(1) Example, Force on a window of high-rise building

(2) Example, Channel Flow, Manning’s formula

(3) Flow over weir

Some more (simple) example questions for

revision/homework but not covered in this lecture
(4) Car Ferry
(5) Tank filled with three different fluids
(6) Hemispherical dome
(7) Iceberg
(8) Shower head
(1) Force on a window of a high-rise building
 Window

144 km/h

Wind reaches a speed of 144 km/h in a storm. The window is

in a high-rise building, so the wind speed is not reduced due to
ground effects. (Density air, ρ=1.27 kg/m3)

Calculate the force acting on the 0.9m x 1.8m

window facing the storm in sketch above.
 Window
144 km/h

Initially when I saw this example I was tempted to solve it by

Momentum Conservation, in a manner similar to earlier example
where a jet was impinging on a flat plate.
However,
the book where the question comes from, took a different route.
What do you think the other route may be?
Answer:
Bernoulli Equation … Let’s try this…
 Window
144 km/h

What do you think the strategy

via Bernoulli looks like?
Answer:
Strategy is, find pressure, P, in stagnation point located on
window, then force via:

F= P x Area
 Window
144 km/h (2)

(1)

Select point (1) in the free stream

and point (2) on the window.
Hence, point (2) is in the stagnation region.
Velocity is zero in the stagnation point, that is
where the central streamline arrives at window.
 Window
144 km/h
(2)

(1)

Bernoulli Equation:

Step 1, flow is along horizontal streamline. Hence…

Step 2, Stagnation point on window at (2). Hence V2=0 …

 Window
144 km/h
(2)

(1)

Last Eq. previous slide:

What now!?
Step 3, came as minor ‘surprise’,…
Any ideas what the ‘surprise step’ might be?
Use P1 (i.e. pressure in flowing atmosphere) as reference pressure such that it
is zero (…of course it makes sense working relative to pressure in oncoming air). Hence, …
 Window
144 km/h
(2)

(1)

Last Eq. from previous slide:

Need V1 in units m/s to calculate P2:

Hence:
 Window
144 km/h
(2)

(1)

Since we now know that:

Can calculate force from F = P2 x A:

 Window
144 km/h
(2)

(1)

Note that result, F=1646 N, must be an overestimate since it is

based on the pressure in the stagnation point only.

Outside stagnation point, on the window area, the fluid is in motion.

Hence, the pressure everywhere outside the stagnation point is lower.

Therewith the total force, integrated over area of window, must be

lower than the result we obtained.
 Window
144 km/h
(2)

(1)
 Window
144 km/h
(2)

(1)

Let’s quickly check what happens if we try to apply

Momentum conservation, rather than Bernoulli.
and
 Hence, force on window from

Momentum Solution:

F = +3292 N

Oooopss, we are out by a factor 2 compared to the

‘Bernoulli Solution’:

F = +1646 N
 Factor 2 (or ½) comes from
in Bernoulli solution.
From Bernoulli we had:
and here

from Momentum we get .

HOW DO WE RESOLVE THIS

DISCREPANCY?
 HOW DO WE RESOLVE THIS
DISCREPANCY?
Surely we are inclined to believe that
Bernoulli Solution from book is probably
correct one and not that silly
Momentum Approach by Eddy DeCay.
Let’s see …
My explanation to resolve problem is that we have a similar situation as in Bernoulli
approach. There we based force on stagnation pressure. However, everywhere on
window, outside of stagnation point, pressure will be lower than stagnation pressure.
Here, in Momentum approach, we essentially assumed that all available x-
momentum is ‘destroyed/redirected radially’ as soon as it arrives at the window. But
this is not the case. Everywhere above and below the stagnation streamline only
some of the available x-momentum is ‘destroyed/redirected radially’.
Only if an air jet with a cross section much smaller than the window itself arrives at
the window then it is possible that all of the available, arriving x-momentum is
eventually ‘destroyed/redirected’ as flow is deflected to flow parallel to window.
Thus Momentum Conservation must yield an overestimate for force, similar to
Bernoulli approach. However, I am surprised that there really is a whole factor ‘2’
difference. But in order to make further progress, to see how the large difference
arises, would have to redo Bernoulli and Momentum approaches by properly
integrating relevant pressure and momentum contributions over whole area of the
window.
But I don’t think we will do this now. Hence, I leave it up to you to do this tonight,
after dinner, over a cigar and a glass of brandy. ….
 In Summary:

Momentum approach to calculate force on

plate here correct. Because ALL ‘x-
Momentum gets ‘destroyed/re-directed’
on plate area.

Momentum approach to calculate force on

window here NOT correct. Because NOT
Window ALL AVAILABLE ‘x-Momentum arriving
at window area does get ‘destroyed/re-
directed’ over window area.
 Example
(2) Channel Flow, Manning’s formula (Dimensional vs. Non-
dimensional equations)
 In 1890 Robert Manning, an Irish
Engineer, proposed the following
empirical formula for the average velocity
V in uniform flow due to gravity down an
open channel (BG units, British
Gravitational system, lbf, slug):

R = hydraulic radius of channel (ratio cross-sectional area to wetted

perimeter)

S = channel slope (tangent of angle that bottom makes with

horizontal)
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient, a constant for given
surface conditions of walls and bottom of channel.
(a) Is Manning’s formula, Eq. (1), dimensionally consistent?

(b) Equation (1) is commonly taken to be valid in BG units

with n taken as dimensionless. Rewrite it in SI form.
 Manning Equation:

(1)

(a) Is Manning’s formula, Eq. (1), dimensionally consistent?

Assumption: Channel slope S is tangent of angle and is thus a
dimensionless ratio with dimensional notation [1] – that is, not
containing M, L, or T
Approach (a): Rewrite dimensions of each term in Manning’s
equation, using bracket

or (2a,b)
Eq. (2b) on previous slide

only compatible if

(because then )

If n is dimensionless (and it is never listed with units in

textbooks), the number 1.49 MUST carry the dimensions of
Number 1.49 carrying the dimensions

or, for instance,

is VERY UGLY and it gets you in a big mess in the long run!!!

If you are not aware that number must have

dimensions m1/3/s and you start using cm for R in
Manning’s formula then all your calculations are wrong
… The numbers will be wrong, and you end up
with a velocity in units of:

Which even the most liberal engineer

recognizes as
rubbish!!!!
• In fact it is soooo dangerous that I already messed
up in typing this example.

• Above I argued in units of m and s.

• However, at start of example I said that

Manning’s formula is valid in BG units.
WE LEARN …

Better write formulas

in non-dimensional form such
that this problem is not
encountered!!!!!
For instance, the non-dimensional drag coefficient

will be the same no matter what units you use…

 Comment regarding (a):
• Formulas whose numerical coefficients have units can
be disastrous for engineers working in a different
system or another fluid.

• Manning’s formula, though popular, is inconsistent

both dimensionally and physically and is valid only
for water flow with certain wall roughness.

• The effects of water viscosity and density are hidden

in the numerical value 1.49
(b) Equation (1) is commonly taken to be valid in BG units with n
taken as dimensionless. Rewrite it in SI form.
Approach (b): Part (a) showed that 1.49 has dimensions. If the
formula is valid in BG units (lbf, slugs), then it must equal
Need to convert to SI units.
Since 1 foot = 0.3048 m the conversion factor is

Hence, Manning’s inconsistent formula changes form when

converted to the SI system. It becomes:

compared to before
 Example
(3) Flow over weir
 Neglect viscous effects, assume uniform velocity
profiles, and find the horizontal force component
acting on the obstruction shown in figure above.
 Analyze problem…

What are we looking for? … A force ….

Hence, concepts like pressure and momentum come

to mind for solving…

Well, we have momentum coming in on left and

going out on right… So, momentum seems like a
good idea for strategy to solve
 Control Volume, CV…
I won’t show it again on next slides,
we know what we are talking about …
 Analyze problem…

BUT!
We are not given in/outflow velocities. Brexit…!

BUT! Hang on,… We are given geometric

dimensions…. Maybe Mass Conservation can help us
out initially….. Let’s see where this gets us ….
(1)

(2)

Volumetric Flow Rate IN: 0.7m x 1.5m x V1

Volumetric Flow Rate OUT: 0.1 m x 1.5m x V2

Mass Conservation requires both to be equal:

0.7m x 1.5m x V1 = 0.1 m x 1.5m x V2

→
 So far so good… But what are we
now going to do with the result
V2= 7 V1 ?

In order to apply momentum conservation we need to know the

values of V1 and V2, otherwise we cannot make progress…

After a few minutes of deliberation Energy Conservation and

Bernoulli come to mind… Let’s see …

We were told to assume UNIFORM velocity profiles…

What if we ….
 (1)

(2)

What if we just look at surface streamline, where pressure is

atmospheric, PA, from (1) to (2)
→

→
 Last line previous slide was:

And earlier had found V2 = 7 V1

Introduce v2 = 7V1 into last line on previous slide

Solve for V1 →

→
 Now have the two velocities
V1= 0.495 m/s and V2=3.467 m/s.

With the two velocity values can now proceed with applying
Momentum Conservation in the usual manner ….

With

What next? …→
 What terms go into ?
= Pressure Forces + Force caused by Obstruction on Liquid

We are after this guy

times -1…
 What terms go into ?
= Pressure Forces + Force caused by Obstruction on Liquid

Pressure Force on LEFT - Pressure Force on RIGHT

Difference between both has net effect on motion of liquid

 What terms go into ?

= Pressure Forces + Force caused by Obstruction on Liquid

So, with right-hand side of equation

And substituting in expression for

 Use: ρw = 1000 kg/m3

1000x9.81x0.35x(0.7x1.5) – 1000x9.81x0.05x(0.1x1.5) + FOL

= 1000x0.495x(0.7x1.5)(3.467-0.495)
= 3605.175 – 73.575 + FOL = 1544.697
→ FOL= 1544.697 – 3605.175 + 73.575
= - 1987 Yiiippeeee, FINALLY almost same number as in book;
book has 1986

So, force Obstruction on Liquid: FOL =-1987N (i.e. to left)

→ Force Liquid on Obstruction: FLO = + 1987 N (i.e. to right)

 Example
(4) Car ferry, Buoyancy
 The car ferry on left is
essentially rectangular.
Assume dimensions
a=7.5m wide and b=90m long.

If 60 cars, with an average weight per car of

15,000 N, are loaded on the ferry, how much
farther will it sink into the water?
 What main concept/principle do we
need to employ to solve this
problem?

Answer:
Buoyancy / Archimedes Principle
 What does
Archimedes principle
state?

Answer:
A body totally or partially immersed in a
fluid is subject to an upward force equal in
magnitude to the weight of fluid it
displaces.
 Hence, strategy for solving the
question is … ?!

Answer:
(1) Calculate the total weight of the cars.

(2) Find the height h for which the water volume

a x b x h = 7.5m x 90m x h
weighs as much as the 60 cars.
 Density water use: ρw = 998 kg/m3

Weight 60 cars: F60 = 60 x 15,000 N = 900,000 N

Hence, need to satisfy

F60 = ρw g a b h → h = F60 / (ρw g a b)

Thus, →
 Example
(5) Pressure in tank filled with three different fluids
 1.5 kPa
(gage) Specific weights (γ=ρg)
Air: γAir=12 N/m3
Air: γGas.=6670 N/m3
Air: γGlyc.=12360 N/m3

zB
zc

The pressure gage in the above sketch reads 1.5 kPa (gage). The
fluids are at 20 0C.
Determine the elevations z, in metres, of the liquid
levels in the open piezometer tubes.
 Let piezometer Tube B
be an arbitrary
distance H above the
gasoline-glycerine
H interface
 γAir=12 N/m3, γGas.=6670 N/m3, γGlyc.=12360 N/m3

Apply hydrostatic formula from

Point A to Point B
1500 N/m2
+ (12 N/m3) (2m)
H zB + (6670 N/m3) (1.5m –H)
- (6670 N/m3) (zB-H-1m)
= PB= 0 (gage)

Solve for zB → zB= 2.73 m

(That is 0.23 m above the gasoline-air interface.)

γAir=12 N/m3, γGas.=6670 N/m3, γGlyc.=12360 N/m3

Next:
Solution for C
with similar strategy ….
zC
 Let piezometer Tube C
be an arbitrary
distance Y above the
bottom.

Y
 γAir=12 N/m3, γGas.=6670 N/m3, γGlyc.=12360 N/m3

Apply hydrostatic formula from

Point A to Point C
1500 N/m2
+ (12 N/m3) (2m)
+ (6670 N/m3) (1.5m)
zc
Y + (12360 N/m3) (1m-Y)
- (11360 n/m3) (zC-y)
= Pc= 0 (gage)
Solve for zC → zC= 1.93 m
(That is 0.93 m above the gasoline-glycerine interface.)
 Example
(6) Hemispherical dome
 The hemispherical dome on left,
with radius r, weighs WD=30 kN.
The dome is filled with water
and attached to the floor by six
equally spaced bolts.

What is the force in each bolt required to

hold down the dome?
 Density water: ρw = 998 kg/m3

What is the ‘trick’ required here

to solve the problem?

Assuming no leakage, the hydrostatic force

required equals the weight of missing water, that
is, the water in a 4-m-diameter cylinder, 6 m
high, minus the hemisphere and the small pipe
 Density water: ρw = 998 kg/m3

Weight of missing water is …

Ftotal= W2-m-cylinder – W2-m-hemisphere – W3-cm-pipe

= ρw g π r2 6m – (1/2) ρw g (4/3) πr3 – ρw g π (rpipe)2hpipe

= 738,149N – 164,033N – 28N = 574,088N →

 Density water: ρw = 998 kg/m3

Weight of missing water, from previous page:

Ftotal=574,088N

The dome material helps with WD=30 kN of weight.

Thus, the six bolts must supply
FB= 574,088N – 30,000N = 544,088N

Each bolt: (1/6) x FB ≈ 90,700N

Example
(7) Iceberg
 Icebergs can be driven at
substantial speeds by the
wind. Let the iceberg in figure
on left be idealized as a large,
flat cylinder, D>>L, with one
eighth of its bulk exposed.

If the upper and lower drag forces depend upon

relative velocities between the berg and the fluid, derive
an approximate expression for the steady iceberg speed
V when driven by wind velocity U
 Iceberg speed V
Wind velocity U

 Assume steady drifting (no acceleration)

 Iceberg sees a water current coming V from front

 And a relative air velocity (U-V) coming from behind

 Iceberg speed V
Wind velocity U

Ignoring moments (the berg will merely tilt slightly), the two drag
forces from part above and below water must balance

→
 Equations from previous slide
, ,

This has the form of a quadratic equation for the Iceberg

speed V, as a function of wind speed U

(For exact form of α see next slide)

Quadratic equation:

Solving yields: Eq. (1)

FOR 2017-2018.
where Update possible -1
factor missing from
Eq. (1). See Notes
from Spring 2017
Since → α >> 1.in hardcopy folder

Therewith can approximate Eq. (1)

 Example
(8) Shower Head
Water at 20oC flows steadily through a piping junction entering
section (1) at 75 L/min. The average velocity at section (2) is
2.5 m/s. A portion of the flow is diverted through the
showerhead, which contains 100 holes of 1-mm diameter.

Assuming uniform shower flow, estimate the exit

velocity from the showerhead jets.
 Ask yourself:
What concept do we need to apply to solve this question?

Answer:

CONSERVATION OF MASS
 OK…. Now where best to start? Let’s Analyze the problem.
What do we know?
At (1), 75 L/min,
At (2), 2.5 m/s
At (3) 100 holes each 1-mm diameter
& dimensions as given in sketch

We see that we know velocity and diameter at (2). Hence, why

not start with calculating volumetric flow rate, Q2. Our
engineering instinct tells us we’ll surely need this…
Q2 = V2 x A2 = 2.5 m/s x π (0.01 m)2 = 7.85 x 10-4 m3/s
Our engineering instinct was right! Since we were given what
went in at (1) and now know what goes out at (2) we can
calculate how much has been diverted to route (3).

Q1 = 75 L/min = 75 x 1000 cm3 / 60 s = 75 x 1000 (10-2 cm)3 / 60 s

= 75 x 10-3 m3 / 60 s = 1.25 x 10-3 m3/s

So, we have: Q2 = 7.85 x 10-4 m3/s and Q1 = 1.25 x 10-3 m3/s

What next?

Mass conservation requires: Q1 = Q2 + Q3

→ Q3 = Q1 - Q2 = 4.65 x 10-4 m3/s

So, we have: Q3 = 4.65 x 10-4 m3/s

What next?
Q3 comes out of 100 holes of equal size.
Hence, each whole gets 1/100th of Q3.

Hence: (1/100) x Q3 = 4.65 x 10-6 m3/s

So, we have per hole: Qh = 4.65 x 10-6 m3/s

What next?
Flow through each hole must satisfy
Qh = Vh x Ah

→ V h = Qh / A h
 Thus: Qh = 4.65 x 10-6 m3/s and V h = Qh / A h

So, we now only need Ah …

Ah= π rh2 = π (0.0005 m)2 = 7.85 x 10-7 m2

→ Vh = Qh / Ah = 4.65 x 10-6 m3/s / 7.85 x 10-7 m2

= 5.92 m/s
THAT’S IT FOR THIS YEAR…
Hopefully see you in Year 3…
Auf Wiedersehen …