Indian Electricity Rules:
Rule 28: Voltage level definitions
The difference of electric potential measured in volts between any two
conductors or between any part of either conductor and the earth as
measured by a suitable voltmeter and said to be:
1. 'Low' where the voltage does not exceed 250 Volts under normal
conditions.
2. 'Medium' where the voltage does not exceed 650 volts under
normal conditions.
3. 'High' where the voltage does not exceed 22000 volts under normal
conditions.
4. 'Extra High' When the voltage exceeds 22 kV.
Rule 30: Service lines & apparatus on consumer premises
Service lines and apparatus on consumer’s premises —
1. The supplier shall ensure that all electric supply lines, wires, fittings
and apparatus belonging to him or under his control, which are on a
consumer’s premises, are in a safe condition and in all respects fit for
supplying energy and the supplier shall take due precautions to avoid
danger arising on such premises from such supply lines, wires, fittings
and apparatus.
2. Service-lines placed by the supplier on the premises of a consumer
which are underground or which are accessible shall be so insulated
and protected by the supplier as to be secured under all ordinary
conditions against electrical, mechanical, chemical or other injury to
the insulation.
3. The consumer shall, as far as circumstances permit, take
precautions for the safe custody of the equipment on his premises
belonging to the supplier.
4. The consumer shall also ensure that the installation under his
control is maintained in a safe condition.
Rule 31: Cut-out on consumer’s premises
Cut-out on consumer’s premises —
1. The supplier shall provide a suitable cut-out in each conductor of
every service-line other than an earthed or earthed neutral conductor
or the earthed external conductor of a concentric cable within a
consumer’s premises, in an accessible position. Such cut-out shall be
contained within an adequately enclosed fireproof receptacle. Where
more than one consumer is supplied through a common serv-ice-line,
each such consumer shall be provided with an independent cut-out at
the point of junction to the common service.
2. Every electric supply line other than the earth or earthed neutral
conductor of any system or the earthed external conductor of a
concentric cable shall be protected by a suitable cut-out by its owner.
Rule 46: Periodical inspection & testing of consumer’s installation
1. (a) Where an installation is already connected to the supply system
of the supplier, every such installation shall be periodically inspected
and tested at intervals not exceeding five years either by
the Inspector or any officer appointed to assist the Inspector or by the
supplier as may be directed by the State Government in this behalf or
in the case of installations belonging to, or under the control of the
Central Government, and in the case of installation in mines, oilfields
and railways by the Central Government. The periodical inspection
and testing of high voltage and extra high voltage installations
belonging to supplier, shall also be carried out at intervals not
exceeding five years by the inspector or any officer appointed to assist
the inspector.
(b) Where the supplier is directed by the Central or the State
Government as the case may be to inspect and test the installation he
shall report on the condition of the installation to the consumer
concerned in a form approved by the Inspector and shall submit a
copy of such report to the Inspector.
2. (a) The fees for such inspection and test shall be determined by the
Central or the State Government, as the case may be, in the case of
each class of consumers and shall be payable by the consumer in
advance.
(b) In the event of the failure of any consumer to pay the fees on or
before the date specified in the fee-notice, supply to the installation of
such consumer shall be liable to be disconnected under the direction
of the Inspector. Such disconnection, however, shall not be made by
the supplier without giving to the consumer seven clear days’ notice in
writing of his intention so to do.
3. Notwithstanding the provisions of this rule, the consumer shall at all
times be solely responsible for the maintenance of his installation in
such condition as to be free from danger.
Rule 47: Testing of consumer’s installation
Testing of consumer’s installation —
1. Upon receipt of an application for a new or additional supply of
energy and before connecting the supply or reconnecting the same
after a period of six months, the supplier shall inspect and test the
applicant's installation. The supplier shall maintain a record of test
results obtained at each supply point to a consumer, in a form to be
approved by the Inspector.
2. If as a result of such inspection and test, the supplier is satisfied
that the installation is likely to constitute danger, he shall serve on the
applicant a notice in writing requiring him to make such
modifications as are necessary to render the installation safe. The
supplier may refuse to connect or reconnect the supply until the
required modifications have been completed and he has been notified
by the applicant.
Rule 54: Declared voltage of supply to consumer Except with the
written consent of the consumer or with the previous sanction of the
State Government a supplier shall not permit the voltage at the point
of commencement of supply as defined under rule 58 to vary from the
declared voltage —
1. In the case of low or medium voltage, by more than 6 per cent, or;
2. In the case of high voltage, by more than 6 per cent on the higher
side or by more than 9 per cent on the lower side, or;
3. In the case of extra-high voltage, by more than 10 per cent on the
higher side or by more than 12.5 per cent on the lower side.
Rule 55: Declared frequency of supply to consumer Except with the
written consent of the consumer or with the previous sanction of the
State Government a supplier shall not permit the frequency of an
alternating current supply to vary from the declared frequency
by more
Rule 56: Sealing of meters and cut-outs
1. A supplier may affix one or more seals to any cut-out and to
any meter, maximum demand indicator, or other apparatus
placed upon a consumer’s premises in accordance with
section 26, and no person other than the supplier shall break
any such seal.
2. The consumer shall use all reasonable means in his power
to ensure that no such seal is broken otherwise than by the
supplier.
3. The word ‘supplier’ shall for the purpose of this rule include
a State Government when any meter,maximum demand
indicator or other apparatus is placed upon a consumer’s
premises by such
Government.
Rule 77: Clearance above ground of the lowest conductor
1. No conductor of an overhead line, including service lines,
erected across a street shall at any part there of be at a height
of less than—
a) for low and medium voltage lines 5.8 metres
b) for high voltage lines 6.1 metres
2. No conductor of an overhead line, including service lines,
erected along any street shall at any part thereof be at a
height less than—
a) for low and medium voltage lines 5.5 metres
b) for high voltage lines 5.8 metres
3. No conductor of an overhead line including service lines,
erected elsewhere than along or across any street shall be at
a height less than—
a) for low, medium and high voltages lines upto and including
11,000 volts, if bare 4.6 metres
b) for low, medium and high voltage lines upto and including
11,000 volts, if insulated 4.0 meters.
c) for high voltage lines above 11,000 volts 5.2 metres
4. For extra-high voltage lines, the clearance above ground
shall not be less than 5.2 metres plus 0.3 metre for every
33,000 volts or part thereof by which the voltage of the line
exceeds 33,000 volts: Provided that the minimum clearance
along or across any street shall not be less than 6.1 metres.
Rule 79: Clearances from buildings of low and medium voltage
lines and service lines
1. Where a low or medium voltage, overhead line passes
above or adjacent to or terminates on any
building, the following minimum clearances from any
accessible point, on the basis of maximum
sag, shall be observed: —
a) for any flat roof, open balcony, verandah roof and
lean-to-roof — • when the line passes above the building a
vertical clearance of 2.5 metres from the highest point, and •
when the line passes adjacent to the building a horizontal
clearance of 1.2 metres from the nearest point, and
b) for pitched roof—
• when the line passes above the building a vertical clearance
of 2.5 metres immediately under the lines, and
• when the line passes adjacent to the building a horizontal
clearance of 1.2 metres.
2. Any conductor so situated as to have a clearance less than
that specified in sub-rule (1) shall be adequately insulated and
shall be attached at suitable intervals to a bare earthed bearer
wire having a breaking strength of not less than 350 kg.
3. The horizontal clearance shall be measured when the line is
at a maximum deflection from the vertical due to wind
pressure. [Explanation — For the purpose of this rule,
expression “building”
shall be deemed to include any structure, whether permanent
or temporary.]
Rule 87: Lines crossing or approaching each other
1. Where an overhead line crosses or is in near to any
telecommunication line, the owner of the
overhead line shall protect it in a manner laid down in the
Code of Practice of the Power and Telecommunication
Co-ordination Committee.
2. When it is decided to erect a telecommunication line which
will cross or near to an overhead line, the
person proposing to erect such telecommunication line shall
give notice in writing of his intention to
the owner of the overhead line. The owner of the overhead
line shall provide the protection with in twenty-one days of
receiving such notice.
3. Where an overhead line crossed or near to an overhead line
belonging to another person, the owner of the line which was
last erected shall protect it to guard against the possibility of its
coming into contact with the other overhead line.
4. A person erecting or proposing to erect an overhead line
may require the owner of the overhead line to provide the
protection referred to in sub-rule (3) within twenty-one days of
the receipt of the notice.
5. In all cases referred to in the preceding sub-rule, the
expenses of making the guarding arrangement shall be given
by person whose line was last erected.
6. Where two lines cross, the crossing shall be made as nearly
at right angle.
7. The guarding arrangement shall ordinarily be carried out by
the owner of the support and he shall be responsible for its
efficient maintenance.
Rule 88: Guarding
1. This rule describes the guarding in an electrical system.
2. Guarding involves locating or enclosing electric equipment
to make sure people do not accidentally contact live parts.
3. Every guard wire shall be connected with earth at each
point at which its electrical continuity is
Switches and their Types
A switch is used to make or break the electric circuit. It should
so operate that it must make the circuit firm.At the instant of
breaking the switch it should break the current so that there is
no formation of arc between the switch blades and contact
terminals. Formation of arc burns or damages the switch
contacts. Such an arc is avoided usually by means of providing
a spring to movable blade so as to have a quick action. There
are various types of switches they are –
1. Surface switches or Tumbler switch,
2. Flush switches,
3. Pull switches or Ceiling switches,
4. Grid switches,
5. Rotary switch,
6. Push button switch,
7. Iron-clad water-tight switch,
8. Knife switch.
1. Surface switch or Tumbler Switch: It is a 5-ampere current
rating switch which is used in domestic electrical wiring. It is
also known as a surface switch. It can be fitted on a wooden
board or a round block. It is made of bakelite in various shapes
and designs. While selecting a switch one should check
the time taken by it in closing or opening a circuit, position of
terminals, size of terminals, and space for connecting wires,
insulation and function of contact points.
The surface switches can be classified as –
Single-way or One-way Switch – This switch is provided with a
single pole to control one light point at a time.
Two-way Switch – These are used for wiring circuits which are
to be controlled from two points independently such as stair
case wiring.
2. Flush Switch: These switches are fixed in flush with the wall
and do not project out. Such types are used where high-quality
performance and appearance are desired. Now-a-days in every
new built house such types of switches are used. Sometimes
thesary switches are much different from that of ordinary
tumbler switch. It consists of an insulated handle to which are
fixed the blades. These blades move in steps by the movement
of the handle and make contact with the terminals to which are
connected the wires in the electric circuits. The handle motion is
controlled by a cam or a spring as the handle is moved through
a quarter turn, the blade is released and moves over quickly
(with the help of spring) to make or break the circuit.
5. Knife Switch: The knife switch consists of blades hinged at
one end and are arranged to go into forked terminals or jaws at
the other end. These are available as single throw switches or
double throw switches. These are used for electroplating work.
It may be of a single throw or of a double throw type. A
single-throw switch can ‘ON OFF’ a single line, whereas, a
double-throw switch can close one line in one direction; and it
can open the first line and close the second line in the other
direction simultaneously. Knife switches for a single-phase line
and for a three-phase line are built separately.These switches
can control a circuit having 30 to 1000 amperes of current.
6. Pendent Switch: Push button pendant switch is use in
industrial ope button pendant stations has various functions
including Emergency stop, Rotary selector switch, Key switch,
Start, Start / Alarm buttons, UP, DOWN for Hoist, LEFT &
RIGHT for Cross travel FORWARD & REVERSE for Long travel
in single speed and dual speed operations.
7. I.C. Main Switch: An IC main switch has a case of cast iron
and that is why it called an iron clad main switch. Porcelain fuse
cut-outs are fitted inside the switch and a handle is fitted outside
the switch. A square shaped Bakelite rod is attached to the
handle. U-shaped clips are fitted on the square shaped Bakelite
rod. When the handle is moved upwards then the U-shaped
clips make the circuit ON by joining the contact points when the
handle is moved downwards then the switch makes the circuit
OFF. Line wires are usually fitted to the bottom side and the
load wires to the top side of the switch. The main switch is used
to control the whole supply for a house of office.
Inverse square law explained
The inverse square law is a physical principle that describes the
relationship between the intensity of a physical quantity that
spreads uniformly through space (such as light, sound, or
gravitational force) and the distance from the source of that
quantity. The law states that the intensity of the quantity is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
source.
For example, in the case of light, if the distance between a light
source and a surface is doubled, the intensity of the light at the
surface will decrease by a factor of four (since 2 squared is 4).
Similarly, if the distance is tripled, the intensity will decrease by
a factor of nine (since 3 squared is 9).
The inverse square law has a wide range of applications in
science and engineering, including in the fields of optics,
acoustics, electromagnetism, and gravity. It is a fundamental
principle that governs the behavior of many natural phenomena
and is an important concept to understand in physics.
• Types of mechanical Switches:
A switch is an electronic device employed to make or break an electric
circuit either automatically or manually. Its working principle is based
on the ON/OFF mechanism. Electrical or electronic circuits employ
various types of switches to trigger or control the circuits. The
connections of the circuit a switch makes determine its type. The types
of connections a switch can make depend on its essential components
like pole and throw; these also define differences in switch contact.
What are poles and throws?
Poles and throws are two essential components of a switch. The
number of circuits a switch can control is defined as its poles, while
the number of positions a switch can adopt is defined as throws.
In a single-throw switch, there is only one pair of contacts, such as
close or open. In contrast, double-throw light switches contain a
contact that can connect to two additional contacts. Electric current
travels between the switch’s two terminals when the switch is turned
on. Electric current does not flow between the switch’s two terminals if
the switch is off.
Types of Switches:
There are four main types of switches — single pole single throw,
single pole double throw, double pole single throw, or double pole
double throw.
Single Pole Single Throw
This is the simplest example of a switch and has one input terminal
called the pole and one output terminal called throw. This switch is
used in a single loop or one closed path.
Single Pole Double Throw
It has one input terminal and two output terminals and can also be
used as a selector switch which means we can supply current to two
loops.
Double Pole Single Throw
These are used to control the two circuits at the same time. It has two
input terminals and two output terminals. In these types of circuits, the
two switches are connected with a single lever and operate at the
same time.
Double Pole Double Throw
This consists of six terminals, two input terminals(poles), and four
output terminals(throw), two for a terminal for each pole. In this, one
pair of output (throw) is connected with two terminal of input (pole).
Two Pole Six Throw
It has one input terminal (pole) and six output terminal (throw) for each
pole. That means a total of 12 output terminal. This is used for
changing over features for the same input terminals in the circuit.
Push Button Switch
When it is pressed, the circuit gets closed for the flow of current. When
pressure is removed from the switch, the contact is broken and the
flow of current is stopped.
Cable insulation materials are used to provide electrical insulation
and protection to the conductor inside a cable. The choice of insulation
material depends on the application, environment, and the properties
of the material itself. Here are some common cable insulation
materials:
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): PVC is a widely used insulation material due
to its low cost, good electrical insulation properties, and ease of
processing. PVC insulation is commonly used in low voltage cables for
indoor applications.
Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE): XLPE is a thermoset insulation
material that is used in medium and high voltage cables. It has
excellent electrical and mechanical properties, as well as resistance to
heat, cold, and chemicals.
Ethylene propylene rubber (EPR): EPR is a synthetic rubber insulation
material that is commonly used in medium and high voltage cables. It
has good electrical and mechanical properties, as well as resistance to
heat, cold, and chemicals.
Silicone rubber: Silicone rubber is an excellent insulation material that
is used in high temperature applications. It has good electrical
insulation properties and can withstand temperatures up to 200°C.
Fluoropolymers: Fluoropolymers, such as polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) and perfluoroalkoxy (PFA), are used in high temperature and
harsh chemical environments. They have excellent electrical insulation
properties and can withstand temperatures up to 260°C.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET): PET is a thermoplastic insulation
material that is commonly used in data cables, such as Ethernet
cables. It has good electrical insulation properties and is resistant to
abrasion and stretching.
Define illumination flux refers to the amount of light energy that
passes through a particular area per unit time. It is a measure of the
intensity of light at a specific location and is commonly expressed in
units such as lumens per square meter (lm/m²) or lux (lx). The
illumination flux depends on several factors such as the light source's
power, the distance between the light source and the illuminated
surface, and the angle at which the light strikes the surface. It is an
important parameter in lighting design and is used to determine the
required number and type of light sources needed to achieve the
desired level of illumination in a space.
Lumen Definition: is a micro-framework for building web applications
in PHP. It is designed to be fast, lightweight, and easy to use, with a
minimal set of features that can be extended as needed. Lumen is
built on top of the Laravel components and is intended for developers
who want to build APIs, microservices, and other small web
applications.
Types of Holders
As the name shows, a lamp holder is used to hold the lamp
required for lighting purpose. These holders can be classified
as bayonet cap lamp holder, pendent holder, batten lamp
holder, angle holder, bracket holder, tube light holder, screw
type Edison and goliath Edison lamp holder, swivel lamp
holder.
The different types of lamp holders are:
1. Batten Holder
2. Pendant Holder
3. Angle Holder
4. Slanting Holder
5. Bracket Holder
6. Watertight Bracket Holder
7. Miniature Screw Type Lamp Holder
8. Lamp Holder Adopter
01. Batten Holder – The batten type holders are directly fixed
to the wall or wooden board, then the lamp is forced in, slightly
turned to left then the lamp will be fixed in holder. This type of
holders is commonly used nowadays in bathrooms, testing
board, and in laboratories.
Bracket Holder – These types of lamp holders are used to give
direct light in the room or any place. This type of holder cannot
be fixed on the ceiling or hanged they are only fixed to the
wall. This type of holder can also be used in table lamps.
These types of holders are made up of brass.
06. Watertight Bracket Holders – Such type of holders is used
outside the house; they are used in street lights provided with
a glass cover to avoid falling of water.
07. Miniature Screw Type Lamp Holders – These types of
holders are used for decoration purposes. They are fixed to
the wall or board just like a screw. They are made up of brass
or bakelite. The specification of such type of holder is 100
watts, 230 volts.
08. Fluorescent Lamp holder and starter holder
The fluorescent holders are either of bi-pin type or of bayonet
cap type, but pin type holders are generally used for ordinary
fluorescent tubes.
09. Goliath Edison Screw Lamp holders (Brass)
Such holders are useful for the lamps having wattage beyond
300 W, the maximum range the lamps with which they can be
used is 1,500 W.
10. Medium Edison Screw Lamp holder (Brass)
Such holders are used with the screwed type lamps up to 200
watts, 250 volts. The different types of such holders are. (a)
Cord grip type. (b) Batten type and (c) Screwed Entry Pattern.
HRC Fuse : The flow of current in an electrical network is
within a fixed limit. Once the flow of current in the network
crosses the fixed limit, a fault occurs within the network like
phase to ground or phase to phase short circuit. When the
flow of current may have a high thermal effect then pieces of
equipment that are connected to the network will be damaged
permanently. To overcome this damage from faults, an
electrical fuse is used. A fuse is an electrical device that
includes a conductor. This conductor easily melts & splits the
circuit connection once the flow of current exceeds the fixed
value. So, this is the weakest part of an electrical circuit. There
are different types of fuses available in the market. So, this
article discusses an overview of what is HRC fuse, working
principle, construction, and its applications.
Working Principle of HRC Fuse
In normal conditions, the flow of current through the fuse
doesn’t provide sufficient energy to soften the element. If the
huge current flows through the fuse then it melts the element
of the fuse before the fault current achieves the climax.When
the fuse is in an overload condition, then the element of the
fuse will not blow-off however if this condition exists for an
extended period, then the material like Eutectic will dissolve &
break the element of the fuse.
When the fuse is in short circuit condition, then the thin parts
of the fuse element is less area will dissolve quickly & will
smash before the eutectic material. So, this is the reason to
provide the limitations within the element of HRC Fuse.
Construction of HRC fuse
The construction of HRC fuse includes a material that has high
heat resistant body like ceramic. This ceramic body includes
metal-end caps that are welded through an element that
carries silver-current. 1.Fuse Construction: The internal space
of the fuse body is filled by a filling powder material. Here the
material used in this is quartz, plaster of Paris, dust, marble,
chalk, etc. So, this is the reason the flow of current cannot
overheat. The generated heat vaporizes the melted element.
The chemical reaction will occur between filling power and
silver vapor to result in high resistance material to help in
reducing the arc within the fuse.
Generally, copper or silver is used as the fuse element
because of its low specific resistance. This element has
normally two or more sections. The fuse element normally has
two or more sections that are connected through tin joints. The
melting point of tin is 240o C that is lesser than silver’s melting
point of 980o C. Thus the melting point of tin joints stops the
fuse from getting high temperatures in the short circuit and
overload conditions.
Characteristics of HRC Fuse
A fuse works once its element dissolves because of the heat
generated through I2RF. Here, RF is the resistance of the
fuse. If the flow of current through the fuse increases, then the
generated heat also increases. So, a fuse element can soften
quicker for huge fault current whereas it will take a little bit for
the lesser value of fault current. Thus, the relationship
between the time-current of the fuse is named as fuse
characteristics. For proper selection of fuse, it is very useful for
a particular circuit.
HRC Fuse Advantages:
The advantages of these fuses include the following –
• These are cheaper as compared with other types
• Easy to design and very simple
• Maintenance is not necessary
• High breaking capability
• The performance of this is consistent.
• Easy operation
• The inverse time characteristic is suitable for overload
protection
HRC Fuse Disadvantages
The disadvantages of these fuses include the following –
• These cannot be reused once they blew out.
• It causes overheating for nearby contacts.
• The possibility of interlocking is larger
• After every action, they have to be changed.
• Heat is generated through the arc may influence the
connected switches
Applications of HRC Fuse
The applications of these fuses include the following –
• HRC fuses are used to protect the circuit from short circuits in
HV switchgear.
• Used for backup safety
• Used to protect electrical devices like motors, transformers,
automobiles, etc
• These types of fuses are used in stators of motor
LRC Fuse :There are mainly two types of LRC fuse i.e. Low
Rapturing Capacity fuse which is explained below –
• Ferrule Contact Cartridge Fuse: - This type of fuse is used for
protecting electrical and electronic circuits. This fuse is mostly
available in the current rating of 25, 50, 100, 200, 250, 500 mA
and 1, 2, 5, 10,16, and 32 Ampere capacity. Normally the
current rating of these types of fuse is written on one side of the
cap and while replacing the fuse the same capacity of fuse
should be used. The body of the fuse is made up of glass and is
connected in between two metallic caps. This type of fuse can
be plugged into the socket easily.
• Diazed Screw Type Cartridge Fuse: - This type of fuse is used
in domestic and industrial applications in many countries. Such
types of fuses are available in different ratings. For easy
identification, these Cartridge and their corresponding fitting
screw are marked with various colors. This is to be done for
preventing the insertion of a fuse cartridge having a larger
current rating in a lower capacity cartridge. It is not possible to
insert a 16 amp. fuse cartridge into the fitting screw of a 10Amp.
fuse cartridge.
Types of Socket:
Sockets are interfaces used to establish communication
between two computer programs or processes. There are
different types of sockets, including:
1.Stream sockets: These are also known as TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) sockets. They provide reliable,
connection-oriented communication between two endpoints.
Stream sockets ensure that data is delivered in the same order
it was sent, and errors are corrected through retransmission.
2.Datagram sockets: These are also known as UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) sockets. They provide unreliable,
connectionless communication between two endpoints.
Datagram sockets do not guarantee the delivery of data, and
errors are not corrected through retransmission.
3.Raw sockets: These provide low-level access to the network
stack, allowing for the creation and sending of custom network
packets. Raw sockets are typically used for advanced
networking applications, such as network analysis and security
testing.
4.Unix domain sockets: These are a type of inter-process
communication (IPC) mechanism used for communication
between processes running on the same machine. Unix domain
sockets provide a faster and more secure alternative to network
sockets for local communication.
5.Bluetooth sockets: These are used for communication
between Bluetooth-enabled devices. Bluetooth sockets provide
a reliable and secure communication channel over short
distances.
6.Secure sockets: These are a type of socket that uses
encryption to provide a secure communication channel over an
unsecured network. Secure sockets are typically used for
web-based applications, such as e-commerce websites, that
require secure communication between a client and a server.
Luminous intensity is a measure of the amount of light emitted
in a particular direction by a light source. It is defined as the
luminous flux per unit solid angle in a specific direction. The unit
of luminous intensity is the candela (cd), which is defined as the
luminous intensity in a given direction of a source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 terahertz and that
has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per
steradian.The luminous intensity of a light source depends on
its brightness and the direction in which it emits light. For
example, a flashlight pointed directly at your eye will appear
much brighter than the same flashlight pointed away from you,
even though it is emitting the same amount of light. Luminous
intensity is an important factor in lighting design and is used to
specify the brightness of lamps and lighting fixtures.
Types of Electrical Wiring Selection of Size of Conductor:- MCB Definition & Types
There are following types of electrical wiring. The selection of the size of a conductor depends on several Mcb stands for Miniature Circuit Breaker, which is an electrical
• Cleat wiring or Temporary wiring factors, including the amount of electrical current that the switch designed to protect electrical circuits from damage
• Wooden or Batten wiring conductor will carry, the voltage at which the conductor will caused by overcurrents or short circuits. It is a type of circuit
• Casing and Capping operate, the length of the conductor, the ambient temperature, breaker that is commonly used in residential and commercial
• Conduit Wiring and the type of insulation used on the conductor. applications to provide protection to the electrical wiring and
• Trunking Wiring •In general, larger conductors can carry more current and devices in a building.
1.Cleat Wiring or Temporary Wiring have less resistance than smaller conductors, which results in There are mainly two types of MCBs:
It is a temporary wiring used for function and construction work. less voltage drop and less heat generated in the conductor. Single Pole MCB - It has a single switch that is designed to
Wooden and plasticcleats used for this purpose and distance between However, larger conductors can also be more expensive and protect a single phase of an electrical circuit. It is commonly
the two cleats lies between 4 to 6 feet. more difficult to install. used in residential applications.
Advantages of cleat wiring: •The National Electrical Code (NEC) provides guidelines for Double Pole MCB - It has two switches that are designed to
It is easy to fault detection. selecting the appropriate size of conductor for a given protect two phases of an electrical circuit. It is commonly used
It is easy to repair. application based on these factors. These guidelines specify in commercial applications and for heavy-duty electrical loads.
This is the temporary wiring system. the minimum conductor size required to safely carry a given Additionally, MCBs can also be classified based on their current
It is the cheapest for internal wiring. amount of current without exceeding the temperature rating of rating, which refers to the maximum current that the MCB can
Alternation and addition are easy. the insulation. safely handle without tripping. Common current ratings for
The whole wiring is replaced for a short period of time and material of •To determine the appropriate size of conductor for a specific MCBs include 6A, 10A, 16A, 20A, 32A, 40A, and 63A.
wiring is used in another place if we want.The inspection of this wiring application, you should consult the NEC and any other Types of earthing & definition
is very easy.All the cables are in open-air therefore fault is very easily relevant codes or standards, and consider the specific Earthing, also known as grounding, is the process of connecting
found and replaced it very quickly.Customization can be easily done. requirements of the installation. It may also be helpful to a conductor or a part of an electrical system to the earth in
Installation and dismantlement are easy and quick. consult with a licensed electrician or other qualified order to provide a safe path for electric current in case of a fault
Material is recoverable after the dismantlement. professional. or leakage.
Disadvantages of cleat wiring: Trunking Wiring: There are various types of earthing, including:
It has a bad appearance. It is used for heavy voltage lines in substation and generation. Plate Earthing: This type of earthing involves burying a copper
It is not looking good. Iron trunks are used for this wiring. Trunks available in circular plate in the ground and connecting it to the electrical system.
This wiring system is not safe and durable. or square shape. Couplers are used for jointing Pipe Earthing: In this type of earthing, a GI pipe is driven into
It is a chance to shock or fire. differentlengths which fixed with screw.Trunking wiring is used the ground and connected to the electrical system.
It is not a sustainable wiring system. mostly in developed cities. Rod Earthing: This involves inserting a copper or galvanized
It is used only low-temperature places. Selection of rating of main switch:- iron (GI) rod into the ground and connecting it to the electrical
Wire are exposed to mechanical injury. Selecting the appropriate rating for a mains switch depends on system.
It is not suitable for domestic premises. several factors such as the type of load that the switch will be Strip Earthing: In this type of earthing, a copper strip is buried in
Oil and smoke are injuries to VIR insulation. controlling, the voltage and current of the circuit, and the a trench around the perimeter of the building and connected to
Quit tempory and perished quickly. ambient operating conditions. Here are some general the electrical system.
It is used only 220/440 V in low ambient temperature only. guidelines to consider when selecting the rating for a mains XLPE Cable:-
The risk of fire is present because the cable is in open conditions. switch: XLPE cable means cross-linked polyethylene insulated
Exposed to weather to be affected by humidity, rain, smoke, sunlight, •Determine the maximum current that will flow through the aluminium conductor armoured cable. In XLPE cable,
oil, vapor, steam, etc.this wiring system is not long-lasting. switch in normal operation. This value can be found by stranded aluminium conductor is first screened in the form of a
After some of the duration, sag is produced in the cables.The dust and calculating the current draw of all the devices that the switch semi-conducting extrusion which provides a smoothconductor
smoke are directly affected on cable therefore after some duration controls. surface and prevents formation of cavities at the surface of the
beauty of this wiring is costly.This is the temporary wiring system, it •Select a switch with a current rating that is equal to or greater conductor when the cable is subjected to bending. The
can't be used permanent wiring.If the cap of a cleat tightly screws on than the maximum current expected to flow through it. For screened conductor is insulated with extruded XLPE compound.
the base then the insulation of the cable is damaged and the risk of example, if the maximum current expected is 10 amps, select The insulation is further screened with layer of nonmetallic
the current leakage is occurring. a switch with a rating of 10 amps or higher. semiconducting material and over that a non-magnetic metallic
2.Wooden or Batten Wiring: •Consider the voltage rating of the switch. Choose a switch screen in the form of copper or aluminium tape is applied. An
Wooden pieces and steel clips are used for this purpose Distance that has a voltage rating equal to or greater than the maximum important advantage of XLPE as insulation for medium and high
between two clips willbe 4 to 6 inches. Steelclips is fixed with the help voltage of the circuit. voltage cables is their low dielectric loss. The dielectric loss
of nail and then lay out the wire onthe wooden piece and then fixed •Take into account the ambient operating conditions. If the factor is about one decimal power lower than that of paper
them with steel clips. switch will be used in a high-temperature environment, choose insulated cables and about two decimal powers lower than that
Advantages: a switch with a higher temperature rating. of PVC insulated cables. Since the dielectric constant is also
1. Cheap wiring. •Consider any regulatory requirements that apply to the more favorable, the mutual capacitance of XLPE cables is also
2. Installation is easy. application. For example, some industries may have specific lower, thus reducing the charging currents and earth-leakage
3. Extension is possible. requirements for the type and rating of switches used in their currents in networks without the rigid star point earthing.
4. Easy to locate the fault as the wires are open. applications. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB):-
Disadvantages: •Overall, it is important to carefully consider the specific A Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is an automatically operated
1. In case of short circuit wood can easily catch the fire. requirements of your application to ensure that you select the electrical switch used to protect low voltage electrical circuits
2. Unsafe from mechanical damages appropriate rating for your mains switch. If you are unsure, it is from damage caused by excess current from an overload or
3. Unsafe from water. recommended to consult with a qualified electrical engineer or short circuit. MCBs are typically rated up to a current up to 125
4. Life span is short i.e. about 10 to 15 years. other technical expert. A, do not have adjustable trip characteristics, and can be
Casing and Capping Wiring: thermal or thermal-magnetic in operation.
It consists of two parts lower one is called casing and the upper part Construction of MCB:
for covering is known as capping. Casing An MCB embodies a complete enclosure in a mouldedinsulating
is fixed with the help of rawal plug. Then lay out the wires and cables material. This provides mechanically strong and insulated
in the casing and finally covered with housing.The switching system consists of a fixed and a moving
capping. contact to which incoming and outgoing wires are connected.
Sizes of Casing and Capping: The metal or current carrying parts are made up of electrolytic
Following size of casing and capping are easily available. copper or silver alloy depending on the rating of the circuit
1. 16x16mm breaker.
2. 16x25mm Working Principle of MCB:
3. 16x38mm The operation of the MCB includes two stages, i.e., thermal
4. 38x40mm operation and short circuit operation. The former operation
5. 40x40mm based on the thermal effect of over current while the later
6. 40x60mm operation is based on the electromagnetic effect of over current.
7. 60x80mm All MCBs operate on the air-break principle where the arc
8. 80x80mm between the contacts is forced into the splitter plates through
Advantages:- arc runners. This causes to spilt single arc into a series of arcs
1. Installation is easy. and then extinguishes the arc by extracting the energy from the
2. Extension is possible. arc and by cooling it.With the use of bimetallic strip, thermal
3. Material can be reused. operation is achieved in case overload conditions. When
Disadvantages:- overload current flows through the MCB, the bimetallic strip gets
1. Costly wiring. heated and causes to deflect. In doing so, it moves the trip
2. Difficult to locate the fault as the wires or cables are covered. lever and releases the latch mechanism and hence the contacts
3. In case of short circuit casing and capping can catch fire as they are open under spring mechanism.
made ofPlastic.
Conduit Wiring:
There are two types of conduit wiring
1. Open or External
2. Internal or Concealed
P.V.C (Poly Vinyl Chloride) pipes are used for this type of wiring in
which cable passes from one point to other point for electric supply
within P.V.C. pipes. In internal wiringthe pipe is fixed concealed in the
roof and wall, while in open wiring the pipes are fixed on the wall with
clips or saddle.
Accessories used in Conduit Wiring:
1. L-Bend
2. T-Bend
3. Junction Box
4. Socket
5. Saddle
Advantages
1. Wiring is water proof.
2. Safe from mechanical damages.
3. Look beautiful as it is concealed.
4. Long life (approx 100 years).
Disadvantages
1. Difficult to locate the fault as the wires or cables are covered.
2. Extension is difficult.
3. Installation is difficult..
Leakage current:- is the current that flows through the
protective ground conductor to ground. In the absence of a
grounding connection, it is the current that could flow from any
conductive part or the surface of non-conductive parts to
ground if a conductive path was available (such as a human
body).