillslope).

6 ES 2.a. Students know water running downhill is the dominant

356 process in shaping the landscape, including California’s landscape. 357
ENGAGE EXPLORE
 Types of Weathering
What is weathering? When a concrete sidewalk is first
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 2.a
Earth’s surface is constantly changing. poured, it looks smooth and fresh.
One way that Earth’s surface is transformed Over time the sidewalk starts to chip,
Water, wind, and glaciers
are forces that wear down or broken down is through weathering. crack, and become rough. If a tree
Earth’s surface and deposit Weathering is the gradual breakdown of is growing nearby, the sidewalk may
soil and rocks in new rock into smaller pieces by natural processes begin to lift as the tree’s roots grow
locations. such as precipitation, wind, plant growth, underneath it. The same natural
and temperature change. processes that slowly break apart a
▶ Vocabulary
sidewalk also act to break apart rock.
weathering, p. 358
physical weathering, p. 359 Rock can undergo two kinds
abrasion, p. 359 of weathering: physical and
▼ Weathering can eventually create chemical. Physical weathering breaks
chemical weathering, p. 359
a dome, such as Half Dome in rock apart into smaller and smaller
erosion, p. 360
Yosemite National Park.
deposition, p. 360 pieces that retain the characteristics of
sand dune, p. 361 the original rock. Physical weathering is
sediment, p. 361 also known as mechanical weathering. ▲ Tree roots can penetrate cracks in rock.
landslide, p. 362 One way that physical weathering In time the rock may break apart.
glacier , p. 364 happens is through the freezing and
thawing of water. When water freezes, rock. Chemical weathering happens
-Glossary it expands. Water works its way into when minerals in rock interact with
@ www.macmillanmh.com cracks in rock. On a cold day, the water chemicals found in water and air. These
freezes and expands, pushing the rock chemicals cause rocks and minerals to
▶ Reading Skill apart and making it crack and break. break down. For example, the acids in
Cause and Effect After many freeze-thaw cycles, the rock rain eat away limestone. Both physical
1OcaS3TTSQb is broken into pieces. Root pressure weathering and chemical weathering
from plants can also crack rocks. tend to round off corners, smoothing
Another kind of physical weathering away a rock’s sharp edges.
takes place when tiny rock fragments Most landscapes are a product
carried by wind and water wear down of both types of weathering. A cliff
landforms through a process called may break apart as a result of physical
abrasion. Abrasion occurs when sand, weathering at the same time as it
stones, and pebbles move and scrape is altered by chemical weathering.
across Earth’s surface, acting like
sandpaper to pit and polish the surface. Quick Check
A different type of weathering is
Cause and Effect How does
chemical weathering. Unlike physical
physical weathering change rock?
weathering, chemical weathering
changes the composition of the rock. Critical Thinking Compare
The new minerals have properties chemical weathering to physical
different from those of the original weathering.
358 359
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
How is Earth’s surface Weathered rock may also be
carried away by blowing wind. This
reshaped? is especially true in the desert, where
Through the process of weathering, rock is there is little vegetation to hold down Layers of Sediment
broken into smaller pieces. These pieces are then the sand particles and prevent wind Make a Model You can use
carried away by wind and water to be deposited in erosion. The wind blows the smallest a sediment jar to model how
new places, so Earth’s surface is reshaped. Erosion particles of sand across the surface of sediment is deposited in layers.
the desert and deposits them, forming Pour 1 cup of water into
is the wearing away of Earth’s surface by the
a widemouthed jar. Put another
breakdown and transportation of rock and soil. mounds called sand dunes . The wind
cup of water into another jar along
Water, wind, gravity, and ice loosen and carry can pile sand into dunes hundreds of with 21 cup each
away bits of rock. Deposition is the process by meters high. Away from the desert, of flour, dry rice,
which the eroded soil and rock are put down in erosion is usually slowed by the and dry red
new places, reshaping the landscape. presence of plants and trees. The roots beans. Close the
that have grown into the ground help lid of the second
Water is the primary agent in shaping the jar, and shake
hold soil particles in place. However,
landscape in both California and the rest of the the mixture
large, open spaces such as barren
world. After falling on the land as precipitation, you made.
farmland are exposed to erosion by
water flows downhill because of the pull of Observe Pour the mixture into the
wind and water.
gravity. The flowing water erodes the landscape water in the first jar. Record what
by washing away sand and soil, moving boulders, Weathered rock carried away by the you see. You may wish to draw a
and cutting through rock. It then deposits these wind is eventually deposited. Most of diagram. Continue recording what
▲ a waterfall in Yellowstone the rock particles, called sediment , you see every 20 minutes for
materials in new places. One of the most important
National Park are deposited in river flood plains, 1 hour and again in 24 hours.
causes of change to Earth’s surface is the flowing
water in streams and rivers. Over millions of years, desert basins, swamps, dunes, and Infer How does particle size
oceans. Over a long period of time, affect the order in which particles
these moving waters can carve canyons through
settle? Why?
solid rock. layers of sediment may build up and
be pressed together by the layers
above them. With heat and time, the
Shaping Earth’s Surface sediment eventually changes back
into rock again.

Quick Check
Cause and Effect What
else can erode the landscape
the way wind and water do?
Critical Thinking Explain
Reading Photos how the landscape is
changed through deposition.
What is the primary force that
shaped the surface of Death Valley?
▶ Red Rock Canyon State Park,
Clue: Look at the patterns formed
in the sand. near the northwestern edge of
the Mojave Desert, is famous for
the colors of its rock formations.
360 361
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 Landslide
Factors in Landslides
Gravity is the main force in
landslides, but other factors play
roles as well. One of these factors
is water. Water seeps into sediment,
filling spaces. The water allows
sand and rock particles to slide
by one another so that they can
move downhill. Water also makes
soil heavier. The added weight of
water alone can be enough to cause
sediment to slide down a slope. This
Reading Photos explains why landslides in California
often follow heavy rains.
Laguna Beach Why might the house have moved to cause
the damage seen in this photograph? Another factor in landslides is
Clue: What features in this photo suggest slopes that are extremely steep. As the
movement of land? angle of a slope increases, the slope
What are landslides? becomes too steep to hold rock and
soil. The rocks and soil fall downhill
The rate at which materials erode is affected by the speed until the slope begins to even out and
and force of water or wind. You can see this for yourself if becomes more gradual again.
you turn water from a hose onto sand or dirt. A fast, hard
stream of water will carry away much more soil than a soft, What causes a slope to become
slow stream of water. too steep? One cause can be a
stream flowing through a valley.
Soil and rock can move downhill without being carried The force of the water can cut away
by water. This type of erosion is also affected by the slope rock and soil until the valley wall
of the land. Earth’s surface is seldom perfectly flat. becomes too steep. Another cause is
It consists of slopes that range from steep cliffs and waves pounding against the base of
mountains to rolling hills and meadows. The slope of a cliff. Earthquakes can also cause
the land affects how fast rock and soil move downhill. slopes to become too steep.
A steep slope erodes more quickly than a gentle slope.
Very loud noises can also trigger
At one extreme, erosion can be so slow that it is barely landslides. Such loud noises include
noticeable. At the other extreme is the rapid, downslope vibrations from traffic or machinery,
movement of a mass of rock, soil, and debris known as blasting, and even thunder.
a landslide . Landslides can be very dangerous, because they
happen so suddenly and often involve large amounts of soil Quick Check
and rock. Each year, landslides in the United States cause
Cause and Effect What causes ▲ Gravity and a steep slope
25 to 50 deaths and more than $1.5 billion in losses. caused this landslide near
landslides?
La Conchita, California.
Critical Thinking Describe why
landslides are so destructive.
362 363
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
How do glaciers reshape
Earth’s surface?
Did you know that almost 10% of
Earth’s surface is covered with ice?
Most of the ice is in glaciers , large
masses of moving ice that form over
hundreds or thousands of years. In
fact, glaciers hold most of Earth’s fresh
water. Although a glacier moves very
slowly, it can erode the land just as
liquid water and wind do. One way to
think of a glacier is as a slow-moving
river of ice.
Many small glaciers are found in
high, mountainous areas, where they
usually follow valleys that were carved
out by streams. Unlike a stream, a
glacier typically moves very slowly,
perhaps only a few centimeters per day.
As a glacier advances, the entire ice
mass slips along the ground, dragging
loose rocks and soil along with it. The
rocks and pebbles act like sandpaper,
eroding the land beneath and depositing
it downslope to reshape Earth’s surface.
Other glaciers exist as huge sheets of
ice. These enormous glaciers flow out in
all directions from one or more centers.
Earth today has only two ice sheets,
although during past ice ages, much of
the land’s surface was covered by ice.
As a glacier flows, the ice scrapes
and tears rocks and soil from the
surface of Earth. A glacier can carry
huge boulders many kilometers,
until the ice melts and the rocks are
deposited. In mountainous areas,
erosion by valley glaciers often carves
bowl-shaped valleys, sharp ridges, and
other beautiful features.
364
EXPLAIN
Alaskan glacier
Because glaciers pick up and
transport huge amounts of debris,
they also change the landscape
through deposition. In areas of North
America that were once covered by ice
sheets, glaciers have deposited layers
of soil and rock that are tens or even
hundreds of meters thick, creating
small hills and flat fields. The rocky
pastures of New England, the rolling
farmlands of the Midwest, and the
wide fields of the Dakotas were all
created by glacial deposits.
Quick Check
Cause and Effect How have
glaciers shaped Earth?
Critical Thinking Explain how a
glacier reshapes Earth differently
from the way a stream does.
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea What is the dominant
Weathering is the
process that shapes Earth’s landscapes?
gradual breakdown
of rock into smaller Vocabulary A large mass of moving
pieces. ice is a .
(pp. 358–359)
Cause and Effect What part does
gravity play in landslides?
Erosion and deposition
reshape Earth’s surface. 1OcaS3TTSQb
(pp. 360–361)
A landslide is the rapid,
Critical Thinking Why do heavy rains
downslope movement
often trigger landslides?
of rock, soil, and debris.
(pp. 362–363) Test Practice Which of the following
processes scrapes Earth’s surface,
acting like sandpaper to pit and
polish it?
Make a A induction
B deposition
Study Guide
C abrasion
Make a three-tab folded book (see pp. D subduction
487–490). Use the titles shown. On the
inside of each tab, list the causes of Test Practice What is the term for the
each event and rapid, downslope movement of a
mass of rock, soil, and debris?
the effects of
each event on A deposition
B sand dune
Earth’s surface.
C sediment
D landslide
Writing Link Math Link
Research Reporting Calculate Sediment
Research a landslide that has occurred A landslide displaces 5.5 tons of
in California. If possible, read first- sediment down the side of a mountain.
person accounts of the event. Write an How many pounds of sediment is this?
article explaining what people did to (1 ton = 2,000 pounds)
clean up after the landslide.
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 365
EVALUATE
 Beaches in California are eroding. They are losing sand
and becoming narrower. However, before my grandparents’
home crashed into the sea, I thought that erosion had no
real effect on my life.
After many years of working hard and saving their ▲ Stilts elevate these houses above
money, my grandparents bought their dream house on the the surf and shifting sand.
beach. I used to love to visit them there. Their house stood Write About It
high up on stilts for protection from the water. I would sit in Narrative Writing Tell a personal story
about the effects of beach erosion and
the front room facing the ocean and listen to the rhythm of protecting beaches. Use descriptive details,
the pounding waves. The sights and sounds were thrilling. and retell events in a logical order. Use the
One afternoon, my family received a devastating phone first-person point of view, and use dialogue,
call. My grandparents’ house had collapsed. Over time, if appropriate. Using print and online A good personal
the rolling waves had pulled sand back into the ocean. research, include information about why narrative
The seawater had slowly weakened the stilts on which the beaches are important.
▶ tells a story from
house stood. personal experience.
Now my grandparents’ dream is just a memory. Yet the -Journal Write about it online
warning remains: the sea can be a mighty foe. It can erode @ www.macmillanmh.com ▶ uses descriptive
the beach. It can also destroy homes—and dreams. language.
▶ has an interesting
beginning, a middle,
and an end.

▶ shares events in
a sequence that
makes sense.

ELA W 6.2.1. Write narratives: a. Establish and develop a plot and setting
and present a point of view that is appropriate to the stories. b. Include
sensory details and concrete language to develop plot and character.
366 c. Use a range of narrative devices (e.g., dialogue, suspense). 367
EXTEND EXTEND
Lesson 3
How can you map a watershed? Materials

Purpose
Rivers and What information will you need to map a watershed?
Write your answer in the form “If I want to map my
area’s watershed, then I will need . . .”

Procedure
• topographic map
Streams Choose a site to map: a stream, pond, or other
small body of water. Place the plastic sheet
of your area
• road map of your
over the topographic map, and tack both to the
area
cardboard. Mark your site on the topographic
map, using the road map to help you. • clear sheet of
plastic (acetate) as
Mark the bodies of water near your site on the large as the map
topographic map. Use the map’s contour lines to
• piece of cardboard
find the highest and lowest points around your
the same size as
site. Mark each hilltop with an x.
the map
Use x’s to label the directions in which the local
• thumbtacks
ditches and streams flow. On your map find the
highest ground between two bodies of water. • dry-erase markers
Draw a line to connect the highest points (the • tissues
x’s) around your site, including its mouth—the
place where it drains into another body of water. Step

Draw Conclusions
Analyze What can you tell about how water
flows in the watershed? Use the topographic
map to explain.

A fast-flowing river has the power to wear down Explore More

a mountain or cut through a cliff. A slow-flowing
river may flow in gentle curves across a plain. What
affects the flow of rivers and streams? How does
flowing water change Earth’s surface?
How could this watershed map be used to serve your
community? What information does it provide? Make
a prediction and test it. Then analyze and present your
results.

6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether evidence is consistent with a

proposed explanation. • 6 IE 7.f. Read a topographic map
and a geologic map for evidence provided on the maps and
construct and interpret a simple scale map.

6 ES 2.b. Students know rivers and streams are dynamic

systems that erode, transport sediment, change course,
368 and flood their banks in natural and recurring patterns. 369
ENGAGE EXPLORE
 TZ]]R^ZOW\
Flood Plain
What affects how a river
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 2.b or stream flows?
Rivers and streams change If you live near a river or a stream, you may
Earth’s surface through have noticed that on some days, the water flows
weathering, erosion, and fast and high. On other days, the water flows
deposition of rocks and
soil.
more slowly and may be reduced to just a trickle
or a narrow stream.
▶ Vocabulary Rainfall can affect the speed of flowing water.
bank, p. 371 When rain falls, water falls both on the land
flood plain, p. 371 and into rivers and streams. Some of the water [SO\RS`W\Uab`SO[
meander, p. 373 that falls on the land seeps into the soil, but if
watershed, p. 374 the rain is heavy, much of the water flows over ▲ Because of sediments deposited by rivers
arroyo, p. 374 the land surface into nearby rivers and streams. and streams, a flood plain usually has rich
oxbow lake, p. 375 Adding more water to a body of moving water soil that can produce good crops.
delta, p. 376
Flowing Water
increases the moving water’s energy. Because
alluvial deposit, p. 376 rivers and streams normally flow downhill, the A bank is the rising ground that and scraping, or abrasion, is greater
water in them is already moving quickly. As borders a river or stream. When a in a fast-moving river than in a slow-
-Glossary more water enters a river or a stream, its water river overflows its banks, it covers moving one.
@ www.macmillanmh.com
level rises, and its speed increases. its flood plain , the flat area of land What can cause a river or stream
on both sides of the river. A flood plain to slow down? An obstacle, such as a
▶ Reading Skill forms from layers of sediment—silt, large rock or a tree trunk, might block
Make Inferences ▼ After a heavy rain, the amount of water in a river sand, and gravel—left behind each
increases, so the river flows at a greater speed.
the flow of water. A steep river might
EVObG]c
time the river overflows its banks. flow onto a flat plain. The river or the
1ZcSa 9\]e 7\TS`S\QSa
Because this sediment is rich in stream might flow into a large body of
nutrients, it makes good farmland. standing water, such as a pond, a lake,
Flowing water is a powerful force or an ocean. Whenever the water slows
that changes the shape of Earth’s down, it drops some of the particles
surface. The faster the water moves, it has been carrying. These particles,
the bigger and denser the particles of or sediment, are deposited and form
rock the water can carry as it flows mounds or layers on the riverbed or the
downhill. Most large particles roll, floor of a pond, a lake, or an ocean.
slide, or bounce along the bottom of a
river or stream. Smaller particles swirl Quick Check
in the water or are dissolved in it.
Make Inferences What happens
The bits and pieces carried by
when heavy rains increase the
moving water act like tiny drills. They
volume of water in a river?
slam into rocks and chip away at
them. They erode the banks, and they Critical Thinking How does the
carve out or cut into the riverbed, or speed of water flowing in a river
bottom of the river. This scratching or a stream affect the landscape?
370 371
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
What are the stages of
stream development?
Over time streams can carve out
deep, V-shaped channels that have
steep sides. However, streams come in
a variety of forms. Some are narrow
and swift-moving, while others are
wide and slow-moving. Some streams
have so much water added to them
that they become rivers. Some streams
also empty into rivers. Streams differ
because they are in different stages of
development. A stream’s stage depends
on the slope of the ground over which
it flows. No two streams are exactly
alike, but as they flow from higher
ground to lower ground, all go through
three main stages: young (upper), mature
(middle), and old (lower).
A young stream moves swiftly down
steep slopes. While young it may have
white-water rapids and waterfalls. On
nearly level ground, the stream matures
and flows smoothly through its valley.
Most of the rocks in the bed of the
stream are eroded by flowing water
and the sediment it carries. Streams
in the mature stage develop broad
curves called meanders (mee•AN•durz).
The flat valley floor formed by a
meandering stream or river is the flood
plain. When a stream or river floods, it
covers all or part of the flood plain.
The third stage in the development
of a stream is the old stage. An old
stream flows slowly through a broad,
flat flood plain. Near its mouth the
stream or river begins to deposit its load
of sediment. This forms a delta, an area
of flat, fertile land that extends into the
ocean or other large body of water.
Quick Check
Make Inferences Why would most
white-water rafting take place on
young rivers?
Critical Thinking What are the
characteristics of an old-stage or
lower river?

The Typical
A Life of aRiver
Stream

A river usually has more 4 As the river reaches

water than a stream.
However, scientists consider
all rivers to be streams, and
they believe that all streams
go through similar stages of
development.
1 The source of a river or
a stream often occurs in
a mountainous area. Here
the force of gravity causes
water to flow quickly. Some
streams flow from springs,
lakes, or the ends of
glaciers.
2 The fast-flowing stream
can carry many sediments
and often carves out V-
shaped valleys. Fast-moving
streams are often used for
rafting.
3 Smaller streams add
water, increasing the size
of the stream and often
forming a young river.
372
EXPLAIN
▼ A slow, meandering river may flow
flatter land, it slows down.
at a rate of less than 1 kilometer
1 As it slows it deposits some
(0.6 miles) per hour.
of the sediments it carried.
5 The slow-moving river
flows across flat land,
forming large curves called
meanders. Water flows
faster along the outside
2
of a meander, eroding or
wearing away the bank.
3 6 When a river empties
into a larger body of water
such as an ocean or a bay,
6
5
it deposits the remaining
sediments it has carried.
These deposits can form
4
a delta that extends from
the river’s mouth.
Reading Diagrams
Describe how water flows from a river’s
source to its mouth.
Clue: Follow the course of the river, from
its source to its mouth, in the diagram.
▲ Young streams flow swiftly Watch the life of
down steep slopes. a stream @ www.macmillanmh.com 373
EXPLAIN
How does flowing water
affect a watershed?
As rain and melting snow run
downhill, they carry water and
sediment that eventually end up in a
river, a marsh, a lake, or an ocean.
A watershed is the area from which
water is drained, or the region that
contributes water to a river or a river
system. Each stream, pond, or lake
has its own watershed. A watershed
for a stream may be as small as only
a few acres in area.
Just as creeks drain into rivers,
each smaller watershed drains into a
larger watershed, so that a major river
may have a watershed with an area of
thousands or even millions of square
miles. For example, California’s Santa
Ana River watershed has an area of
374
EXPLAIN
more than 5,250 square kilometers
(2,800 square miles). This area
includes much of Orange County,
part of Riverside County, part of San
Bernardino County, and a small part
of Los Angeles County.
In a watershed the flow of water
and the resulting erosion and deposition
vary with the seasons. For example, in
the spring melting snows and spring
rains often carry huge amounts of
water and sediment away to streams
and rivers. Then the streams and rivers
may overflow their banks and flood
the surrounding areas, depositing
sediment on their flood plains.
In many places less rain falls in the
dry months of summer, so the watersheds
have less water. The rivers slow and
become more shallow, depositing their
sediment along their banks or at their
mouths. This condition may change if
a large thunderstorm or a hurricane
passes through. Heavy rainfalls can
result in a greater amount of
weathering, erosion, and deposition in
a short period of time. Year after year
these natural and recurring patterns
reshape the landscape.
Erosion caused by heavy rains
and flooding can carve a deep, V-
shaped valley known as an arroyo
(uh•ROY•oh) . An arroyo is a small,
water-carved channel with steep banks
that is located in a dry area. Arroyos
are dry most of the time because of
infrequent rainfall, but they fill with
water either seasonally or after a single
◀ A watershed includes all the land
drained by a river and its tributaries.
heavy rainstorm. They run through
deserts or other dry regions. For
example, the Arroyo Seco runs from
the San Gabriel Mountains to the Los Changing the Land
Angeles River and passes through the
cities of Pasadena and Los Angeles.
Sometimes flooding causes
riverbanks to collapse. A stream
may change its course, altering the
landscape. Floods, and the resulting
changes, often take place year after
year in naturally recurring patterns.
In this way, the shape of the land and
the bodies of water in a watershed
change over time.
Quick Check
Make Inferences What causes
changes in the land and streams
of a watershed?
Critical Thinking Why does the
speed of a flowing river determine
how much sediment it can carry?
An Oxbow Lake
The meanders change The narrow neck of land
position over time by between the two banks is
eroding sideways and slightly finally cut through and a
downstream, slowly moving cut-off is formed.
down the river valley.
Make a Model Model a river by
placing soil or sand in a long
plastic box. Make the soil or sand
at one end higher than the other.
Use pebbles to build up higher
areas. At the other end of the box,
make a large depression in the soil
to model an ocean.
Using a hose or a watering can,
pour a thin stream of water onto
the “mountain.”
Observe What happens as the
water flows down from higher
areas to lower
areas? What
happens at the
river’s mouth
when the river
reaches the
“ocean”? Report
your findings.
An oxbow lake is a portion
of a stream channel that is
cut off from the rest of the
stream by erosion.
375
EXPLAIN
What are the
characteristics of
a river’s mouth?
Eventually, all rivers flow into a
larger body of water, such as a lake or
an ocean. As a river enters a lake or
an ocean, its speed slows abruptly. The
river deposits the rest of its sediment
at its mouth. The triangular-shaped
deposit of soil particles that forms
where the stream enters the larger
body of water is called a delta .
A delta forms as sediment at the
river’s mouth builds up, blocking the
river’s channel. The channel shifts its
course to pass on either side of this
blockage, creating one or more new
channels. After a time, these channels
become blocked, and the channels
shift again. Over time, the deposits
often take on a shape that looks like
the Greek letter delta (Δ), for which
the delta is named.
Formation of a Delta
376
EXPLAIN
Sometimes a stream enters a plain
or a flat valley. The sediment it drops
at its mouth takes on a fan shape
similar to a delta. The fan-shaped land
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea How do rivers and streams
deposits at the mouth of a stream are The faster that rivers
known as alluvial deposits. change Earth’s surface?
and streams flow, the
more they can reshape Vocabulary When erosion cuts
When a river flows into an ocean,
Earth’s surface. a meander off from a river, a(n)
an estuary may develop. In an estuary, (pp. 370–371) is formed.
a freshwater river meets the saltwater
ocean, creating an important habitat Make Inferences Why do rivers slow
A stream’s stage down as they flow onto plains?
that contains a mixture of fresh water depends on the slope
and salt water. Morro Bay and the San of the ground over 1ZcSa EVObG]c 7\TS`S\QSa
9\]e
Francisco Estuary are two examples which it flows.
of estuaries in California. (pp. 372–373)
Quick Check A watershed is the
region that contributes
Critical Thinking How could rain
Make Inferences Explain what cause a river downstream in the same
water to a river or a
the habitat in an estuary might watershed to overflow its banks?
river system.
be like. (pp. 374–377) Test Practice Which of the following
is most affected by rainfall?
Critical Thinking How might A an arroyo
alluvial deposits be useful to Make a B an oxbow lake
people? Study Guide C a delta
D a meander
Make a three-tab folded book
(see pp. 487–490). Use the titles Test Practice What is the fan-shaped
shown. On the land deposit at the mouth of a river?
inside of each A deltas
tab, write two B flood plains
sentences that C oxbow lakes
make inferences D alluvial deposits
about each topic.
Writing Link Math Link
River Journey Rafting Trip
Research a California river. Describe A family plans to raft 120 miles of the
the place where it starts and the land Lower Klamath River over 2 days. If the
Reading Photos it flows through. Where does the river raft travels at 8 miles per hour, how
end? How does the river affect the many hours should the family travel
Describe how a delta is formed communities it flows through? each day?
over time.
Clue What happens to the
sediment near the river’s mouth? -Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 377
EVALUATE

The Changing Salton Sea
The Salton Sea is California’s
largest lake. This saltwater inland
sea is home to an amazing variety
of wildlife: birds such as herons and
wood storks, millions of fish, and at
least five endangered species. More
than 1 million birds stop at the lake
as they migrate to and from other
areas. The Salton Sea has one of the
most diverse groups of wildlife to be
found in and around a lake in the
United States.
Make Inferences
▶ Review the facts
and details.
▶ Think about how ▲ desert pupfish
the ideas relate to
each other and to
other topics.
378
EXTEND
What created this incredibly
vibrant habitat? Over 100 years ago,
this area was a basin, a sink-shaped
piece of land. In 1901 a system of
irrigation channels was built to bring
water from the Colorado River to
crops in California. A few years later,
the water burst through and began
flooding communities, farms, and
the main line of the Southern Pacific
Railroad. Using boulders to form
levees where the river had broken
Science, Technology, and Society
through, people finally stopped the
flow of the river over a year later.
The area that had been a place where
people lived and worked was now a
lake. It soon became home to birds
and fish.
The Salton Sea lies below sea
level. Since the lake was formed,
water has continued to flow into it.
Over the years it has become more
salty, because the water evaporates
◀ great blue heron
ELA R 6.2.7. Make reasonable assertions
about a text through accurate, supporting
citations.
faster than it is replenished. This
concentrates the salt in the lake. The
lake is now more like an inland sea
(which is why it is called the Salton
Sea), and it grows saltier every year.
Soon the salt levels could be too high
for fish to survive. Birds that live
off of those fish would have to find
another food source. Life in the area
would change forever.
Without intervention the Salton
Sea will disappear and become a
dry basin again. Environmental
groups are working to stop this
from happening—to reduce the salt
level in the water and protect the
wildlife.
Write About It
Make Inferences
1. Why did people build levees
when the Colorado River
burst through the irrigation
channels?
2. How do environmental groups
view the diversity of life in and
around the Salton Sea?
-Journal Write about it online
@ www.macmillanmh.com
379
EXTEND
Lesson 4
What is sand? Materials

Make a Prediction
Beaches and Do you think that all beaches have the same kind of
sand? Write your answer as a prediction in the form
“If you look at sand samples from different beaches,
then you will see . . .”
Wave Erosion Test Your Prediction
Observe Use a hand lens to examine grains of • samples of sand
Laguna Beach, California sand from several beaches. Describe the grains from different
in each sample. Make a chart to organize your beaches
observations. • hand lens
Classify Compare the properties of the • samples or
different grains of sand to the properties of photos of
the mineral samples provided by your teacher. common minerals
Group the sand samples whose grains are made (quartz, feldspar,
of the same minerals. magnetite)

Use Numbers Choose one sand sample. Estimate • shell fragments

the percent of each type of particle in the sample. • petri dish
Display your results in a circle graph. What is the
most common type of particle in the sample? Step

Draw Conclusions
Analyze How would you explain what you
observed? Compare the grains of sand within
one sample. Are they all the same size? The same
shape? What might cause them to be different?

Explore More
Some beaches in Hawaii have black sand. There are
beaches in the Bahamas where the sand is pink. What
might you see through a hand lens if you looked at
Beaches are great places for playing and relaxing. samples of these types of sand? Why do you think
Walking in the sand can be fun. Where does beach sand has different colors in different places?
sand come from? Why is it at the beach?
6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including calculators, computers,
balances, spring scales, microscopes, and binoculars) to perform tests, collect data, and
display data. • 6 IE 7.c. Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop qualitative
statements about the relationships between variables. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps
and results from an investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

6 ES 2.c. Students know beaches are dynamic systems in which the sand
380 is supplied by rivers and moved along the coast by the action of waves. 381
ENGAGE EXPLORE

▶ Main Idea 6.ES 2.c
Beaches change over time
as waves cause erosion
and carry sand along the
shoreline.
▶ Vocabulary
beach erosion, p. 382
marine terrace, p. 383
beach drift, p. 383
breaker, p. 383
sandbar, p. 385
feldspar, p. 386
quartz, p. 386
magnetite, p. 386
-Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com
Beach Drift
How do waves change
the shoreline?
Ocean waves continually roll in to shore
and then back out to sea. The power of the RW`SQbW]\]TR`WTb
pounding waves changes the shape of the
^ObV]T
coast. Beach erosion is the process by which aO\R^O`bWQZSa
waves pick up sand particles and move them
along the shore. Through this process the Qc``S\b
waves smooth out the shoreline or carve out
bays and cliffs.
Many rocks break down slowly in seawater.
The water contains carbon dioxide from the
air, which makes the water slightly acidic. The Reading Diagrams
carbon dioxide helps dissolve the salt in the
rocks. The particles that do not dissolve are How do currents affect
carried away by the waves. a shoreline?
Clue: Follow the paths of
the arrows on the diagram.

▶ Reading Skill Shorelines

Cause and Effect
If the conditions are right, beach
1OcaS3TTSQb erosion can create marine terraces.
A marine terrace is a flat step of rock
formed in an exposed, windy area
where the waves pound hard against
the shore. Over time, the waves cut
out, or erode, a steep cliff. They smooth
the seafloor at the cliff’s base and form
a flat step. As the ocean level rises and
falls over time, or as the land rises up,
a series of marine terraces may be
carved out. Marine terraces are
common along the Pacific Coast.
In many places, sand, pebbles,
and shells build up to form a beach.
Beach drift , the pulling of sand
beach erosion, California
particles sideways along a beach, may
occur. As shown in the diagram on
this page, waves tend to hit the shore
at an angle. Breakers , waves that
382
EXPLAIN
break into foam against the shore,
wash back into the ocean at another
angle. This creates a zigzag movement
of sand down the beach. Beach drift
can move sand and pebbles hundreds
of meters every day.
The movement of sediment along
the shore depends on the currents, the
size of the sand grains, and the pattern
of breaking waves. The amount of
sediment moved can be very large.
Quick Check
Cause and Effect Does high tide
or low tide move more sand? Why?
Critical Thinking Will larger or
smaller sand particles settle at the
bottom of the ocean? Why?
383
EXPLAIN
 Types of Sand
Hawaii
Reading Photos
Can location affect the kind of sand on a beach?
Clue: Look at the sand colors in the photos.
What is sand?
Sand is created a few grains at a
time, whittled away from rocks or
other materials. On continents, such
as North America, most of the sand
on ocean beaches comes from the
land. Rivers carry eroded particles of
rock long distances. When the river
reaches the ocean, it deposits some
of the sediment at the river’s mouth.
Beach drift and ocean currents carry
the small particles into the ocean and
along the coast. Without the sediment
that erodes from land, most beaches
would be nearly sandless.
Most sand is weathered rock, made
of the same material as the rock it
comes from. The composition of beach
sand can tell you its origin. On the
beaches of continents such as North
America, sand grains vary in color,
because they are formed from various
types of rocks. This mix of colors
makes the sand appear beige or brown.
384
EXPLAIN
Sandbars
British West Indies Sometimes sand flowing into the
ocean can build up and create different How Waves Affect Beaches
land formations, such as sandbars.
You can make a model of how
A sandbar is a formation that
waves affect a beach. Cover the
occurs where waves deposit sand and bottom of a paint-roller pan with
cause shallow water to be collected. 4 cups of sand. Build a small
Sandbars form away from shore and “beach” at the pan’s shallow end.
can range in width from a few meters Pour 8.5 cups of water into the
to hundreds of kilometers. Sandbars deep end of the pan. Note the
more than 100 meters (328 feet) wide appearance of the sand and water.
are called barrier islands. Observe Hold a pencil sideways
in the water at the deep end of
Quick Check the pan. Use the pencil to make
waves. What happens when the
Cause and Effect How might waves hit the sand?
sandbars affect organisms in
How do the height and frequency
the ocean? of waves affect the beach?
Critical Thinking What gives Experiment with using the pencil
If most of the sand on a beach is to make different kinds of waves,
the sand closest to your home
and observe the results.
black or dark colored, it is probably its color?
from volcanic rock. For this reason
volcanic islands often have black-sand
beaches. You can find black-sand
beaches in Hawaii. Some volcanic
islands have green-sand beaches,
which get their color from olivine,
a substance found in igneous rock.
On many tropical beaches, such as
those in the Caribbean Sea, the sand
is typically a fine, bright white. The
sands of many tropical beaches, far
from the rivers of the continents, do not
contain many rock particles. Instead
the sand is formed from the remains of
marine creatures, especially their shells
and skeletons. Caribbean islands also
have some pink beaches. These beaches
have sand that comes from the remains ◀ This sailboat struck
of tiny red-shelled organisms called a sandbar near
foraminifera. When this red sand mixes Oxnard, California.
with white sand, the sand appears pink.
385
EXPLAIN
How can you identify the
weathered parts of sand?
Geologists define sand as “any
particle between 0.00625 millimeters
(0.000246 inches) and 2 millimeters
(0.0787 inches).” A geologist may be
able to tell where sand on a beach
came from by studying the particles in
it. The sand on beaches can be divided
into two types: silicate sand and
carbonate sand. Some beaches contain
a mixture of both kinds of sand.
Silicate Sand
Silicate (SIL•i•kuht) sand is from
weathered rocks on land. It contains
sand grains that are pieces of silicate
rock. A silicate is any rock that contains
silicon and oxygen, the two most
abundant elements on Earth. Silicates
are used in construction materials such
as concrete, brick, and glass.
▼ Calcium in underwater springs and
carbonates in lakewater mixed, forming
these tufa towers. They appeared
above water when Mono Lake’s
water level fell.
Two common minerals in silicate
sand are feldspar and quartz. Feldspar
is the name of a group of minerals
that makes up almost 60% of Earth’s
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
crust. Quartz is the second most Main Idea How does beach drift affect
Waves cause beach
a shoreline?
common mineral found in Earth’s crust. erosion and change
the shape of the coast. Vocabulary The pulling of sand
Weathering of silicate minerals also
(pp. 382–383) particles sideways along a beach is
releases nonsilicate minerals such as .
magnetite (MAG•nuh•tight). Magnetite
is a black mineral with magnetic Cause and Effect If a beach contained
Most sand is made of particles from both black lava and
properties. If you wrap a magnet in a the same material as seashells, what color would the sand be?
plastic bag and pass it through sand, the rock it comes from.
you may find tiny pieces of black (pp. 384–385) 1OcaS3TTSQb
magnetite attracted to the magnet.
Some ocean islands are made when
lava cools and forms a rock called The minerals present
in a sample of sand
basalt. This rock weathers to form
indicate where the Critical Thinking How does eroded
dark or even black sand. If the sand sand originated. rock from a mountain become sand?
contains some iron, it may weather to (p. 386)
form a red sand. Test Practice A is a flat step
cut out of a cliff by pounding waves.
A barrier island
Carbonate Sand Make a B marine terrace
Study Guide C breaker
Carbonate sand usually forms
Make a three-tab book D sandbar
from the shells and skeletal remains of
(see pp. 487–490). Use
marine organisms. These remains are Test Practice Which material is found
the titles shown. On the
made mostly of calcium carbonates, in carbonate sand?
inside of each tab, list
which gives them their white color. A feldspar
the causes and effects
B magnetite
Beaches on islands in the middle of the of changes to beaches.
C quartz
ocean, far from the continents, may be D calcium
made up almost entirely of this kind of
white sand. Closer to the continents,
carbonate sand may also form from
eroded limestone, a white rock.

Quick Check Writing Link Math Link

Cause and Effect Why do islands
have mostly carbonate sand?
Critical Thinking Do rivers entering
the ocean have more carbonate
sand or more silicate sand?
Creative Writing
Write a story about a visit to a beach.
What beach are you visiting? What
kind of sand and landforms does that
beach have?
Calculate Beach Drift
A pebble travels 156 kilometers along a
beach in 12 days. What is the average
distance it travels each day?

386 -Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 387

EXPLAIN EVALUATE
 Inquiry Structured Draw Conclusions
Materials Explain What happened to the water flow when you poured
What can change a river? the water on the soil mountain?
Explain What differences did you see among the soil, the
Form a Hypothesis
sand, and the gravel mountains?
Rivers and streams can be found all over the United States. People
have changed rivers and streams to accomplish different tasks, Infer What type of mountains or land would create the
aluminum pan deepest streams and rivers?
such as irrigating fields and powering turbines for electricity. The
flow of water down a stream or river can be influenced by various
factors. Rain and snowfall can increase the flow of water. Drought
Inquiry Guided
and human-made structures can slow or stop the flow of water.
What effect does the makeup of the land have on the formation
of a stream? How does the size of the land particles affect how a
What affects the speed of flowing water?
potting soil
stream forms? Write your answer as a hypothesis in the form “If
the land a stream is forming in is made from soil, sand, or gravel, Form a Hypothesis
then the stream will look like . . .” What can you do to change the speed at which water flows in
a stream? Write your answer as a hypothesis in the form “If a
Be Careful. Wash your hands with soap and water after
streambed is made narrower, then the speed of the water will . . .”
gravel the activity.

Test Your Hypothesis Step Test Your Hypothesis

Use potting soil to make a mound Design an experiment to investigate how changing the stream
at one end of the aluminum pan. path affects the speed of flowing water. Write out the materials
This will represent a mountain. you will need and the steps you will follow. Record your results
sand
and observations.
Use a cup to pour a small amount
of water onto the top of your soil
mountain. Draw and record in Draw Conclusions
your journal what happens to the Did your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not?
Step
cup mountain. What factors contributed most to the speed of water flowing
in a stream?
Observe Repeat steps 1 and
2 with gravel and sand. What
differences did you see among Inquiry Open
the soil, sand, and gravel
mountains? What else can you learn about rivers and streams? Remember to follow the
For example, what effects do dams have on river steps of the scientific process.
Repeat the activity again, using
a mixture of the three materials. speed and flow? Think of a question to investigate,
and design an experiment to answer your question. Ask a Question
Record your results in your
journal. Then carry out your experiment.
Form a Hypothesis

Test Your Hypothesis

Draw Conclusions

388 6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. 389

EXTEND EXTEND
Lesson 5
How do volcanic eruptions Materials

affect habitats?
Make a Prediction
Changing If a volcano erupts, what do you think happens
to the area around it? Write your answer as a
prediction in the form “If a volcano erupts, then . . .”
Habitats Test Your Prediction • photo of Mount
St. Helens before
Observe Study the photos of Mount St. Helens the eruption
before and after the volcanic eruption of 1980. of 1980
What changes to the mountain and its • photo of Mount
vegetation do you see? St. Helens after
Compare How did the upper and lower slopes the eruption
of 1980
of Mount St. Helens change?
• map showing
Draw Conclusions extent of damage

Do you think it would have been necessary to

redraw a topographic map of this area after the Step
volcano erupted? Why or why not?
Analyze How would you explain what you
observed? Did your observations support your
prediction? How does an erupting volcano affect
its surrounding area?

Sometimes the land changes suddenly
because of an earthquake, a volcanic eruption,
a landslide, a flood, or another natural disaster.
What causes natural disasters? How do they
affect people and wildlife?
Explore More
Choose another natural disaster to study, such as
Step
the 1993 flooding of the Mississippi River area or the
2004 tsunami in Asia. Find photos taken before and
after the disaster. Describe any changes you see in
the landforms and the local vegetation. Analyze and
present your results.

6 IE 7.g. Interpret events by sequence and time from

natural phenomena (e.g., the relative ages of rocks and
intrusions). • 6 IE 7.h. Identify changes in natural phenomena
over time without manipulating the phenomena (e.g., a tree
limb, a grove of trees, a stream, a hillslope).

6 ES 2.d. Students know earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,

390 landslides, and floods change human and wildlife habitats. 391
ENGAGE EXPLORE

How do natural disasters
affect habitats?
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 2.d
Natural disasters change If you have ever been caught in a natural
Earth’s surface, affecting disaster or viewed one on television, you know
both human and wildlife that natural disasters can cause sudden and
habitats.
violent changes to Earth’s surface. An earthquake
▶ Vocabulary may open large cracks in the ground. A landslide
tsunami, p. 394 may bury the land in its path under rocks and
levee, p. 397 mud. A river overflowing its banks can flood a
large area with water and sediment. An erupting
volcano can cover an area with hot lava and
-Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com ashes. What happens to the plants, animals,
and people living where these disasters occur?
▶ Reading Skill
Make Inferences Impact on People and Wildlife
1ZcSa EVObG]c 7\TS`S\QSa Natural disasters often cause rapid changes
9\]e
that have long-term effects on habitats. When
a habitat is damaged, the plants, animals, and
people in the area may be harmed and may lose
their homes. For example, Lassen Peak, an active
volcano in California, experienced a series of
eruptions in May 1915. Lava flowed down the
western side of the mountain and
hardened. Heat from the lava melted
most of the snow on the mountain
and started a lahar (LAH•hahr),
a mudflow containing volcanic ash
and rock. The lahar flowed into Hat
Creek and flooded the surrounding
valley. Ranchers in the valley had
to leave their homes and head for
higher ground.
One of the Lassen Peak eruptions
released a giant cloud of ash and steam.
Before 1914, pine trees covered the
northwestern side of the mountain.
The eruption brought flows of hot
gases, ashes, and rock that shattered
and burned the trees and other ▲ Lassen Peak erupted early in
vegetation in their paths. This area the twentieth century. It is still
became known as the Devastated Area. an active volcano.
Today, new trees hide the damage
caused by the volcano’s eruption. an area under tons of rock and soil.
Other natural disasters also affect Floods can cover a region with water
nearby habitats. Landslides can carry and mud, killing plants and animals.
away plants and animals and bury Floodwaters may also wash away
soil. Many of these natural disasters
can cause other violent events. The
eruption of Lassen Peak caused
flooding and lahars. An earthquake
can start fires, trigger landslides,
or cause tsunamis.

Quick Check
Make Inferences How might
a habitat benefit from an
erupting volcano?
Critical Thinking How might
floods affect animal habitats?

◀ devastation caused by the

eruption of Lassen Peak

392 393
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN

How do tsunamis
affect habitats?
One of the most damaging
but fortunately infrequent natural
disasters is a tsunami (tsoo•NAH•mee).
A tsunami is a series of huge waves
caused by an earthquake or volcanic
eruption beneath or near the ocean.
Most tsunamis are started by
earthquakes. The water moves away
from the epicenter of the earthquake
in all directions. The speed of the
tsunami depends on the depth of the
water. In the open ocean, tsunamis
have long wavelengths and low
Effects of a Tsunami
amplitudes. They travel at speeds of
500 to 1,000 kilometers (300 to 600
miles) per hour.
As a tsunami approaches the
shore, it slows down. The length of
each wave decreases, but the height
increases dramatically. The water piles
up, and it is often sucked away from the
coastline. Finally, the tsunami crashes
onto the shore as a giant wall of water.
It can flood up to 2 kilometers (more
than 1 mile) inland, sweeping people,
houses, boats, and even trees into its
wake. Fortunately, most earthquakes
do not cause tsunamis.
Reading Photos

Where do you think the

land was lowest?
How a Tsunami Moves Across the Ocean
Clue: Look at the pattern
of flooding.

The number and frequency of waves
in a tsunami can vary. There may be
just a few waves or dozens, and they
may be from 5 minutes to 1 hour
apart. Usually each wave is smaller
than the previous one, until the water
levels itself out again. However, the
first wave is not always the biggest.
On December 26, 2004, an
earthquake measuring between 9.0
and 9.3 on the Richter scale occurred
in the Indian Ocean. The epicenter
was about 160 kilometers (100 miles)
west of Sumatra in Indonesia. The
earthquake triggered a tsunami that
Reading Diagrams sent a series of waves crashing onto the
coastlines of southeast Asia, destroying
Describe how a tsunami’s waves change as the waves whole villages and killing hundreds of
reach the shallower coastal waters. thousands of people. After the first big
Clue: Look at the amplitudes of the waves in the diagram. wave hit Thailand, people ran out onto
394
EXPLAIN
the beach to help those who had
been injured. Meanwhile, a second
wave crashed ashore, injuring even
more people.
Tsunamis often take hours to travel
across the ocean, so it may be possible
to warn people before the waves reach
the shore. A warning system can help
protect people from the effects of
tsunamis. Scientists are working to set
up a tsunami-warning system in the
Indian Ocean.
Quick Check
Make Inferences What information
would indicate to scientists that a
tsunami might be about to occur?
Critical Thinking How do tsunamis
damage habitats over a wide area?
395
EXPLAIN

▲ flooding in New Orleans caused
by Hurricane Katrina in 2005
396
EXPLAIN
How do floods affect
habitats?
Floods are usually caused by
a large amount of rain that falls in
a short period of time. The rain may
fall during a series of heavy storms or
during a single large storm such as a
hurricane. Floods may also develop
when snow melts in the spring. In
coastal areas unusual tide activity
can cause flooding. Sometimes floods
occur where people have interfered
with the natural flow of water. For
example, when a dam breaks, water
that had been held back by the dam
can flood the valleys in front of it. The
Salton Sea in Southern California was
formed when engineers tried to change
the flow of the Colorado River.
Waterways such as rivers and
streams form over time to carry the
amount of water that is normally
present. When a large amount of
water from large thunderstorms or
rapid snowmelt enters a waterway,
the waterway can overflow. Water
spreads out over the flood plain, or
the flat surrounding area, and may
even spread farther inland.
Floods are dangerous to nearby
inhabitants for several reasons. Water
is fairly heavy, so it moves quickly to
find its own level. The force of flowing
floodwater can be enough to knock
down a person or an animal or to
uproot a tree. People sometimes try to
drive through floodwater, particularly
if it does not look very deep. The
water may then flow into the vehicle
or carry it away.
▼ an effort to repair a levee in
New Orleans after Hurricane
Katrina in 2005
Changing Landscapes
Floodwater picks up and carries
away tons of mud and debris. After
the water recedes to its normal level,
the mud and debris are left behind,
changing the landscape. This mud and
debris can bury crops and other plants,
damaging or killing them. However,
a flood often benefits future crops,
because the nutrient-rich mud that
remains after the flood renews the soil
and makes it more fertile.
In areas that are in a river’s flood
plain, people try to control the water’s
flow by building dams or structures
called levees (LEV•eez). A levee is
a wall or a large mound of earth
built along a river to prevent it from
flooding. Levees raise or extend the
banks of a river so that more water
than usual can flow in the river.
Building levees can be a good
solution for areas that flood often.
However, a levee may make the
river valley narrower. During a flood
this may force more water down the
river, protecting the area upriver but
increasing flooding farther downriver.
In addition, if a levee breaks or
overflows, the water rushes out onto
the land. Breaks in levees can cause
some of the most dangerous floods,
such as the flooding in New Orleans
in 2005.
Quick Check
Make Inferences How can floods
harm people?
Critical Thinking How can floods
affect crops that are planted near
a river?
397
EXPLAIN

How do earthquakes and
landslides affect habitats?
Earthquakes can cause extensive
damage and destruction. In October
1989, an earthquake hit California,
causing major damage to the San
Francisco Bay area. The violent
shaking caused the upper deck of
a freeway to collapse onto the lower
deck, flattening cars. In January
1994, a major earthquake struck the
Los Angeles area, causing more than
$15 billion in damage. Roadways
buckled, and buildings collapsed.
Broken gas lines caught fire, causing
buildings to burn. The streets flooded
from broken water mains.
When an earthquake occurs in a
populated area, power and gas lines
are often broken, and these ruptures
can cause fires. The shaking of
398
EXPLAIN
rapid snowmelt can cause a landslide.
Explosions or vibrations caused by
construction work can also begin
the process. Local Natural Disaster
A landslide can cause more damage Investigate a natural disaster that
than an earthquake. A landslide can occurred in your area. It may be
carry buildings down a hillside or bury a flood, a landslide, a volcanic
eruption, an earthquake, a storm,
highways under debris. It may rip trees or a fire.
and plants from the ground and change
Research Use newspaper articles,
a gentle slope to a steep cliff. If debris
interviews with local residents,
falls into a river or a stream, it may topographic maps, and other
create a natural dam, change the course sources of information to answer
of the waterway, or cause a flood. these questions:
The tumbling rocks may damage the • Did the natural disaster change
riverbed by removing plants and killing Earth’s surface? If yes, how?
fish and other animals. • Were any people harmed?
Explain.
Quick Check • Were any plants and animals
▲ An earthquake in Alaska Make Inferences How do harmed? Explain.
caused the ground to sink, earthquakes affect wildlife habitats?
flooding these trees. Local Natural Disaster
Critical Thinking What might Changes Harm to
Harm to
to Earth’s Plants and
happen if a landslide occurred People
Surface Animals
the ground can damage buildings, in a populated area?
highways, and other structures.
Some earthquakes open large cracks
in the ground.
Sometimes the ground shifts Communicate Write a short
vertically, producing a cliff in just a report describing how the natural
few seconds. If the land shifts enough ▼ A landslide can also benefit some disaster affected your area. Include
in a particular place, it can change a fish, such as salmon, by changing a map, photos, diagrams, or other
the river’s flow and leaving appropriate visuals.
river’s course, drain a lake, or change
behind small pools where
the appearance of the natural and these fish can lay
human-made features of the region. their eggs.
An earthquake may dislodge huge
amounts of rocks and soil and cause a
landslide. Other factors can also trigger
landslides. For example, a landslide may
occur when the base of a cliff or a hill
is cut away by stream erosion, wave
action, or glaciers. Heavy rainfall or
399
EXPLAIN
How can people plan
for natural disasters?
Natural disasters have occurred
throughout Earth’s history. However,
as the number of people on the planet
has increased, more and more people
have begun to live in danger zones. For
example, millions of people live on the
flood plains of rivers, along earthquake
faults, in regions prone to landslides, or
close to active volcanoes.
Scientists cannot stop natural
disasters from occurring, but they can
sometimes predict when or where one
will occur. The people in the area can
then plan and prepare. For example,
many rivers flood on a predictable
schedule. A river might flood each
400
EXPLAIN
spring, when melting snow and extra
rainfall cause the water to rise. People
can avoid the floods by not building
on the flood plain or by constructing
levees to hold the water back.
Earthquakes often take place at
regular intervals in the same area.
Scientists are trying to use computer
programs to predict approximately
when the next one will take place.
Scientists also use laser measuring
◀ This skyscraper in San
Francisco is twice as
strong as building codes
in the area require.
systems to detect movement along
faults. However, most of these methods
can indicate only that an earthquake
will occur sometime in the next decade
or two. Scientists are not yet able
to make more accurate predictions.
Still, people living in an earthquake-
prone area such as California can build
structures designed to withstand an
earthquake’s intense shaking.
A volcanic eruption can sometimes
be predicted. In the two months
leading up to the eruption of Mount
St. Helens in 1980, scientists suspected
that the volcano was about to erupt.
They detected a series of tremors
beneath the mountain. They noted
several small eruptions of ash and
steam, and they saw that the volcano’s
northern side bulged outward.
Unfortunately, the actual eruption
happened very quickly, so the dozens
of scientists monitoring the mountain
had little warning. Still, if people
know a volcano is about to erupt,
they can move themselves and their
belongings out of harm’s way. They
can also choose not to live too close
to an active volcano.
a seismic test with lasers
near Parkfield, California
People can avoid some of a natural
disaster’s harmful effects by using
scientific information. Whenever possible,
people should not build on a flood plain,
along an earthquake fault, near an
active volcano, or on the side of a cliff
or mountain that is prone to landslides.
If people cannot avoid building
in such an area, they should build
structures designed to withstand
natural disasters. In an earthquake-
prone area, the buildings should have
strong foundations that are able to
withstand the force of seismic waves.
Skyscrapers can be built with a tapering
shape to make them more stable.
Houses in an area prone to flooding
can be built on stilts so that their main
floors are above the floodwaters.
Quick Check
Make Inferences How might
people identify a safe place to
build a town near a river that
floods regularly?
Critical Thinking What precautions
can people take to avoid the harmful
effects of a natural disaster?
401
EXPLAIN
What are the long-term effects
of natural disasters?
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
The sudden changes caused by growth or enrich the soil. Volcanic ash
Main Idea How do earthquakes and
natural disasters can have long-term can block sunlight from small plants Earth’s surface can be
landslides change Earth’s surface?
effects on Earth and its habitats. Some so that surrounding trees grow more changed by natural
natural disasters, such as volcanoes, quickly. Floods and landslides can disasters, which affect Vocabulary A(n) raises the
can affect the climate for both short add to the soil by leaving nutrient-rich human and wildlife banks of a river to reduce flooding.
habitats.
and long periods of time. A volcanic mud behind. These long-term changes Make Inferences What are some of the
(pp. 392–393)
eruption sends gases and particles of can create new habitats or bring fresh changes, both positive and negative, that a
ash into the air. The material spreads minerals to Earth’s surface. Tsunamis and floods natural disaster in your area could cause?
into the atmosphere around the globe, can have a devastating
1ZcSa EVObG]c 7\TS`S\QSa
where it remains for months or even impact on habitats. 9\]e
Quick Check
(pp. 394–397)
years. It filters out some of the Sun’s
Make Inferences How might
radiation, and this process lowers air
temperatures around the world.
wildfires benefit the areas they
burn? Natural disasters can Critical Thinking How does predicting
Natural disasters cause great have positive long- natural disasters help people minimize
harm, but they can also bring about Critical Thinking How can a term effects, depositing the damage?
positive changes. Landslides, floods, natural disaster affect the climate? nutrient-rich soil or
creating new habitats. Test Practice Which natural disaster
and volcanic eruptions can cause new deposits a layer of ash across the
(p. 402)
surrounding area?
▼ An eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the A volcanic eruption
Philippines produced volumes of ash Make a B earthquake
that caused temperatures worldwide Study Guide C flood
to drop by about 1°F. Make a three-tab D landslide
folded book (see Test Practice Which event does not
pp. 487–490). Use normally occur during an earthquake?
the titles shown. A shaking structures
On the inside of B shifting ground
each tab, write two C surface cracks
sentences that make D lava flow
inferences about
each topic.

Writing Link Math Link

Creative Writing
Write a story about a family that has
experienced natural disasters. Tell what
the family members experienced, how
they prepared, and how they recovered
after the disasters passed.
Measure Floodwaters
During a flood-watch report at 10:00 P.M.,
the newscaster says the water is rising at
11 inches per hour. If the water continues
to rise at this rate, how many more inches
will the water have risen by 3:00 A.M.?

402 -Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 403

EXPLAIN EVALUATE
 How Are Weather
The table on this page provides information
about the monthly temperatures in San Diego.
and Calculated?
Month Average Low Temperature Average High Temperature

January 48.9°F (9.4°C) 65.9°F (18.8°C)

February 50.7°F (10.4°C) 66.5°F (19.2°C)

March 52.8°F (11.5°C) 66.3°F (19.1°C)

April 55.6°F (13.1°C) 68.4°F (20.2°C)

May 59.1°F ( 15.1°C) 69.1°F (20.6°C)

June 61.9°F ( 16.6°C) 71.6°F (22.0°C)

July 65.7°F (18.7°C) 76.2°F (24.5°C)

August 67.3°F (19.6°C) 77.8°F (25.4°C)

September 65.6°F (18.7°C) 77. 1 °F (25.1°C)

October 60.9°F (16.1°C) 74.6°F (23.7°C)

November 53.9°F (12.2°C) 69.9°F (21.1°C)

Source:December
NOAA 48.8°F (9.3°C) 66. 1 °F (18.9°C)

%&Ž46WUV
#&Ž4:]e
Solve It
People describe weather events using words such as most, 1. Using the data from the table, find the mean
least, highest, and lowest. Most of these terms come from temperature for November in San Diego in
degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Celsius.
determining the average, or mean, occurrence of weather
2. Find the median of the high-temperature
events. For example, Death Valley, California, has the highest
data for San Diego in degrees Fahrenheit and
average daily temperature in the state. Mount Waialeale, degrees Celsius. Clue: Arrange the data from
in Hawaii, is called the wettest least to greatest value. Then find the middle
place on Earth, with an average value. For an even number of values, add the
of 1,168 centimeters (460 inches) Find the mean two middle numbers and then divide by 2.
of rain annually. By following 3. Make up your own problem about mean
To find the mean of numerical data,
a few simple steps, you can temperature. Trade papers with a classmate,
calculate the mean of weather- ▶ add the values, and divide the sum and solve the problems.
related data. by the number of values. Be sure
to use the same measuring system,
metric or customary, for all data.

3 + 5 + 5 + 8 + 12 + 15 = 48
48 ÷ 6 = 8

404 MA SDAP 6.1.1. Compute the range, mean, median, and mode of data sets. 405
EXTEND EXTEND
CHAPTER 6 Review
Fill each blank with the best term Answer each of the following Weathering the
Summarize the Main Ideas from the list. in complete sentences.
Weather refers to the Effects of Weather
chemical humidity, p. 345 9. Predict If you looked at the weather
day-to-day conditions
map this morning and saw an area If one big storm can change the shape
in an area. weathering, p. 359
meanders, p. 373 of low pressure in your region, what of a shoreline, think about what other
(pp. 342–353)
deposition, p. 360 kind of weather would you expect? effects weather can have on Earth’s
quartz, p. 386
Why? 6 ES 4.e surface. Your goal is to discover how
eddy, p. 352
tsunami, p. 394 weather shapes Earth’s surface.
Wind, water, and flood plain, p. 371 10. Compare and Contrast How are
glaciers wear down hurricanes and earthquakes alike? What to Do
Earth’s surface. Why can people be more prepared 1. Think about different types of
(pp. 356–365)
1. When a granite statue is damaged by for a hurricane than they can for weather—such as rain, drought, snow,
acid rain, that damage is an example an earthquake? 6 ES 2.d; 6 ES 4.e sleet, and wind—and the possible
of . 6 ES 2.a effects each can have on Earth’s
11. Infer Communities have been landscape. Organize your thoughts
Rivers and streams 2. The amount of water vapor in the established in flood plains since the and information in a chart.
change Earth’s surface air is known as . 6 ES 4.e dawn of civilization. Why have people
through weathering, 2. Prepare a presentation or a poster
settled in these areas? 6 ES 2.d
erosion, and deposition. 3. Broad curves that are characteristic to educate people about the effects
(pp. 368–377) of mature streams are called 12. Infer Discuss why photographs of that weather can have, so people
. 6 ES 2.a, b your family on the beach might look can be better prepared to protect
Beaches are constantly entirely different from year to year, themselves, their families, and their
4. A series of huge waves caused by an property.
changing as waves even if they were taken in the same
earthquake or volcano beneath the
erode and shape the spot. 6 ES 2.c
ocean is a(n) . 6 ES 2.d Analyze Your Results
shoreline.
(pp. 380–387) 13. Explanatory Writing Rivers provide ▶ Does weather have to be severe
5. Two common minerals that make to change Earth’s surface?
water, transportation, and recreation.
up silicate sands are feldspar and
Explain how a river changes and ▶ Did you find any examples of how
Natural disasters can . 6 ES 2.c
develops over many thousands of human-made changes to Earth’s
cause changes to both years. 6 ES 2.b
human and wildlife 6. A small, spinning air current that surface may have positive or negative
habitats. may develop when wind flows effects?
(pp. 390–403) over buildings, mountains, or other
obstructions is a(n) . What effects do weathering,
6 ES 4.a, e erosion, and deposition have
Make a on Earth’s landforms?
7. The process in which soil and rocks
Study Guide are put down in new locations,
Take a sheet of paper and tape your reshaping Earth’s surface, is called
lesson study guides as shown. Use the . 6 ES 2.b
study guides to
answer the 8. The flat area on either side of a
questions on river where rich layers of sediment
these pages. are deposited is called a(n)
. 6 ES 2.b

406 407
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
1 How do differences in air pressure
and temperature affect the
environment? 6 ES 4.e
A They contaminate the air.
B They make rivers unsafe.
C They produce volcanic eruptions.
D They cause weather patterns.
4 The dominant process that shapes
2 The graph below represents changes
in a California river’s speed during
the course of one year.
5 The slope of land affects how fast
6 6 The rapid, downslope movement
During which season did the river
move the fastest? 6 IE 7.c
A winter
B spring
C summer
D fall
408
3 Which term refers to the amount of
water vapor in the air? 6 ES 4.e
A humidity
B precipitation
C air pressure
D temperature
California’s landscape is 6 ES 2.a
A sunlight shining on the land.
B water running downhill.
C snow falling on mountain peaks.
D soil being filled with minerals.
water, rocks, and soil move downhill
and how quickly the landscape
erodes. In which type of landscape
would the surface be most likely to
quickly erode? 6 ES 2.a
A a wide valley
B a rolling meadow
C gentle hills
D steep mountains
of a mass of rock, soil, and debris
is known as a 6 ES 2.d
A riverbed.
B sand dune.
C landslide.
D flood plain.
7 The diagram below shows day and
night wind patterns at the shore.
According to the diagram, which way
do winds blow during the day? 6 ES 4.e
A from the land to the water
B from the water to the land
C along the shoreline
D diagonal to the shoreline
8 How does rainfall affect the
movement of rivers and
streams? 6 ES 2.b
A It speeds them up.
B It slows them down.
C It changes their direction.
D It stops them from flowing.
9 Which of the following occurs
when ocean waves pick up sand
particles and move them along
the shore? 6 ES 2.c
A beach erosion
B transportation
C marine terraces
D abrasion
10 Which type of sand is produced
by the weathering of rocks on
land? 6 ES 2.c
A carbonate sand
B silicate sand
C washed sand
D tropical sand
11 Which of the following is a result of
earthquakes, floods, and volcanic
eruptions? 6 ES 2.d
A landslides
B erosion
C glaciation
D precipitation
12 A geologist is asked to examine
a site in order to determine what
caused a change in the habitat.
At the site she finds burned trees,
ash, igneous rocks, and evidence of
a mudslide. Based on this evidence,
what conclusion can the geologist
draw? 6 IE 7.e
A A flood occurred at the site.
B A volcanic eruption occurred
at the site.
C An earthquake occurred at the site.
D A hurricane occurred at the site.
Materials prepared by PASS at 409
CHAPTER 7
Lesson 1
Sources of Energy

PAGE 414
Earth’s Lesson 2
Renewable and
Nonrenewable
Resources Resources
PAGE 428
wind turbines, California

Lesson 3
Uses of Resources

PAGE 444
6 ES 6. Sources of energy and materials differ
in amounts, distribution, usefulness, and the time
required for their formation.

Where do the energy and the materials

people use come from?

410 411
 from ODYSSEY MAGAZINE

Literature
MAGAZINE ARTICLE

ELA R 6.2.4.
Clarify an
understanding of texts
by creating outlines,
logical notes, summaries, by Leonard David
or reports. • ELA W
6.2.2. Write expository David Criswell, director of the Institute for Space Systems
compositions (e.g.,
description, explanation,
Operation at the University of Houston, has a bright idea
comparison and contrast, to solve world energy woes. The scientist believes that the
problem and solution). solution lies within our nearest celestial neighbor—the
Moon.
The Criswell plan is to transform Luna into a kind of
giant orbiting wall plug. He advocates building solar power
stations on the lunar surface as a way to provide sustainable
and affordable electric power back here on Earth.
First of all, the airless Moon is already on the receiving
end of huge amounts of solar power in the form of sunlight.
Harnessing just one percent of that sunlight could satisfy
Earth’s power needs, Criswell suggests. But how?
The concept is called the Lunar Solar Power (LSP)
system. Huge “farms” of solar cells would collect sunlight
that shines on the Moon. Pairs of solar farms would be
planted in the lunar highlands, on the east and west limbs
of the Moon, near the equator. That sunlight would be
converted to microwave energy and beamed across space
to an energy-needy Earth. Once here on terra firma, the
microwave energy would be transformed into electricity and
fed into local energy grids.

Write About It
Response to Literature This article describes a plan
for a solar-energy system. What problem is the system
designed to address? What is the proposed solution?
Write a summary describing the problem and the
author’s idea for solving it. Include the steps involved
in transforming solar energy into a usable form.

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com
412 413
Lesson 1
What factors affect the Materials

efficiency of a solar oven?

Make a Prediction
Sources What will happen to water in a solar oven? Write
your answer as a prediction in the form “If water
is placed inside a solar oven, then . . .”
of Energy • pizza box
Test Your Prediction • black construction
Measure Draw a 2.5-centimeter border around paper
Solar Two Power Station, Daggit, California
the top of a pizza box. Be Careful. Cut the • aluminum foil
three outer sides. Fold the flap up along the
• clear plastic wrap
back edge.
• newspapers
Glue foil under the flap, shiny side out. Glue
another piece of foil inside the box, shiny side • glue
up. Tape black construction paper over the foil. • tape
Roll up the newspapers, and place them inside • safety scissors
the edges of the box. Tape them in place. Tape
• marker
plastic wrap under the box lid over the first piece
of foil. Add plastic wrap to the top of the lid. • ruler or wooden
dowel
Put the bowl of water in the center of the box.
Record the temperature of the water. • small bowl
containing
Position the oven with the flap facing the Sun. 100 milliliters
Prop the flap open with a dowel or ruler. After of water
10 minutes measure the temperature of the water.
• thermometer

Draw Conclusions Step

Analyze How would you explain what happened?
Did your observations support your prediction?
Infer Did the temperature in the box change?
Solar panels harness the Sun’s energy to heat
homes and other buildings. How else could Explore More
solar energy be used? What other factors might affect the efficiency of the
oven? What would happen if you used white paper
instead of black paper? Form a hypothesis and test it.

6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including

calculators, computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and
binoculars) to perform tests, collect data, and display data.

6 ES 6.a. Students know the utility of energy sources is determined

by factors that are involved in converting these sources to useful
414 forms and the consequences of the conversion process. 415
ENGAGE EXPLORE

▶ Main Idea 6 ES 6.a
Converting energy to
a useful form has costs
and consequences, which
differ depending on the
energy source.
▶ Vocabulary
energy source, p. 416
coal, p. 417
oil, p. 417
natural gas, p. 417
geothermal energy, p. 417
solar energy, p. 417
energy conversion, p. 418
cost-effectiveness, p. 420
efficiency, p. 421
pollution, p. 422
dam, p. 423
nuclear power plant, p. 423
nonmonetary cost, p. 424
-Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com
▶ Reading Skill
Summarize
Ac[[O`g
Explore solar energy
with an engineer.
416
EXPLAIN
How Geothermal Systems Work
Why is energy important? Winter
Summer 1
Think about all the things you do that require Liquid from
1 Liquid from house is piped
energy. You might turn on lights, listen to music,
geothermal system below ground,
work at a computer, ride in a car or a bus, or use
in house is piped which is warmer
a home appliance. below ground. than air. Liquid
Where does the energy you use come from? Ground absorbs becomes warmer.
heat and cools
An energy source is where the light, heat, or liquid. 2 Warmed liquid
electrical energy people use comes from. Most returns to house.
forms of energy originate with the Sun. For 2 Cooled liquid
example, power plants produce electricity, but returns to house. 3 Inside house
they burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or natural warm liquid gives
3 Inside house off heat and warms
gas to make the electricity. These fossil fuels liquid absorbs heat the air in rooms.
developed from living creatures that originally from rooms and
used the Sun’s energy to survive. Most of cools the air. Reading Diagrams
the energy people use can be traced back to
fossil fuels. What role does the temperature below
ground play in a geothermal system?
Types of Energy
Clue: Look at the path the water takes.
Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and
natural gas are burned to release
Los Angeles, California
energy. Coal is a hard, black substance Geothermal energy is heat energy
formed from plants that lived about 300 produced inside Earth. This heat can
million years ago. Oil , or petroleum, be used to heat homes and produce
is a thick, black liquid that forms electricity. One example of this type
underground, over millions of years, of energy is a geyser, a fountain of
from decaying sea creatures and plants. steam and boiling water that bursts
Oil can be made into gasoline and other from the ground.
fuels as well as plastics. Natural gas Most of the energy on Earth comes
is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons from the Sun. Solar energy is any form
formed from marine organisms. of energy radiated by the Sun. Solar
Alternative energy sources include collectors trap sunlight that can be used
moving water, wind, and sunlight. to heat water and homes. Solar cells
Running or falling water can turn convert sunlight into electrical energy.
the wheel of a water mill. The wheel Such cells are used in electric cars.
spins an axle attached to generators
that produce energy. In a hydroelectric Quick Check
(HIGH•droh•ee•LEK•trik) plant, moving
Summarize What types of energy
water spins a turbine (similar to a
do people use today?
waterwheel) that powers an electric
generator. Wind can also spin a wheel Critical Thinking How do fossil fuels
to generate electricity. and other energy sources differ?
417
EXPLAIN
How is energy converted into Wind Energy
usable forms?
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It changes
from one form into another in a process called
energy conversion .
Some energy conversions are very simple. The
stored chemical energy in a flashlight’s batteries is
converted into light energy and heat energy when the
flashlight is turned on. In your body, chemical energy
from food is converted into heat as well as mechanical
energy that you use to move. In an electric fan, electric
energy is converted mostly into mechanical energy to
turn the blades. wind farm, Tehachapi Pass, California

In the solar-powered car shown below, a solar cell

converts sunlight to electricity. The electricity is used Reading Photos
to run the car’s motor. The motor converts electricity
to mechanical energy, which provides the motion to How are the windmills shown in these two photos
propel the car. similar? How are they different?
Clue: Note the designs of the two types of windmills and
the ways in which they capture the energy of the wind.
How a Solar-Powered Car Works

solar energy

energy flow
Other energy conversions consist
of more steps and are more complex.
A steam engine converts chemical
energy in fuel into heat energy and
then into mechanical energy. A car
engine converts chemical energy
in gasoline into heat energy as it is
burned and then into mechanical
energy to turn the car’s wheels. In a
hydroelectric plant, falling water spins
turbines, creating mechanical energy.
The turbines power the generators,
changing mechanical energy into
electricity. When coal is burned, it
gives off heat that creates steam,
which is then turned into electricity.
Scientists continually develop ways
to capture and convert energy into
418
EXPLAIN
usable forms. All sources of energy
have advantages and disadvantages.
Costs are also involved. The monetary
cost of the energy conversion is one
factor to consider when deciding
which energy source is best for a
particular purpose. Another cost is
the possible harm to Earth associated
with using a particular energy source.
Quick Check
Summarize What is the purpose
of energy conversion?
Critical Thinking What type
of energy conversion is involved
when you use an electric stove?
419
EXPLAIN
 Efficiency purchase cars, because it determines
Efficiency is an important factor how much the drivers will have to
in determining the use of an energy spend on gas.
source or the purchase of a new Energy efficiency also affects the
appliance. Efficiency describes the cost of running appliances. Items of
amount of usable energy given off the same type, such as refrigerators
by an energy conversion compared or air conditioners, may use different
to the total amount of energy used in amounts of energy. The least expensive
the conversion. No energy conversion appliance may not be the most efficient,
is 100% efficient. Some energy is and it may cost more to run. In most
always lost as heat released into the cases newer appliances use less energy
surrounding atmosphere. than older ones.
When a conversion device puts
▲ Geothermal steam pours from out more usable energy, it is more Quick Check
a power plant in Iceland. energy efficient. For example, Summarize What is energy
How does cost affect
some automobiles made today can efficiency?
energy use? travel a longer distance on a given
amount of gas than automobiles made Critical Thinking How could you
Scientists, government officials, and
20 years ago. Fuel efficiency is a very decide which of two appliances
economists decide energy policy. Among
important consideration when people was more economical to buy?
the most important factors they consider in
deciding which energy source to recommend
are the costs and the benefits of the energy.
Cost-effectiveness is determined by estimate of the
comparing the costs and the consequences appliance’s annual
of different ways of doing something. For energy use (The lower
energy sources, this includes evaluating the number, the more
energy efficient the
the cost of an energy source and the appliance, and the less
effects of using it. The source that is least it costs to run.)
expensive and causes the least damage to the
environment is the most cost-effective.
Currently many alternative energy sources
range of
are less cost-effective than fossil fuels. The ratings
technology needed to deliver energy from for similar
them is expensive. At this time drilling for models
oil costs less than building solar panels.
Alternative sources also produce less usable
energy than fossil fuels. However, as the cost
estimate of
of using newer technologies decreases and annual cost
the amount of usable energy they provide to run this
increases, more people may choose to use model
alternative energy sources.
420 421
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 What are the consequences
of energy use?
Los Angeles, California
Using energy has various consequences,
all of which are important considerations
when people choose energy sources.
Consequences include pollution, damage
to land, and changes in the flow of
waterways. Pollution is a harmful change
in the natural environment. It may be
the release of substances that harm living
things or the release of energy that disrupts
an ecosystem. Pollution is usually the
result of human activities. Some pollution,
however, is the result of natural causes,
such as volcanic eruptions.
Fossil Fuels
The most plentiful fossil fuel is coal.
The United States generates more than half
of its electricity from coal. Coal is found
either deep in the ground or near Earth’s
surface. About two-thirds of the coal that
is mined comes from the surface, through
strip mining. In strip mining, layers of
topsoil are peeled away, exposing the coal
underneath. This process damages the land.
The burning of coal and other fossil fuels
in power plants, factories, and automobiles
releases many pollutants. For example,
some coal deposits contain large amounts
of sulfur. Burning these deposits releases
harmful substances such as sulfur dioxide.
Moisture mixes with these substances
to form an acid that can fall to Earth’s
surface as acid rain. Acid rain harms soil
and water supplies, and it weathers statues
▲ Emissions-control laws have
and buildings. Pollutants in the atmosphere
reduced pollution from cars
can also build up into thick clouds of smog.
and trucks. This has helped
cut down on smog.
422
EXPLAIN
Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power uses the energy
of falling water to produce electricity.
The Power of Water
A dam is a barrier constructed to
What factors do you think affect
control a flow of water or to raise
how well a waterwheel works?
a water level. Dams can hold back How can you design the blades on
millions of tons of water. This water a waterwheel so that they turn as
is released through pipes into a power fast as possible?
plant, where it spins the blades of Cut eight equally spaced slits from
turbines that power generators to the rim to the base of a plastic
produce electricity. cup. Fan the sections out to form
eight “blades.”
The efficiency of hydroelectric
power plants can be close to 90%. Poke a hole through the center of
the bottom of the cup, and insert
However, dams can cause harmful
a pencil as an axle.
changes to the environment. Dam
construction can flood valuable Observe Hold the pencil loosely
at both ends, and place it in
habitats. Dams can also alter the flow
a horizontal position. Hold the
of rivers, interfering with flooding fanned-out blades under running
cycles that replenish wetlands and water. What happens?
add nutrients to the soil. Will your waterwheel turn faster
with more blades? With fewer
Nuclear Power blades? Experiment to find out.
A nuclear power plant is a facility
that generates electricity through
nuclear reactions. In this controlled
chain reaction, uranium atoms are
split to change the energy locked within
them into heat energy. Nuclear power
produces a tremendous amount of energy
compared to other energy sources,
and it does not produce the same kinds
of pollution that fossil fuels do.
Even so, disadvantages exist. The Quick Check
reactions create radioactive waste that
Summarize What is pollution,
can harm people and the environment.
and what causes it?
Nuclear power plants also release
excess heat, often in the form of hot Critical Thinking Compare
water introduced into rivers and and contrast the environmental
oceans. Known as thermal pollution, effects of strip mining, burning
this release of heat can destroy habitats fossil fuels, hydroelectric plants,
and kill the animals that live in them. and nuclear power plants.
423
EXPLAIN
What are the nonmonetary
costs of energy use?
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Your family probably receives a Nonmonetary costs can lead to
Main Idea What are the costs and
monthly energy bill. What would you monetary costs, such as the expense of Energy sources include
consequences of using different energy
think if you opened it up one month repairing or cleaning up environmental coal, oil, gas, sunlight,
sources?
and saw that it charged not only damage. People need to think beyond water, and wind. Energy
conversion occurs Vocabulary A hard, black substance
for your energy usage but also for monetary costs when deciding which
when energy changes formed from the remains of plants
environmental damage? What energy sources to use. Even though form. (pp. 416–419) that lived about 300 million years
if the charges were for smog, acid fossil fuels are the most cost-effective ago is .
rain, thermal pollution to rivers, energy source, they have a high Efficiency refers to the
amount of useful energy Summarize Explain the difference
and flooding caused by dams? nonmonetary cost compared to other
obtained compared to between cost-effectiveness and energy
This damage represents the sources of energy, such as solar power. efficiency.
the total amount in an
nonmonetary costs , or the energy conversion.
environmental consequences, of Quick Check (pp. 420–421)
energy use. Damage to the
Summarize What is the overall Many energy sources
environment, caused by air and water Ac[[O`g
effect of fossil-fuel use on the create pollution.
pollution, affects all living things.
environment? Nonmonetary costs Critical Thinking How do respiratory
Examples of the nonmonetary costs are the environmental problems caused by smog involve both
of fossil fuels are the pollution they Critical Thinking Does nuclear consequences of energy nonmonetary costs and monetary costs?
generate and the long-term health power have any nonmonetary use. (pp. 422–424)
problems they can cause for people. costs? Why or why not? Test Practice Which type of energy
is obtained from running water?
Make a A solar energy
▼ At this power plant in Florida, manatees are attracted to the warm B hydroelectric energy
Study Guide
water. This behavior alters manatees’ migration patterns. C nuclear energy
Make a three-tab book (see pp. 487–490). D wind energy
Use the titles shown. On the inside of
each tab, summarize each topic. Test Practice Which of these energy
sources causes the most pollution?
A sunlight
B water
C coal
D wind

Writing Link Math Link

Energy Use and Pollution Use Energy Guide Labels
Investigate one type of energy source Using the Energy Guide label on p. 421
used in your community. Find out for reference, about how much would
if there are any concerns about the it cost to use this washer for 8 years?
pollution it causes and what is being
done about it. Write a report, and
present your findings to your class.

424 -Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 425

EXPLAIN EVALUATE
 ▶ Analyze the data in your chart. Which material(s) kept the water
Communicate about the same temperature it was when the test started?
When you communicate you share
▶ Communicate your actions and the results to your classmates
information with others. You may do
in a written or oral report.
this by speaking, writing, drawing, or
using sign language. First, you gather
some information to share with others.
Apply It
Then, you share your information. ▶ Which insulating material do you think would best keep
the air in a building cool when the weather is hot outside?
Learn It
▶ Repeat the experiment, but this time use very cold water
Scientists look for ways to reduce and one ice cube in each jar.
energy waste. They communicate their
▶ Analyze your results. Communicate your findings to the class
findings to others by writing books and
articles, giving interviews, and making by writing a report, drawing a cartoon strip, or composing
presentations. a song.

Heating and cooling buildings takes

a lot of energy. In fact, heating and
cooling are two of our biggest uses of
energy. They are also sources of many
air pollutants. To avoid wasting energy,
people can use insulation to retain heat in
winter and keep air cool in summer.

Try It
▶ Some materials are better insulators than others. In the
following activity, you will test the insulating qualities of
six different materials. You will need down from an old
jacket or glove, a cotton sock, a wool sock, sand, shredded
newspaper, plastic air-bubble packing material, coffee cans
with snap-on lids, baby food jars with screw-on lids,
a graduated cylinder, warm water, and a thermometer.

▶ Fill each jar carefully with the same amount of warm water.
Measure the temperature in each jar, and write it on a chart like
the one on page 427. Put a lid on each jar, and place each jar
in the center of a can. Fill the space between each jar and can
with one kind of insulating material. Stuff the can to completely
surround the jar. Label each can to identify the material used.
Record this on your chart. Put the lids on the cans, and wait
1 hour. Open each can and then each jar to measure the
temperature of the water. Record the temperatures on
your chart.

6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an investigation in written

426 427
reports and oral presentations.
EXTEND EXTEND
Lesson 2
How energy efficient are Materials

different types of light bulbs?

Form a Hypothesis
Renewable and Are some kinds of light bulbs more efficient than
others? A light bulb gives off light and heat. This
heat is wasted energy. Do some types of bulbs give
Nonrenewable off more heat than others? Develop a hypothesis in
the form “If one type of light bulb is more efficient • gooseneck lamp
than another type, then it will give off . . .” • extension cord if
Be Careful. Let bulbs cool before touching them. needed
• 60-watt incandescent
Resources Test Your Hypothesis light bulb

Shasta Dam, Sacramento River, California Lay the towel on a table. Place the lamp at one • 13-watt compact
end of the towel. Put the thermometer at the fluorescent
other end of the towel where the light from light bulb
the lamp will shine on it. Measure the distance • thermometer
between the thermometer and the bulb.
• ruler or yardstick
Experiment Unplug the lamp, and screw
• white towel
in the incandescent light bulb. Record the
starting temperature. Angle the lamp over the • watch or stopwatch
thermometer, plug in the lamp, and turn it on.
Step
Measure Shine the lamp on the thermometer
for 5 minutes. Record the temperature. Repeat
steps 2 and 3 for the fluorescent light bulb. Allow
the lamp and the table to cool between the trials.

Draw Conclusions
Infer What conclusion can you draw about Step
which kind of bulb produces less heat?

Water provides a renewable source of energy for
making electricity. One important use of electricity
is to light people’s homes. What type of light bulb
do you think is more efficient?
Explore More
How do you think the use of incandescent lights
in a home would affect the use of air conditioning
in the summer? Make a prediction and test it.
6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology
(including calculators, computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and binoculars) to
perform tests, collect data, and display data. • 6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results
from an investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

6 ES 6.b. Students know different natural energy and material resources,

including air, soil, rocks, minerals, petroleum, fresh water, wildlife, and
428 forests, and know how to classify them as renewable or nonrenewable. 429
ENGAGE EXPLORE
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 6.b
Natural resources are
classified as renewable
or nonrenewable.

▶ Vocabulary
natural resource, p. 430
nuclear fuel, p. 433
fusion, p. 434
hydroelectric power, p. 435
conservation, p. 438
recycling, p. 438
Reading Photos

-Glossary farm near the Russian River, California How does this photo show the use of natural resources?
@ www.macmillanmh.com Clue: What plants are shown in the photo?

▶ Reading Skill
Main Idea What are natural resources?
What would you need to live off the land?
;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa
All animals need air to breathe, water to drink,
and food to eat for energy. People need soil to
grow food. Rocks and minerals are needed for
soil formation. Forests produce some of the
oxygen people breathe as well as raw materials
for shelter and fuel for fires. Natural resources
are materials people take from Earth. Almost
▼ This gasoline everything people use comes directly or indirectly
container holds from a natural resource.
a product made
from fossil Earth’s natural resources can be classified by
the processes and the time needed to produce
fuels which are
nonrenewable them. In one group are the resources that take
resources. so long to replace that they are considered
nonrenewable. Nonrenewable resources are
available in fixed quantities or are used up more
quickly than they can be replaced. Fossil fuels
are nonrenewable because they take millions
of years to form. Once the existing supply of
fossil fuels is gone, that fuel cannot be replaced.
Minerals such as copper and gold, which are
limited resources, are also nonrenewable.
Other resources can be replaced.
Renewable resources are those that
can be replaced by nature, sometimes
at a rate close to their rate of use.
If trees are cut down, their seeds
can be planted. Water is constantly
replenished through the water cycle.
Some resources, such as solar energy,
are almost inexhaustible—there is
virtually no end to the supply.
Not all renewable resources can be
replaced at the same rate. Resources
such as soil are replaced at a very slow
rate. It can take from 500 to 2,000
years to replace just a few centimeters
of topsoil.
Even when a resource can be
replaced, only limited quantities of it
may exist. Although most of Earth
is covered with water, only a small
amount of water is fresh and available
for use by people. If fresh water is
polluted or if people use too much
water, then water shortages can occur,
despite the fact that water is constantly
replaced.
Whether a resource is renewable
or nonrenewable, all natural resources
must be regarded as Earth’s treasures.
To sustain life and protect Earth for
future generations, people must make
wise decisions. The idea of sustainability
suggests that people should fulfill present
needs without endangering the ability of
future generations to fulfill their needs
as well.
Quick Check
Main Idea Why are natural
resources important?
Critical Thinking What is the
difference between renewable
and nonrenewable resources?

430 431
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
What are nonrenewable resources?
Some nonrenewable resources take
hundreds of millions of years to form.
Because they take so long to form,
they cannot be replenished in a short
amount of time. Much of our current
technology and most of our electronic
devices depend on nonrenewable
resources. The two main types of
nonrenewable resources are fossil
fuels and nuclear fuels.
Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are formed from the
remains of plants and animals that
lived millions of years ago. These fuels
include coal, oil, and natural gas. Fossil
fuels give off large amounts of energy
when they burn, because they contain
oil field in Huntington Beach, California
432
EXPLAIN
the elements hydrogen and carbon.
More than 90% of fossil fuels mined
are used for fuel. The other 10% of
fossil fuels are used to make a variety
of products, such as plastics and
petrochemicals. Petrochemicals, which
come from petroleum or natural gas,
include ingredients in paints, fertilizers,
pesticides, plastics, and medicines.
With the growth of industry, the
demand for energy also grows. Our
economy depends on fossil fuels for
energy. For example, fossil fuels provide
the energy to power machines that save
time and labor. Without fossil fuels the
economy would suffer. However, the
burning of fossil fuels is the greatest
contributor to air pollution.
Fuel Supply
This table shows how quickly people
are using up oil and natural gas.
Fuel Use
Type of Proved Reserves Amount
Energy (as of January 1, Used (for
Source 2004) 2003)
about
1,265 billion 80 million
Oil
barrels barrels
per day
nuclear plant, Rancho Seco, California
about
Natural 6,079 trillion 96 trillion
gas cubic feet cubic feet
per year
Nuclear Fuels
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration
Nuclear energy is produced when
atoms are split apart in a controlled Analyze Examine the data in
chain reaction. Because the forces in the table.
the nucleus of an atom are very strong, Communicate Based on the data
the energy released is much greater in the table, make a line graph
than energy from other sources. Splitting that shows how long the world’s
supplies of oil and natural gas
the atoms in 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds)
will last. Assume that the rate of
of uranium yields about as much energy use will remain the same over time.
as burning millions of kilograms of
Infer How much time will pass
coal. Nuclear fuels are materials, such
until supplies of oil and natural
as uranium, that can be used in nuclear gas run out?
reactors as a source of energy. Nuclear
fuels can undergo induced fission
(FISH•uhn), or the splitting of atoms
into pieces. The nucleus can be split
when struck by a slow-moving neutron. Quick Check
Although uranium is quite common,
Main Idea What are fossil fuels
uranium 235, the type used in fission,
made of?
is relatively rare and is not renewable.
Nuclear power plants provide electricity Critical Thinking What
around the world. Without this type of characteristic is used to classify
fuel, other sources would be needed to materials as nonrenewable
meet the demand for energy. resources?
433
EXPLAIN
What are renewable resources?
Renewable resources are those that
can be replenished. Resources such
as solar energy, trees, wind, water,
fusion, and biomass are considered
renewable. However, some resources
are not completely renewable because
of the time needed to replace them.
Truly renewable energy sources include
geothermal energy, fusion, solar
energy, wind, and water. Unlike the
use of trees or biomass, these types
of energy are fully renewable because
there is no time gap between using
them and replacing them.
▼ Fusion reactors have
the potential to provide
a cheap, clean source
of energy.
434
EXPLAIN
Geothermal energy, the energy
produced from the heat below Earth’s
surface, is almost inexhaustible due to
the enormous reserves of heat below
Earth’s surface. However, there are
very few places where geothermal
energy can be used.
Nuclear fusion offers the potential
for an almost unlimited source of
energy. Fusion is the process of merging
nuclei with smaller masses to make
a nucleus with a larger mass. This
process uses special forms of hydrogen
called deuterium (DOO•tir•ee•uhm)
and tritium (TRI•tee•uhm). Nuclear
fusion is similar to the reaction that
produces the energy given off by
the Sun and other stars. Scientists
around the world are working on the
development of fusion reactors that they
hope will become practical and cost-
efficient.
Solar energy, wind, and water are
natural resources that are harvested
for energy use. Solar panels on
buildings collect the Sun’s energy
and use it to provide heat and
electricity. Wind is collected through
a turbine and converted into electricity.
Hydroelectric power , which harnesses
the force of falling or running water,
is also converted into electricity.
Some resources, such as trees and
biomass—organic matter such as plants
and animal wastes—are not always
fully renewable because of the amount
of time needed to replace them. Trees
that are cut down for construction or
fuel can be replaced with new trees.
However, they can be replaced only
if the rate at which they are used
does not exceed the time needed for
regrowth. Too often, when forests are ▲ Trees are a renewable resource.
cleared, the trees cannot be replaced However, replacing a forest can
take decades.
quickly enough to cope with demand.
Biomass conversion is a method
for changing both plant and animal
remains into high-quality fuels, such as Quick Check
ethanol. Land and soil are needed to Main Idea How is biomass
grow the plants used in the conversion. conversion a form of solar energy?
However, too much cultivation can
damage the land and soil and lead Critical Thinking Why are some
to habitat destruction, reducing the renewable resources not always
supply of biomass. fully renewable?
435
EXPLAIN
 ◀ Hydroelectric power plants
How is hydroelectric power harness the energy of falling
dependent on solar energy? water to produce electricity.

Hydroelectric power is a renewable-energy resource

generated by the force of falling or running water. Water Power
Hydroelectric power depends on the water cycle. As the Gravity pulls water down through
Sun warms water on Earth’s surface, the heat causes water pipes into the power plant. There the
to evaporate, or turn into water vapor. As the water vapor mechanical energy of moving water
rises into the atmosphere, it cools and condenses. In time spins the blades of turbines. The
the water falls back to Earth in the form of precipitation, spinning turbines produce electricity
adding to Earth’s rivers, lakes, and oceans. in generators.
Water flowing from streams or rivers feeds hydroelectric There are advantages to hydroelectric
plants. Water in reservoirs, pipelines, or canals can also be power. It is inexpensive and renewable,
used for hydroelectric power. Dams are often built to hold because it relies on water and gravity.
back water, creating large reservoirs. The dam can be opened Because nothing is burned, it does not
and closed to control the flow of water. All of these water cause air pollution like the burning
sources depend on precipitation to maintain their levels. of fossil fuels.
However, hydroelectric power also
Reading Diagrams has disadvantages. There are only
a limited number of locations where
A Hydroelectric Plant In what direction does water move
to reach the hydroelectric plant?
hydroelectric plants can be built.
Building a dam to supply water to a
Clue: Look at the position of the dam.
power plant can alter the environment
by flooding environmentally important
Watch power generation areas. The construction of dams also
@ www.macmillanmh.com affects river systems. A dam may
change the cycle of annual flooding,
RO[ which replenishes sediment deposits
^]eS`ZW\Sa in flood plains. Such change can harm
^]eS`V]caS
plant and animal species in the area.
`SaS`d]W`
US\S`Ob]`
b`O\aT]`[S` Quick Check
Main Idea Why can
W\bOYS hydroelectricity be thought
of as a form of solar
energy?
]cbTZ]e Critical Thinking Explain
bc`PW\S
how construction of dams
changes the landscape.

436 437
EXPLAIN EXPLAIN
 This house is made
of recycled cans
and mud.
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea What are the two main
Natural resources
types of resources?
are materials removed
from Earth and used Vocabulary The process of merging
by people. nuclei with smaller masses to make a
(pp. 430–435) nucleus with a larger mass is .
Main Idea Why are some renewable
Hydroelectric power resources not always fully renewable?
depends on the flow
;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa
of water to generate
electricity.
(pp. 436–437)

Conservation is using Critical Thinking If hydroelectric

How can energy resources be conserved?
Conservation is using natural
resources wisely by limiting their
use to times of need. If resources
are used up too quickly, people will
not have as many options for energy
sources. Conservation of nonrenewable
resources is especially important.
There are many ways that each
individual can conserve resources.
Choosing to walk or ride a bike
instead of riding in a car saves energy.
Turning out lights and turning off
electrical appliances when they are not
in use also saves energy.
Recycling , the creation of new
products by the reuse of materials that
would otherwise be treated as waste,
438
EXPLAIN
is another way to decrease the demand
on Earth’s natural resources. Usually
less energy is required to recycle
materials than to produce them from
raw materials. By recycling, people can
reduce the number of things that they
throw away. Reusing items, instead
of throwing them away, also helps
to conserve resources. Conservation,
recycling, and reuse are all strategies
for saving natural resources.
Quick Check
Main Idea What is conservation?
Critical Thinking What are some
ways people can conserve energy?
natural resources power plants are less expensive and
wisely by limiting their cleaner than power plants that use
use to times of need. fossil fuels, why are they not used on
(p. 438) a larger scale?
Test Practice Which resource
is nonrenewable?
Make a A geothermal energy
Study Guide B solar energy
C natural gas
Make a three-tab book (see pp. 487–490).
D hydroelectric power
Use the titles shown. On the inside of each
tab, write two sentences about the main Test Practice Which factor does
idea of each topic. not affect hydroelectric power?
A gravity
B fusion
C precipitation
D solar energy
Writing Link Math Link
Expository Writing Estimate Recycling
Write an essay about building a house If every student in your class recycled
and choosing a source of energy for 10 glass bottles per week, how many
it. Choose two energy sources and bottles would be recycled in a week?
compare them. Which one would you In a month? Estimate how many bottles
choose for the house? Why? your class might be able to recycle in
a year.
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 439
EVALUATE
 Science, Technology, and Society

The people of Santa Rosa, California, benefit from

We live in a technologically advanced
society. We work on computers, heat our food
in microwave ovens, and cool our homes with
air conditioners. All of these appliances use
a lot of electricity. Can you imagine going
through a day without using any electricity?
As the use of electricity has grown,
scientists have looked for new ways to turn
different types of energy into electricity. Some
energy sources can have negative effects. When
we burn fossil fuels such as coal and oil, we
are using up resources that won’t be replaced
for millions of years and creating air pollution
and carbon-dioxide emissions.
Geothermal energy, or heat energy that
comes from inside Earth, has none of these
negative effects. Geothermal energy can come
from steam, from hot water, or directly from
hot rocks that may be found close to the
surface or several kilometers below.
geothermal energy. Hot steam from geysers in the area is
used by a power plant to generate electricity. When most
people think of a geyser, they imagine a fountain of hot
water shooting up out of the ground. The geysers near
Santa Rosa are nothing like that. They produce a lot of
steam but very little water. They make up the largest dry-
steam field in the world.
If geothermal energy is so great, why isn’t everyone
using it? It’s not available everywhere. The inside of
Earth is very hot, but only in certain areas does some
of this heat make its way close to the surface. This is
typically where there has been recent volcanic activity.
Santa Rosa is one of
only two locations in the
world where dry steam is
used to turn turbines to
generate electricity.
▶ The Santa Rosa
geothermal plant
produces enough
electricity for 1.1
million people!

Write About It
Summarize
Summarize
1. In general how does the use of fossil ▶ Identify the most
fuels affect the environment? important points.
2. How is geothermal energy used to
generate electricity?
▶ Briefly describe the main
idea and significant details.

-Journal Write about it online

ELA R 6.2.4. Clarify an understanding @ www.macmillanmh.com
of texts by creating outlines, logical
440 notes, summaries, or reports. 441
EXTEND EXTEND
 Inquiry Structured Draw Conclusions
Materials Explain What did you observe concerning the speed at which
How can you classify a renewable resource? the motors were running at the beginning and at the end of the
experiment?
Purpose
Explain Which type of energy, battery or solar, is renewable?
Renewable resources are becoming more important as Explain your answer.
nonrenewable resources become depleted. Renewable energy
solar kit sources are making an impact on the kinds of cars people drive Infer If you were the owner of a company, which type of energy
with motor and the ways in which people generate electricity. Wind, sunlight, would you want to use to power your manufacturing plant? Why?
and water are all renewable resources. They are sometimes used
as energy sources in place of coal, oil, and natural gas in the
Inquiry Guided
United States. How can you determine whether a source of energy
additional is renewable or nonrenewable? What are the advantages of each
motor How does insulation affect energy use?
type of resource?
Be Careful. Be careful when handling electrical items. Form a Hypothesis
How can insulation help reduce the amount of energy needed to
Procedure Step
heat and cool your home? Are some insulation materials more
For the first setup, connect one efficient than others? Write your answer as a hypothesis in the
battery wire from the solar panel to form “If proper insulation is used in a building, then the amount of
one wire on the motor. Connect heating and cooling needed will . . .”
the other two wires. Draw
your setup, and describe what
Test Your Hypothesis
battery holder happened to the motor when
you connected the wires. Design an experiment to identify the most efficient insulation
material. Write out the steps you will follow. Then carry out your
For the second setup, connect plan, and record your results and observations.
one wire from the other motor
to the positive end of the battery. Step
Connect the other wire to the Draw Conclusions
stopwatch negative end of the battery. Did your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not?
or clock Draw this setup, and describe Present your results to your classmates.
what happened to the motor.
Record the time in your journal. Inquiry Open
Observe Once per hour observe Remember to follow the steps
What else can you learn about renewable and of the scientific process.
both motors. Compare the
nonrenewable energy sources? For example, are
speeds at which the motors
some energy sources more efficient than others? Ask a Question
are running. Continue your
Think of a question to investigate. Then design an
observations until one motor is
experiment to answer your question, and carry out Form a Hypothesis
no longer working. Then record
your experiment.
the time in your journal along
with your observations. Test Your Hypothesis

Draw Conclusions

6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including calculators,
442 computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and binoculars) to perform 443
EXTEND tests, collect data, and display data. EXTEND
Lesson 3
What are objects made of? Materials

Make a Prediction
Uses of From which natural resources are most common
objects made? Do such objects come from plants,
animals, rocks, soil, minerals, oil, water, or metals?
Make a prediction in the form “Most objects in the
Resources classroom are made from . . .”

Test Your Prediction

• long sheet of
Tape the white butcher paper on the wall white butcher
around the classroom. Divide the paper into four paper
sections: Plants, Animals, Minerals, and Oil.
• tape
Have your teacher assign a small group to each
• different-colored
section of the paper. One group will identify markers or
every object in the classroom made from plant crayons
materials, another will identify objects made
from animals, and so on. Step
Classify Draw each object on the mural, and
identify the natural resource from which it is
made. Indicate whether the natural resource is
renewable or nonrenewable.

Draw Conclusions
Analyze How would you explain what you
observed? Were some objects made from
several natural resources?
Did your observations support your prediction?
Infer Identify the type of energy required to
produce each object.

When you ride in a car, do you ever think Explore More

about what materials went into making it? Cars What types of pollution were generated in making
are assembled in factories from parts made of these items? Make a prediction, and do research.
steel, rubber, plastic, glass, and other materials. Then analyze and present your results.
Where do these materials come from?

6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an investigation

in written reports and oral presentations.

444 6 ES 6.c. Students know the natural origin of the materials used to make common objects. 445
ENGAGE EXPLORE

Where do everyday materials
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 6.c come from?
Many things people use Think about one of your favorite possessions.
each day come from What does it look like? Is it made of wood,
Earth’s natural resources. metal, or plastic? The raw materials for these
▶ Vocabulary items must be grown, logged, mined, or
synthetic, p. 448
otherwise harvested from Earth.
plastic, p. 448 Raw materials are the building blocks of
textile, p. 450 products. Many everyday objects are made from
natural resources, which are either renewable or
-Glossary nonrenewable. Some natural resources, such as
@ www.macmillanmh.com wool and wood, are usable in their original state.
Others have to be processed and converted into
▶ Reading Skill more usable forms. For example, the main source
Summarize of aluminum is bauxite ore. It must be washed,
crushed, dissolved, and filtered to make alumina.
A process called smelting turns the alumina into
aluminum. Then the aluminum can be shaped into
objects such as automobile parts, cans, and foil.
Ac[[O`g
Reading Photos
Everyday Materials What is each of these objects
made of?
Clue: What do the objects in the
photo show about raw materials?
446
EXPLAIN
Many natural resources must
undergo chemical processes before
they can be manufactured into
products. Laboratories transform
petroleum into items such as plastic,
crayons, detergent, deodorant,
eyeglasses, and tires.
Materials
Plants are important natural
resources. People harvest trees for
lumber, which is used to build homes,
furniture, musical instruments, and
many other objects. Paper products
also come from trees. The cotton
used to make clothing comes from
the cotton plant. Other plants provide
medicines, beauty products, rubber,
fuels, dyes, fabrics, soaps, and inks.
Rocks and minerals also supply
everyday items. Basic construction
materials include concrete, bricks,
glass, and gypsum (JIP•sum) for
wallboard. Each of these comes from
rocks and other raw materials. Rocks
and minerals also provide salt, gems, ▲ Timber comes from trees, which
and materials used to make ceramics. are a renewable resource.
In addition, these natural resources
serve as raw materials for televisions,
jet planes, and other products. Quick Check
Metals have properties that make Summarize Explain how the
them suitable for many uses. Some materials used to make common
metals, such as copper, can be pulled objects have their origins in
into thin strands without breaking. natural resources.
This characteristic, combined with its
ability to conduct electricity, makes Critical Thinking Predict what
copper ideal for electrical wires. would happen to the production
Because of their properties, iron of everyday items if the supply
and steel are used for tools, building of trees and other plants were
materials, railway lines, and many threatened.
other purposes.
447
EXPLAIN
What is plastic?
Some materials are derived from
natural resources that are modified
by chemical processes in a laboratory.
The resulting artificial materials
are synthetic , or human-made.
Plastic is a synthetic substance
derived from petroleum, a fossil
fuel. The molecules in petroleum are
split and then linked into chains.
Plastic is an example of a polymer
(PAH•li•muhr), a substance made of
Uses of Plastic
repeating patterns of atoms linked
Extrusion Blow-Molding Process
together. Most polymers are synthetic.
They are made by polymerization,
the process of chemically linking many
smaller molecules to form a larger
molecule that has different physical
properties. Some polymers, such as
proteins, occur naturally. TW\WaVSR
Plastic is a key component of P]bbZS
many products. When heated into
an almost-liquid form, plastic can be
made into fibers, sheets, or molds. It
can be mixed with other elements to []ZR
OW`bcPS
remain flexible, or it can harden into
a solid. Plastic fibers can be made into
clothing or carpeting. Sheets of plastic
A hot plastic Air is blown into The tube When the
can be made into disposable diapers or tube is enclosed the tube inside expands and mold is opened,
plates. Molded plastic can be used for in a mold. the mold. takes the shape the plastic
protective helmets or car bumpers. of the inside of bottle can be
the mold. removed.

Most plastics can be reheated and Food-storage wraps and containers

remolded repeatedly. This property
makes plastic very easy to use.
Polymers can be pulled into fine
strands or molded into almost any
kind of shape. For example, tubes of
plastic can be shaped into bottles by
different processes. One such process
is extrusion blow-molding. Most
plastics are also resistant to many
chemicals that might harm other
materials. This quality is the reason
that so many cleaning fluids are
packaged in plastic bottles.
Reading Photos
Plastics are good insulators. Look
Which objects here are made around your kitchen, and observe
from plastic? where plastics are used. Pot handles
Clue: Look at each of the are sometimes made of plastic,
objects in the photograph. as are cooking utensils, toaster
controls, and microwave cookware.
448
EXPLAIN
may be made of plastic. Take a walk
outdoors, and note all the plastic
items you see. Gardening tools, such
as wheelbarrows, watering cans, and
sprayers, are often made of plastic.
Swings and slides made of plastic do
not become as hot as metal, so they
are safer for play. Because plastics can
be heated, remolded, and made into
something else, they can be recycled
and reused.
Quick Check
Summarize Describe how plastic
is made.
Critical Thinking Why do you think
companies increasingly use plastic
instead of metal when making cars?
449
EXPLAIN
 How are textiles
produced?
A textile is any type of fabric,
especially one made by weaving
or knitting fibers together. Besides
clothing, textiles are used for furniture
upholstery, parachutes, sails, flags, rugs,
tents, towels, and other things. The art
of making textiles can be traced far
back into history. Fibers dating back to
about 15,000 b.c. have been found in
caves in France.
Textiles can be made from a
variety of materials, many of which
are natural resources. Some textiles
are made from animal products. For
example, wool comes from sheep’s
coats, and cashmere and mohair
come from goat hair. Angora comes
from angora rabbits. Silk is actually
the fiber that silkworms weave to
make cocoons. Plants such as flax,
cotton, grass, and jute provide the raw
materials for other textiles. Even some
minerals are used to make metallic
fibers and threads.
Synthetic textile fibers are made
from crude oil and natural gas, two
fossil fuels. These fibers include nylon,
polyester, acrylic, and olefin which is
used to make clothing, carpets, and
furniture. Nylon is very strong and
easy to care for. Its uses include hosiery,
clothing, and fire hoses.
◀ A cotton plant goes through
many processing stages before
it becomes a useful fabric.
450
EXPLAIN
The concept “reduce, reuse, and
recycle” also applies to the textile
industry. People often donate clothing
items to community organizations for
use by others. Clothing can be recycled,
too. Rubber from the soles of sneakers
can be ground up and used for rubber
matting on gym floors. Other parts of
the shoe, such as the foam padding and
fabric, can also be recycled. Choosing
textiles made from natural resources
helps the environment as well. Organic-
cotton growers, for example, use
significantly fewer chemical fertilizers
than traditional growers.
Some clothing can be made from
recycled plastic, which reduces the use
of raw materials. Fleece pullovers, for
example, can be made from old plastic
bottles. Synthetic fleece is made from
polyester, and polyester is spun plastic.
Plastics also become fibers for carpets
and other textiles.
▶ About 100 21 -liter
bottles could be
used to make one
fleece pullover.
Sources of Clothes
Collect Data Prepare an
inventory of the different types of
clothing, including shoes, in your
classroom.
Communicate Make a chart that
includes each item of clothing.
Identify the type of material each
item is made of, and add the type
of material to the chart. Look at
the labels if you need help.
Use the information you have to
trace the textiles back to their
original sources.
Infer Read the care instructions
for each type of material used, or
look on the Internet. Which are
easiest to care for? Why do you
think this is so?
Quick Check
Summarize Discuss the two
basic ways that textiles are
made.
Critical Thinking Other than
clothing what could plastic
soda bottles be used for?
451
EXPLAIN
How are natural resources
used for shelter?
Shelter is one of the basic needs of
every living thing. People use many
resources to build homes. In some
areas of the world, these resources
may include sod, animal skins, adobe,
wood, rock, and bricks made of mud.
Most houses built today use a wide
variety of natural resources.
Where would you begin if you
were to build a shelter? Ideally houses
should have a strong foundation
to support the weight of the entire
structure. Concrete is often used for
this purpose. Concrete is a mixture of
sand, gravel, and pebbles in a binding
material such as mortar. Sometimes
sod house
stone house
452
EXPLAIN
steel rods are put into the foundation Building Materials
to reinforce it. Stone is another good
choice for a foundation.
After the foundation is set, the
next step is to frame the house. Wood-
frame construction is commonly used
for residential buildings in suburban
and rural areas. The wood beams are
put together with nails made of a hard
;ObS`WOZa9Sg
ObS`WOZa9Sg
metal such as steel. Taller buildings
must be framed with materials such E]]R
E]]R
as steel. 0`WQY
0`WQY
To ensure that the house remains 1S[S\b
1S[S\b
waterproof, shingles are attached to 5ZOaa
5ZOaa
the roof. Roof shingles are made of
BWZS
BWZS
different materials, but a common type
is made from asphalt. Asphalt is made ;SbOZ
;SbOZ Reading Diagrams
from petroleum. DW\gZ
What parts of the house are made
from wood?
Covering the Exterior Clue: Note the materials each part
adobe house of the house is made from.
Next, exterior windows and doors
are installed. Windows are made of
glass. The main ingredient in glass
is silicate sand, which is made of fine
particles of weathered rock. Doors with plastic or rubber materials for
are often a combination of glass, steel, safety. Pipes made from very strong
and wood. Houses today are usually plastics as well as copper are used for
wrapped in moisture- and air-resistant plumbing. Walls are often covered
materials. Synthetic fibers, such as with drywall, which is made from the
polyethylene (pah•lee•ETH•uh•leen), mineral gypsum. Finally, the house is
are used to make these protective painted. Many paints are made from
coverings. Polyethylene is derived petroleum products.
from natural gas or oil.
The next step is to cover the Quick Check
exterior of the house with a material Summarize What natural resources
commonly known as siding. Materials are used to construct a house?
such as wood, stone, brick, and vinyl
are options for siding. Wiring and Critical Thinking Why do you think
plumbing are installed inside the tall buildings must be framed with
house. Electric wires must be insulated steel?
453
EXPLAIN
How are fuel resources used
for transportation?
Fossil fuels are used for many
purposes. Oil can be made into textiles
and plastics. Oil is also used for heating
homes and producing electricity. Most
oil, however, is used for transportation.
Oil is refined into gasoline, which
powers many cars, trucks, and buses.
Californians pump about 153 million
liters (40 million gallons) of gasoline
into their vehicles each day. California
ranks first in gasoline consumption in
the United States.
Burning fossil fuels releases smoke,
gases, and other by-products. These
substances pollute the environment
and can cause serious health problems.
Possible solutions to this problem are
to conserve energy so that it will last
longer and to search for other sources
of energy.
Scientists and engineers are working
on both options. Alternative fuels are
not made from oil, and they burn more
Public transportation is a more fuel-efficient
way to move large numbers of people.
454
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
cleanly than oil does. Today such
Main Idea Where do people get the
alternatives include ethanol, methanol, Plastics are synthetic
materials they need for many things
natural gas, propane, and electricity. substances made
they use each day?
Currently, however, many of these from petroleum.
products are not efficient enough to (pp. 448–449) Vocabulary A product made by people
in a laboratory is .
warrant everyday use. Hybrid vehicles
combine two or more sources of power, Summarize What is a hybrid vehicle, and
usually gasoline and electricity. Because Many materials that what are the advantages of driving one?
people use every day
they use less fuel than traditional
come from natural
vehicles and emit less pollution, these resources, both
vehicles are becoming increasingly renewable and
popular. Some hybrid models can travel nonrenewable. Ac[[O`g
about 1,060 kilometers (660 miles) on (pp. 450–451)
a 45-liter (12-gallon) tank of gas.
Fossil fuels are Critical Thinking Why is it beneficial to
currently the primary use textiles made from synthetic fibers?
Quick Check source of power for
transportation. Test Practice Which of the following
Summarize What are the can be used to make clothes?
(p. 454)
problems with using fossil fuels A plastic
for transportation? B marble
C sand
Critical Thinking Why should Make a D stone
people carefully consider the use of Study Guide
Test Practice What is a term for any
natural resources for transportation? Make a three-tab book (see pp. 487–490).
type of fabric, especially one made by
Use the titles shown. On the inside of each
weaving or knitting fibers together?
tab, summarize the main idea of each topic.
A synthetic
B textile
C polymer
D adobe
Writing Link Math Link
Explanatory Writing Plastic Pullovers
Go to a supermarket with a parent or About 25 plastic 2-liter soda bottles
other adult. Select five items. Study the can be used to make 1 fleece pullover.
labels, and determine the resources used About how many plastic 2-liter soda
to produce each item. Write a report on bottles would you need to make a
your research, including drawings and dozen fleece pullovers?
descriptions of the items.
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 455
EVALUATE
 How Much Water Do
People Use Each Day?
In California’s Central Valley, billions of
liters of water are used for irrigation. The Average Water Use
fruits and vegetables grown there supply Bath 1.7%

A good story, or consumers across the United States. In 2000 Shower 16.8%
Plastic is usually made from petroleum, a fossil Fresno County, California, used 14 billion Faucet 15.7%
fictional narrative, fuel. Someday our supply of petroleum will run liters of water every day. Clothes washer 21.7%
▶ describes a setting, low. Then perhaps we will not have plastic in our Household use of water makes up less than Dishwasher 1.4%
telling when and lives anymore. What would life be like without 1% of total water use nationwide. The average Toilet 26.7%
where the story plastic? household uses about 285 liters of water per Leaks 13.7%
takes place. With no plastic, all bottles for food and medicine person per day. Look at the table, which shows Other 2.2%
▶ has characters that might have to be made of glass. The clothes that average household water use indoors. Use this
move the action you wear would be made from cotton, wool, or information to find how many liters of water
along. other natural fibers. Having no synthetic fibers are used daily per person for showering. In
made from plastic would mean more expensive your view is this a reasonable amount of water
▶ has a plot with a clothes that would be harder to care for. Paper and
problem that is
for showering?
cloth bags would replace plastic bags.
solved at the end.
Our world would be very different—and perhaps
▶ uses dialogue to more dangerous—without plastic. We need to Calculate percent
make the story conserve petroleum and other fossil fuels. These fuels
seem more real. are nonrenewable resources. When they are gone, To find the percent of Solve It
a whole number, 1. About how much water does one person
they cannot be replaced.
use each day for flushing toilets? Do you
• change the percent
think this is a reasonable amount?
to a decimal.
Write About It 2. What percent of a person’s daily water
Narrative Writing Write a science-fiction story about a future time
16.8% = 0.168 use goes toward washing clothes and
when a substance we use now, such as plastic, is scarce. Describe the • then multiply the dishes? Clue: Adding or subtracting
setting and how the main character in your story tries to solve the percents is the same as adding or
decimal by the whole
problem. You can use the information from “A World Without Plastic” subtracting decimals. Remember to align
number. Remember to
and find other information online. Use an appropriate point of view, the decimal points vertically.
keep the same number
and use dialogue to make your story come alive. 3. Compare the new low-flow toilets that
of digits to the right of
use about 6 liters of water per flush with
the decimal point.
standard toilets that use 23 liters. How
-Journal Write about it online @ www.macmillanmh.com much water can consumers save over
25 flushes with a low-flow toilet?

ELA W 6.1.1. Choose the form of writing (e.g., personal letter, letter to the editor, review,
poem, report, narrative) that best suits the intended purpose. • ELA W 6.2.1. Write
narratives: a. Establish and develop a plot and setting and present a point of view that is
456 appropriate to the stories. b. Include sensory details and concrete language to develop
EXTEND plot and character. c. Use a range of narrative devices (e.g., dialogue, suspense).
MA NS 6.1.4. Calculate given percentages of quantities and solve problems involving
discounts at sales, interest earned, and tips. • MA MR 6.2.1. Use estimation to
verify the reasonableness of calculated results. • MA MR 6.3.1. Evaluate the 457
reasonableness of the solution in the context of the original situation. EXTEND
CHAPTER 7 Review
Fill each blank with the best term Answer each of the following To Buy or Not to Buy
Summarize the Main Ideas from the list. in complete sentences.
Most forms of energy As a product specialist in a major
efficiency, p. 421 natural 9. Critical Thinking Provide supporting appliance store, your job is to advise
originate with the Sun.
evidence to defend the argument customers on the best value for their
(pp. 414–425) resources, p. 430
energy that alternative energy sources such money. Your goal is to present a product
conversion, p. 418 oil, p. 417 as wind and water are forms of solar that is the most cost-effective for the
energy. 6 ES 6.b customers’ budget.
fusion, p. 434 plastics, p. 448
All of Earth’s resources geothermal textiles, p. 450 10. Infer Explain how human-made What to Do
can be classified products such as synthetic textiles 1. Select a type of product that you would
energy, p. 434
as renewable or and plastic products are made from like to work with, such as refrigerators,
nonrenewable. natural resources. 6 ES 6.c air conditioners, or light bulbs. Research
1. The process by which energy
(pp. 428–439) the item’s or appliance’s annual energy
changes from one form to another 11. Cause and Effect Choose one
is . 6 ES 6.a use and the cost of using the item or
example of how people have altered
All of the materials used appliance for one year.
the environment to create a source of
to make everyday items 2. If a house is heated using the energy 2. Prepare a sales presentation that
energy, and discuss the nonmonetary
can be traced back to a produced from the heat below Earth’s compares an energy-efficient model
costs involved in this project. 6 ES 6.a
natural resource. surface, then it uses . of this product to a much cheaper, but
(pp. 444–455) 6 ES 6.b
12. Sequence Explain the steps much less energy-efficient, model. How
involved in making plastics and the can you convince your customer that
3. Synthetic materials called
advantages of using plastics. 6 ES 6.c the more expensive, yet more cost-
Make a are made in the process of
polymerization. 6 ES 6.c effective, model is the best choice?
Study Guide 13. Explanatory Writing Nuclear energy
Take a sheet of produces a tremendous amount Analyze Your Results
4. A thick, black liquid that can be made
paper and tape your of power. Explain the differences ▶ Was a product’s Energy Guide helpful
into plastic is . 6 ES 6.b
lesson study guides between nuclear fission and nuclear in supporting your sales presentation?
as shown. Use the 5. Nuclei with smaller masses can be fusion. What are the advantages and How?
study guides to combined into a nucleus with a larger disadvantages of each? 6 ES 6.a
▶ Should nonmonetary costs be a factor
answer the questions mass, giving off energy, in the process in a consumer’s decision making?
on these pages. of . 6 ES 6.a

6. Polyester, acrylic, cotton, and burlap

are examples of . 6 ES 6.c Where do the energy and the
materials people use come from?
7. The amount of useful energy given
off by an energy conversion relative 16/>B3@%
to the total amount of energy used
is known as . 6 ES 6.a

8. Materials that are taken from Earth

and used by people are .
6 ES 6.b

458 459
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com
1 Most forms of energy originate
from 6 ES 6.a
A electric currents.
B Earth’s core.
C the Sun.
D power plants.
2 An Energy Guide label helps
consumers compare the costs of
operating appliances.
5 Which of these statements best
4 How are hydroelectric plants and
nuclear power plants similar? 6 ES 6.a
A They both can have negative
effects on local rivers and streams.
B They both release poisonous gases
into Earth’s atmosphere.
C They both require dams on rivers to
operate efficiently.
D Neither hydroelectric plants nor
nuclear power plants are very
energy efficient.
describes energy efficiency? 6 ES 6.a
7 Trees are an important renewable 10 Why is wood considered a raw
resource. Almost 40% of California material? 6 ES 6.c
is covered by forests. A As a renewable resource, it will
never be used up.
>S`QS\b]TB]bOZ4]`Sab:O\R B It is a nonrenewable resource that
<ObW]\OZ is processed at a mill.
T]`Sab"# C It is a nonrenewable resource that
>cPZWQZg needs to be conserved.
]e\SR! D It is a natural resource that is used
=e\SRPg in its original form.
W\Rcab`g
>`WdObSZg 11 Which of the following describes
]e\SR! where synthetic items come from?
6 ES 6.c

A Energy conversion from one form
to another can sometimes be 100%
efficient.
B In energy conversions some energy
is lost to the atmosphere as heat.
C Energy efficiency is found by
comparing the energy you need
with the energy that you get from
the fuel.
D Automobiles are less energy
efficient today than they were
According to this Energy Guide 20 years ago.
label, how much money would a
consumer save over 5 years if he 6 Which of the following statements
or she bought a washer that used a best describes why sustainability is
natural-gas heater? 6 ES 6.a important? 6 ES 6.b
A $140 A The burning of fossil fuels produces
B $160 a great deal of smog, and people
C $180 must use these fuels up.
D $200 B Scientists have told people that
they do not need to be concerned
3 Which of the following is a with the needs of the future.
renewable resource? 6 ES 6.b C People should take care of today’s
A trees needs without endangering the
B coal needs of future generations.
C copper D Nonrenewable resources have been
D oil shown to be a great help to the
environment.
California has 39.6 million acres of
forests. How many acres do national
forests in California cover? 6 ES 6.b
A 4.4 million
B 5.2 million
C 12.4 million
D 17.8 million
8 Why will people never use up
geothermal energy? 6 ES 6.b
A People can still use solar power on
cloudy days.
B People need to dig less than 3
inches into the soil to get it.
C An enormous heat reserve lies
below Earth’s surface.
D The ocean water keeps things cool
and preserved.
9 Which of these products comes from
plants? 6 ES 6.c
A steel
B paper
C wool
D glass
A They are dug out of a deep mine
and rinsed off with soap and hot
water.
B They are made from natural
resources that are changed by a
chemical process.
C A cocoon from a caterpillar is taken
apart and turned into threads.
D They are easy to find in natural
places, such as forests and oceans.
12 Which of the following is an example
of recycling textile products? 6 ES 6.c
A Organic cotton is used to make
sheets and clothes.
B Fleece sweatshirts are used to
make plastic bottles.
C Rubber from shoes can be used to
make gym floors.
D Nylon is used to make sheets,
clothing, and fire hoses.

460 Materials prepared by PASS at 461


Understanding
In an earthquake the solid ground beneath our feet
shakes, cracks, and rolls in waves like the sea. Long
before science could explain this terrifying event, people
felt a need to understand what caused earthquakes.
Earthquakes: Past Perspective
Ancient cultures around the world explained earthquakes through
myths and stories. Native Americans in California told of giant
turtles that carried the land on their backs. One day when the turtles
argued and swam in opposite directions, the land shook and cracked.
Now and then the turtles argue again, and each time, California
quakes. In a tale from India, the land is held up by mighty elephants;
when one of the elephants gets tired, it lowers its head and shakes it,
causing an earthquake. A Japanese myth explains earthquakes as the
wriggling of a giant catfish that lives in the mud under Earth.
People long ago also tried to measure
earthquakes. The first known earthquake-
detecting device, built in China in
a.d. 132 by Chang Heng, was a
bronze jar with a heavy pendulum
inside. During an earthquake the
pendulum remained still, while
the jar moved. This triggered one
of the dragons around the edge
of the jar to open its jaws and
drop a ball into the open
mouth of a toad below.
▶ Chang Heng’s dragon jar
462
◀ Seismographs
provide scientists
with data about
earthquakes.
▼ An earthquake struck Pakistan in
October 2005, damaging thousands
Earthquakes: Present View of buildings.
Today we know that earthquakes are
caused by the motion of Earth’s tectonic
plates. Seismologists, people who study
earthquakes, use sensitive instruments called
seismographs to detect the location and size
of an earthquake. Inside the seismograph,
a mass on a spring records motion in Earth’s
crust. It draws a flat line when the land is
still. During an earthquake a seismograph
records a line of jagged spikes that indicate
the strength of the tremors. Seismographs
are installed at monitoring stations all over
the world. When an earthquake occurs,
scientists combine the information from
different stations to determine where and
when the quake took place and how strong it
was. Then they report this news to people
throughout the world. In this country, the
U.S. Geological Survey is responsible for
recording and reporting earthquakes.
6 ES 1. Plate tectonics accounts for important features of Earth’s
surface and major geologic events. • ELA R 6.2.2. Analyze text 463
that uses the compare-and-contrast organizational pattern.
Farmer
People around the world depend
on farmers for food. To be successful
at farming, you should enjoy working
outdoors for long hours. In addition,
farmers need to know about genetics,
animal science, soil, weather, chemistry,
crop science, and business. Some
farmers obtain this knowledge from
other farmers in their families, through
courses at school, or through youth
organizations. Today many aspiring
farmers pursue a college degree in
agricultural science. Farmers also
closely follow changing technology
to take advantage of new equipment
and techniques for raising plants and
animals.

Archaeologist
Do you “dig” the past? Then you
should explore a career in archaeology.
Archaeology is the study of the
material remains of human activities.
Archaeologists locate and study fossils
and artifacts from the past. Working
as an archaeologist can take you
to faraway places to solve ancient
mysteries, or it can keep you close to
home identifying and protecting local
historic sites. If you would like to build
a career unearthing the past, you can
begin with a bachelor’s degree and
perhaps go on to receive advanced
degrees in archaeology. The world has
many sites left to explore.

464
-Careers @ www.macmillanmh.com