CHAPTER 14

OSCILLATIONS

Periodic and oscillatory motion

A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion. If
the periodic motion of a body is about a fixed point called equilibrium position, then it is called
oscillatory motion. Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but every periodic motion is not
oscillatory.
For example circular motion is periodic but not oscillatory.
Eg. For periodic motion - Orbital motion of planets in the solar system
For oscillatory motion - motion of a pendulum of a clock
Definitions
1. Period (T)-The time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation. It can also be defined
as the smallest interval of time after which the motion is repeated. It is measured in seconds. 2.
Frequency(v) - The number of oscillations in unit time is called frequency.

-1

(ie) v = 1/T
Its unit is s1 or
Hz.
3. Displacement (x) - The position of the particle from its mean position is called displacement.
It can be represented by a mathematical function of time. It is measured in metre.
4. Amplitude (A) - The maximum displacement from the mean position is called amplitude. 5.
Angular frequency(@) - It is 211 times the frequency of oscillation.
@ = 2 II v = 2 II/T
ω

6. Periodic function - Periodic function is the one which repeats itself at regular intervals of
time. Eg. sine function, cosine function

f(t) = A cosot
7. Phase - The physical quantity that indicates the position and direction of motion of a particle
executing oscillation is called phase of the oscillation. It is also defined as the argument of the sine
or cosine function in the displacement equation.
8. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) - It is the motion in which the acceleration of the particle
executing SHM is directly proportional to the displacement of the particle from the
equilibrium position. It is always directed towards the equilibrium position. Thus it acts
against the direction of displacement.
(ie) For a SHM acceleration (a) a displacement(x)

SHM can be represented by the equation

x(t) = A cos (ot + D)

 where x-displacement at any instant t
A - Amplitude of oscillation
- Angular frequency
-phase constant or initial phase
oot + - phase
The above equation can be represented diagrammatically as follows:
x
acement -
A
mple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion
Consider a particle 'P' performing uniform motion with angular speed 'o' in a circle of
radius 'A'. At any time t, the angular position of the particle at + 0, where is the initial phase at t=0.
The projection of particle P on x-axis is at P' which can be considered as another particle. The projection of
the position vector of a particle P on the x-axis gives the location x of P'.

Oi

wt+o
A

x(t)

OP' = x
OQ = 4
P

From triangle OPP', cos(ot + 0) = x/A

(or) x = A cos(at +)

Similarly from A OPQ, sin (wt + D) = y/A

Equations
and
(or) y = A sin(ot + )
2)

give the displacement of P' along X-axis and Y-axis respectively, which shows
that if the reference particle P moves in a uniform circular motion, its projection particle P❜ executes
SHM along a diameter of the circle. Thus uniform circular motion can be considered as the projection of two
simple harmonic motions acting at right angles to each other along two perpendicular diameters of the
reference circle.
Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion
Velocity
y

WA
.wt+p

@t+$
X

vt) P

The displacement of the particle executing SHM is given as

x = A cos(@t + 0)

where A - amplitude of SHM, ∞ -

Its velocity at any instant is given by

angular frequency and (ot+) - phase

(‫ف‬
))
V

dx
dt-
=

- A Sincwl+9)
.

W
-

Aw sin(wt
+6)

v
(2
)
 v
-

Aw Sin (wt +)
2

w√A2 sin2 (wt. +α) = _w√

A2 - A2 cos2{Col + $)
-

‫حب‬

_-_ cos2(Co(+
$)
2
x

(using )
_
v(t) = ± w√A2 =
x2(t)

Equation gives instantaneous velocity of particle executing SHM.

Special case:
1. At equilibrium position, x = 0
... From (3
v = +A∞ =+A 2 IIv = + A 2 II/T

2. At extreme ends, x = A

.. From3 v=0

Thus velocity is maximum at equilibrium position and zero at extreme ends.

Acceleration
y
 A
P

wt+$
X

a(t) P
3

The displacement of the particle executing SHM is given as

x = A cos(@t+)
1
where A - amplitude of SHM, @ angular frequency and (ot +) - phase

Its velocity at any instant is given by

V =

dx
· A sinut +).w
 de

a=

do
de-

(or) a = -02x
- Aw sin(wt +$)
Aw cos (wt +$).w
- Aw2 cosfut+)
>
(3

Thus acceleration is proportional to the displacement and acts in a direction opposite to that of the
displacement.
Special case:
1. At equilibrium x = 0
.: a = 0
2. At extreme ends x = A
...a=-A o2
2

Thus acceleration is zero at equilibrium and maximum at extreme ends.

raphical representation of particle displacement, velocity and acceleration
in SHM

-A
x

t+WA
 Velocity →→
Acceleration →
0

-WA

+W2
A
V

-W2
A
T

t+

The above graph shows that, the instantaneous velocity leads displacement by II/2 and the
acceleration leads the displacement by II.

Force law for SHM

According to Newton's second law, the force acting on the particle of mass 'm' with acceleration 'a'
is given by
F = ma

For a simple harmonic motion a=-o2x

Substituting in
2.
 F = -m o2x

(or)
F=-kx
3

where
k = mo2
2

(or) o2 =
k/m
... w = √k/m
[4

211/T = √k/m

✰ Time period of oscillation T = 211/√k/m

2π1

Equation is called Force law. The force is proportional to the displacement but in the opposite
direction. Hence it is said to be the restoring force. Unlike centripetal force for uniform circular
which is constant in
force motion,

magnitude, the restoring for SHM is time dependant. Equation 3 gives another definition for SHM.
SHM is the motion executed by a particle subject to a force, which is proportional to the
displacement of the particle and is directed towards the mean position.
nergy in SHM

Kinetic energy(K)
The velocity of a particle executing SHM is a function of time. Kinetic energy of such particle is given by
K = 1⁄2
mv2

= 1⁄2 m A2 2sin2(ot + D) = 1⁄2 m 2 A2sin2(

ot+)
= 1⁄2 kA2sin2(
@t+Q)
Thus kinetic energy is also a function of time.
->
(*: k=m
w2)
Equation can be written as
K = 1⁄2k A2 (1 - cos2( wt +
))

K = 1⁄2k (A2 -
x2)
2

Special case:
1. At extreme end, x = A
From
K=0

2. At mean position x = 0
From (2
K = 1⁄2k
A2
Thus kinetic energy is maximum at mean position and zero at extreme
ends.

Potential energy (U)

If F is the restoring force at any instant of oscillation, then

F =-kx

Work done for the small displacement dx is given by

dW = F.dx=kx dx = m w2x dx
(k=wm)
.. Work done for the displacement from zero to x is given by

W=
dw

W
mw2

2
2

भर
 === mw2
x
O
x

mw2. x
2

= = mw2 A 2 cos2 (wt +p) [:: x =

A cos(wt+4)]
(or) W = 1⁄2 kA cos2(
ot+Q)
3

This work done is stored as potential energy in the system.

.. Potential energy U= 1⁄2 kA cos( wt + )
(or) U = 1⁄2k
x2
(4)

Thus equation3 shows that potential energy of a particle executing SHM is

also periodic.
Special case:
1. At mean position, x = 0
.. From
U=0

U = 1⁄2kA2
2. At extreme ends, x = A

From (5)
otal energy (E

It is the sum of potential and kinetic energy.

(ie) E=K+U
Using equations 1 and 4
2

E = 1⁄2 kA2sin2 ( ot+)+ 1⁄2 kA cos( wt + )

(or)
E = 1⁄2
KA2
=

= mw2 A2 =
m. 4π2 22.
A2
Thus the total energy of the particle is independent of time but depends on the
> frequency of oscillation
➤ mass of the oscillating particle
square of the amplitude of oscillation

The variation of potential energy and kinetic energy i) as a function of time as in fig.(a) ii) as
a function of position as in fig.(b)

[
1
]
E
Energy

E
[
T
]
-U(t)
+K(t)
 XXX
XXX
Fig.
(a)
T/2
T
u(t)

K(t)
t

-U(x)+K(x)

U(x)

-A
Energy
K(x)
x
+A

Examples for systems executing

SHM
 1. Simple Pendulum
Fig.
(b)

Consider a simple pendulum which consists of bob of mass 'm', suspended from one end of
an unstretchable, massless string of length L fixed at the other end as in the following fig. Let it be
subjected to free oscillations. Let be the angular displacement of the bob at any instant 't'. The forces
acting on the pendulum are
mg the gravitational force acting downwards
The tension T acting along the string towards the point of suspension O

Ө
L

S= LO

mgsin
o.
B
mg
cose

mg

The force mg can be resolved into two components as mgcose and mgsine. mgcose balances the
tension T. mgsine provides force for the restoring torque.

..T-L mgsine
If a is the angular acceleration and I is the moment of inertia of oscillation of the pendulum, then

τ=Ια

From equations
 and
I a =-Lmgsine

L
-

(or)
L
Lmg.o
2

(Sin~0, when
ச
o is small)

(mg).
Ө
3

Thus angular acceleration of a simple pendulum is directly proportional to its displacement and it acts
in a direction opposite to that of the displacement... the oscillations of a simple pendulum are simple
harmonic.
From the equation of SHM,
a0

From (3) and (4

→4

w2
=3

mgL
nxg k
(I=ML2)
I
 w2 =

(2
푸)'
9
L

(or)
T
2π

涯
5
Equation gives the time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum.

2. Oscillations due to a spring

Consider a mass 'm' attached to one end of a light spring, whose other end is fixed as in the
following figure.
If '1' is the extension produced when it is in equilibrium position, then
mg-kl=0

(Fot
=0)
1

Unloaded
spring
m
 toaded
spring
at equilibrium.
x
I
m

Loaded
spring
at
any instant
't'.
When the mass is subjected to a small displacement x, then the total force acting on the spring is
given by
Ftot = mg-kl-kx = ma

(or) mg - k(1+ a) = ma
2

Substituti
ng
in 2
Kl-kr-kx = ma

a=-(k/m) x
aax

Thus a loaded spring executes SHM.

For a SHM
a = -02x

From 3 and
4

w2 = k/m
W
Vk/m
 2II/T = √k/m

T = 2 II √m/k

v = 1/211 √k/m
(3

5)

6
4

Equations and give the time period and frequency of the oscillation.

Damped simple harmonic

motion

In damped oscillation, the amplitude of SHM decreases exponentially with increase of time due
to friction force.

Consider a block of mass 'm' that oscillates vertically on a spring with spring constant k. As
the block oscillates up and down in the surrounding air medium, the medium exerts a viscous force on the
entire oscillating system and hence the amplitude of oscillation decreases.

The damping force exerted by the surrounding medium Fa a v

(or)
 Fa = - b v, where b is the damping
constant.

Rigid
support

Equilibriu
m position o
m
Sprin
g

Block

-> surrounding
medium

When the mass is pulled down or pushed up, the restoring force on the block due to the spring is given by
Fs=kx
.. Total force acting on the system is given by
F=kx-bv

(or) m d2x
2
2

+
dt 2
bdx
dt
+
1x =0
 C. F=ma =md
100
dx
df 2

х
= xo e

solution for
the
The solution
-bt/2m
coskut+$)
Xo is the displacement at t = 0 and amplitude A =
x。e
w' is the angular frequency of the damped oscillation and is given by
above
eqn
is

give
n
as

_bt/2m

off b
‫احب‬
=
 √ k/m -
b2
4m2

The value becomes zero when there is no damping. As per the solution the amplitude decreases
exponentially and becomes zero at t= as in the following figure.

displace
ment

Time period T =
2πT
w'

_b4/2
m
2

And Energy E = 1⁄2 kA2 =

1⁄2
кхо
t
ee oscillations

A body is said to have free oscillations if it vibrates with its own natural frequency without no external
force acting on it. Eg. A tuning fork vibrating with its natural frequency.

Forced or driven oscillations

The oscillations produced under the action of external periodic force are called forced or driven oscillations.
Eg. Setting a stretched string into vibration by keeping a vibrating tuning fork near it.
Forced oscillation involves two frequencies - natural angular frequency (w) and the angular
frequency (wa) of the external force causing the driven oscillations.
Let F(t) the external force that changes periodically with time be applied to a damped oscillator. It is
given by
F(t) = Focoswat
->

The motion of the particle under the combined action of linear restoring force, damping force and time
dependant driving force is given by

ma(t) = -kx(t) - b v(t) + Focoswat d2x2 +

bdx/dl + k z = Focoswat
The oscillator first oscillates with natural frequency @ and then with @a. Its displacement after the
natural oscillation diesout is given by

where
x(t) = A cos(wat + D)

A=

tand
=

Fo

[m2 (w2_wat) "

+ w1 bi]/2
- vo /
wa no
Xo and vo are the displacement and velocity at t=0.

Special case

1. When oa is far from wa (@d <<)

 .' . A ·
=

F
o
m2
(w2_wj2)
(using ()
x(t)
LO
2

~ least dampen
g
+

3
ลง

2. when od zw
·

A = Fo
wa
b
(using
)
w=wd
0.5
1
1.5
2

t
 [beak shifts to the
left as
damping
increases]
It corresponds to maximum amplitude. The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when the driving
force is close to the natural frequency of the oscillator is called resonance.

Applications of resonance (Page 354 & 355)