INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES (I.C.

1 Introduction
These are engines in which combustion of fuel takes place in the engine cylinder; they include petrol, diesel and
gas engines.
Principle parts of an internal combustion engine
The principal parts of an I.C engine, as shown in Fig. 1 are as follows: 1. Cylinder and cylinder liner, 2. Piston,
piston rings and piston pin or gudgeon pin, 3. Connecting rod with small and big end bearing, 4. Crank,
crankshaft and crank pin, and 5. Valve gear mechanism.

Classification of internal combustion engines

Internal combustion engines may be classified according to,
1. Type of fuel used: - Petrol engines, Diesel engine or Gas engines.
2. Method of ignition: - spark ignition engines (S.I.), Compression ignition engines (C.I.), and Hot spot
ignition engines.
3. Number of strokes per cycle: - Four stroke cycle engines and two stroke cycle engines.
4. Cycle of operation: - Otto cycle engines, Diesel cycle engines or Dual combustion engines.
5. Cooling system: - Air cooled engines, water cooled engines or Evaporative cooling engines.
6. Speed of the engine: - Slow speed engines, Medium speed engines and High speed engines.
7. Method of injection: - Carburetor engines, Air injection engines and Airless/Solid injection engines.
8. Number of cylinders: - single cylinder engines and Multi-cylinder engines.

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9. Arrangement of cylinders: - Vertical engines, Horizontal engines, Radial engines, In-line multi cylinder
engines, opposite cylinder engines and opposite piston engines.

1.1 Four stroke cycle - Petrol engine

It is also known as the Otto cycle. One cycle of operation is accomplished when the piston makes four strokes.

1. Suction or charging stroke. Inlet valve opens and allows air-fuel charge to be sucked into the cylinder as the
piston moves down from the Top dead center (T.D.C) to the bottom dead center (B.D.C)
2. Compression stroke. Both inlet and outlet valves are closed and the charge is compressed as the piston
moves upwards from the B.D.C to the T.D.C. As a result, the temperature and the pressure of the charge
increase.
3. Expansion / Working stroke. Just before the piston reaches the T.D.C, the charge is ignited with the aid of a
spark plug. The pressure of the charge suddenly increases pushing the piston down with great force, which
turns the crank shaft.
4. Exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve opens as the piston moves from the B.D.C to the T.D.C pushing out the
products of combustion from the cylinder. This completes the cycle and the cylinder is ready for a fresh
charge.
(T.D.C and B.D.C are the extreme positions of the pistons)

1.2 Four stroke cycle - Diesel engine

It is also known as the compression ignition engine.
1. Suction or charge stroke. Inlet valve opens and draws air into the cylinder as the piston moves down from
the Top dead center (T.D.C) to the bottom dead center (B.D.C)
2. Compression stroke. Both valves are closed and the air is compressed as the piston moves upwards from the
B.D.C to the T.D.C. As a result the temperature and the pressure of the charge increase.
3. Expansion stroke. Fuel is injected into the cylinder in form of a fine spray at the end of the compression
stroke. By this time the temperature and pressure are sufficient enough to cause auto ignition. This causes
rapid rise in pressure pushing the piston down the cylinder.
4. Exhaust stroke. Products of combustion are exhausted in the final stroke as the piston moves upwards

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2 Testing of internal combustion engines.
Purpose for testing internal combustion engines
1. To determine information that can not be obtained by calculations.
2. To confirm the data used in design.
3. To certify the customer regarding performance of the engine.

The following quantities are determined in the thermodynamics test for internal combustion engines.
1.Indicated mean effective pressure, 2.Indicated power; 3.Speed of the engine; 4.Brake torque; 5.Brake
Power; 6.Mechanical losses; 7.Mechanical efficiency; 8.Thermal efficiency; 9.Thermal efficiency; 10; Air
consumption; 11.Volumetric flow rate; Various temperatures and 13.Enegy balance.

2.1 Indicated mean effective pressure

Indicated mean effective pressure of an engine is obtained from the indicator diagram drawn with the help of an
engine indicator.
=
Where s = Constant, scale of indicator spring (bars per millimeter)
a = net area of diagram
l= length of diagram

2.2 Indicated power

This is the power actually developed by the engine cylinder. It is based on the information obtained from the
indicator diagram of the engine.

Consider one engine cylinder

Work done per cycle = pi AL
Where A = area of piston and L the length of stroke.
Power output = work done per cycle x cycles per minute (N)
n = number of cylinders

= for a four stroke cycle engine

= for two stroke cycle engines

Exercise 1
A single cylinder, two stroke petrol engine develops 4 kW indicated power. Find the average speed of the
piston, if the mean effective pressure is 6.5 bars and piston diameter is 100 mm. (94 m/s)

Exercise 2
In a laboratory experiment, the following observations were noted during the test of a four stroke Diesel engine.
Area of indicator diagram = 420 mm2; Length of indicator diagram = 62 mm; spring number = 1.1 bar/mm;
Diameter of piston = 100 mm; Length of stroke = 150 mm; Engine speed = 450 r.p.m. Determine (1). Indicated
mean effective pressure and (2) indicated power. (Answers 7.45 bars, 3.29 kW).
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Solution
.
i. = = = 7.45

. . .
ii. = = = 3.29

2.3 Brake power (B. P)

Power available at the crank shaft. It’s measured using a dynamometer. The engine is connected to a brake or
dynamometer which can be loaded in such a way that the torque exerted by the engine is recorded.

In case of pony brake

Torque is obtained by reading of the net load W, at known radius R, from the axis of rotation.
= =

In case of rope brake, let

W = Dead load in Newton
S = Spring balance reading in Newton
D= Diameter of drum in meters

N = Speed of engine in r.p.m

( )
= Without considering rope diameter

( )( )
= Considering rope diameter

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Exercise 3
The following data was recorded during a test on an oil engine:
Speed of engine = 1 000 r.p.m.; Load on the brake = 1 000 N; Length of the brake = 750 mm.
Determine 1. Brake torque. 2. Brake power of the engine. (Answer 750 Nm, 78.55 kW)
solution
N = 1000 rpm, W = 1000, R = 750 mm.

i. = = 1000 .75 = 750

ii. = = = 78.53

Exercise 4
A rope brake has wheel diameter of 600 mm and the diameter of the rope is 5 mm. The dead load on the brake is
210 N and the spring balance reads 30 N. If the engine makes 450 r.p.m., find the brake power developed
(Answer 2.57 kW)

D = 600 mm, d = 5 mm, W = 210 N, S = 30 N, N = 450 r.p.m

( + )( − )
=
60
450(.6 + .05)(210 − 30)
=
60
2.57

2.4 Friction power (FP)

This is the power which is lost in overcoming the engines friction. It is the difference between indicated power
and brake power is friction power.
FP = IP - BP

2.5 Morse test

The Morse test is adopted to find out the Indicated power of each cylinder without using the indicator diagram.
It is carried out to multi-cylinder engines only.
It is carried out as follows. Consider a four-cylinder engine.
 The brake power of the engine when all cylinders are in operation is measured at constant speed and load.
 One of the cylinders is cut of so that it does not develop any power. This is done by short circuiting the plug
in S.I. engines or cutting off the fuel supply to the cylinder in C.I. engines.
 The speed of the engine falls because of the loss of power with one cylinder cut out, but it’s restored by
reducing the load on the engine.
 When the speed reaches its original value, the power is now measured which gives the brake power of the
remaining three cylinders.

Let I1, I2, I3, and I4 = Indicated power of each cylinder.

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 F1, F2, F3 and F4 = Fiction / power loss of each cylinder.
The total Brake power of the engine when all the cylinders are working is given by
B = Total indicated power – Total friction power
= ( I1 + I2 + I3+ I4) – (F1+ F2 + F3+F4) ………...(i)

If cylinder No 1 is cut off then I1 = 0, but frictional losses of the cylinder remain the same.
Brake power of the remaining three cylinders. B1= (0 + I2 + I3+ I4) – (F1+ F2 + F3+F4)
……… (ii)
Subtracting equation (ii) from (i) then
Indicated power of the first cylinder, I1 = B - B1
Similarly indicated power of the second cylinder, I2 = B – B2
Indicated power of the third cylinder, I3 = B – B3
Indicated power of the fourth cylinder, I4 = B – B4

ℎ ℎ = + +

2.6 Efficiencies of I. C engines

2.6.1 Mechanical efficiencies

It’s the ratio of brake power to indicated power

.
=
.

2.6.2 Brake Thermal efficiency

.
= .
Brake thermal efficiency is also known as overall thermal efficiency.
Power input of the engine is obtained from the chemical energy of the fuel supplied

Power input = mfCV (watts)

Where mf = mass flow rate of the fuel in kg/s
CV = calorific value of the fuel

2.6.3 Volumetric efficiency

It’s the ratio of actual volume of charge admitted during the suction stroke to the swept volume of the piston.

2.7 Specific fuel consumption

The break specific fuel consumption is a parameter used to characterize fuel economy. It is the rate of fuel
consumed per unit power output.

=
.

2.8 Air consumption

 Air is drawn into a large tank through an orifice whose diameter and coefficient of discharge are known.

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  The engine now draws air from this tank as shown below

 Due to the powerful suction of the engine, the pressure in the tank falls to less than atmospheric
pressure. Since the tank is very big, the air pressure in the tank can be assumed to remain constant.
 The outside air is assumed to flow continuously at constant velocity, which depends on the pressure
difference between the air in the tank and the atmospheric air.
 The pressure difference is measured by U-tube containing water, whose one limb is connected to the
inside of the chamber while the outside is open to the atmosphere.
 The temperature of air and barometer readings is recorded.

Let a = Area of the orifice in m2

Cd = coefficient of discharge of orifice
H = Head causing flow of air through the orifice m
ρa = density of air under atmospheric conditions.
ρw = density of water in kg/m3 = 1000kg/ m3
h = Pressure difference measured in U- tube in meters of water

Head causing flow of air through the orifice

=ℎ = ………………(i)

We know that velocity of air

= (2 ) ⁄
Volume of air passing through the orifice
= = (2 ) ⁄ ……( )
Mass of air supplied
ma = volume x density = Q ρa
= Cd a (2gH) ½ ρa
= 140 Cd a (h ρa) ½
Note density of air ρa = p/ RT

2.9 Brake mean effective pressure

Pressure acting on the pistons which would give the measured BP if the engine were frictionless.
.
=

Exercise 5
6
A four-cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57mm and a stroke of 90mm. Its rated speed of 2800rev/min and it
is tested at this speed against a brake which has a torque arm of 0.356m. The net brake load is 155 N and the
fuel consumption is 6.74 l/h. The specific gravity of petrol used is 0.735 and it has a lower calorific value of 44
200 kJ/kg. A Morse test is carried out and the cylinders are cut out in order 1, 2, 3, 4, with the corresponding
brake loads of 111, 106.5, 104.2 and 111N, respectively. Calculate for this speed, the engine torque, the bmep,
the brake thermal efficiency, the specific fuel consumption, the mechanical efficiency and the imep. (Answers
55.2 N m, 16.2 kW, 7.55 bar, 26.6%, 0.000085 kg/kJ/ 0.306 kg/ kWh, 82.8 %, 9.12 bar).
Solutoin
Torque = WR = 155 x 0.356 = 55.2Nm

2 2800 55.2
=2 = = 16.2
60 10
.
= = = 7.55
. .

.
= = = 26.6%
.
. .
= = 0.001376 /
.
= = = 0.000085 ⁄ 0.306 / ℎ
.
= − = 155 − 111 = 44 = − = 155 − 106.2 = 48.5
= − = 155 − 104.2 = 50.8 = − = 155 − 111 = 44
= + + + = 187.3
= = = 83.8%
.
Bmep = BTE x IMEP
.
= = 9.12
.

Exercise 6
During a test on a single cylinder oil engine, working on the four stroke cycle and fitted with a rope brake, the
following data was taken.

Effective diameter of brake wheel = 630 mm; Dead load on brake = 200N; Spring balance reading = 30N;
Speed = 450 r.p.m.; Area of indicator diagram = 420 mm2; Length of indicator diagram = 60 mm2; Spring
balance scale = 1.1 bar per mm; Diameter of cylinder = 100 mm; Stroke =150 mm; Quantity of oil used
=0.815 kg/h; Calorific value = 42 000 kJ/kg.

Calculate brake power, indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel
consumption. . (Answers 2.52 kW, 3.4kW, 74.18% 26.5% 0.323 kg/kWh)

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Exercise 7

An engine develops 20 kW of brake power with a mechanical efficiency of 80% consuming petrol at rate of 5.8
kg/h. calculate. (i). brake thermal efficiency. (ii). S.F.C. (iii) indicated thermal efficiency. Take CV of oil as 42
000 kJ/kg. (29.56% 0.29 kg/kWh, 36.95%)

Exercise 8
In a test of a single cylinder four stroke gas engine 23 cm in diameter and 40 cm in stroke at 180 rpm. The
following readings were taken. The number of explosions were 85 per min, load on brake wheel is 810 N,
spring balance reading was 100N, brake wheel diameter is 152 cm, mean effective pressure from indicator
diagram is 5.3 bar, gas used is 7.2m3/h, CV of gas is 21000kJ/m3. Find the mechanical, indicated and brake
thermal efficiency.(81.49%, 29.71%, 24.21%)

Exercise 9
A four cylinder petrol engine has an output of 52 kW at 2000 rpm. A Morse test is carried out and the brake
torque readings are 177, 170, 168 and 174 NM respectively. For normal running at this speed the specific fuel
consumption is 0.364 kg/kWh. The CV of the fuel is 44200 kJ/kg. Calculate the mechanical and brake thermal
efficiencies.(81.64%, 22.4%)

Energy balance
The complete record of heat supplied and heat rejected during a certain time (say one minute) by an internal
combustion engine is entered in a tabulated form known as balance sheet. The following values are required to
complete the balance sheet of an I.C engine.

1. Heat supplied by fuel

Let mf = Mass of fuel supplied in kg/min and
CV =lower calorific value of the fuel

Heat in fuel supplied = mf xCV (kJ/min)

2. Heat absorbed in I.P produced

I.P produced by the engine = I.p = pi ALNn
Therefore hear absorbed/min = pi ALNn
3. Heat rejected to cooling water
The mass of water-cooling water, through the cylinder jackets, as well as the inlet and outlet
temperatures are measured in order to determine the heat rejected to the cooling water.
Let mw = mass of cooling water supplied in kg/min
cw = specific heat capacity of water (kJ)
t1 = inlet temperature
t2 = outlet temperature
Then heat rejected into water = mwcw (t1- t2) kJ/min

4. Heat carried away by exhaust gasses

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The mass of exhaust gases may be obtained by adding together the mass of fuel supplied and the mass of air
supplied. The mass of air supplied may be measured by an orifice or it may be calculated from exhaust gas
analysis. The temperature of exhaust gas is also measured.
Let mg = mass of exhaust gas produced in kg/min
cg = specific heat of exhaust gases
t = Rise in temperature
Heat carried away by exhaust gases
= mg cg t kg/min

5. Unaccounted for heat

There is always some loss of heat due to friction, leakage, radiation etc. which cannot be determined
experimentally. In order to complete the heat balance sheet, this loss is obtained by the difference of heat
supplied by the fuel and heat absorbed in I.P., cooling water and exhaust gases.

The heat balance sheet is presented as shown below.

Particulars Heat in
kJ %
Total energy supplied 100
1. Heat absorbed in
B.P
2. Heat rejected to
cooling water
3. Heat carried away
by exhaust gasses
4. Unaccounted heat
Total
Example

An IC engine uses 6kg of fuel having calorific value of 44 000 kJ/kg in one hour. The B.P. developed is 18kW.
The temperature of 11.5 kg of cooling water was found to rise through 15o C per minute. The temperature of 4.2
kg of exhaust gas with specific heat 1 kJ/kg K was found to rise through 200o C. Draw the heat balance sheet for
the engine.

Heat supplied by the fuel = mf x C = 6 x 44 000 x (60)-1 = 4 400 kJ/min

Heat absorbed in the B.P produced = 18 kW = 18x60 = 1 080 kJ/min
Heat rejected to cooling water = mwcw (t1- t2) = 11.5x4.2x25 = 1 207.5 kJ/min
Heat lost to exhaust = mg cg t = 4.2 x 1 2200 = 924 kJ/min

Unaccounted heat = 4400 - (1080+1207.5+924) = 1188.5 kJ/min

Exercise
During a test on a four stroke cycle diesel engine the following data and results were obtained:

Mean height of indicator diagram 21 mm

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 Indicator calibration 27 kN/m2 per mm
Swept volume of cylinder 14 liters
Speed of engine 6.6 rev/s
Effective brake load 77 kg
Effective brake radius 0.7 m
Fuel consumption 0.002 kg/s
Calorific value of fuel 44 000 kJ/kg
Cooling water circulation 0.15 kg/s
Cooling water inlet temperature 38 ℃
Cooling water outlet temperature 71 ℃
Specific heat capacity of water 4.18 kJ/kgK
Energy to exhaust gases 33.6 kJ/s

Determine the indicated and brake outputs and the mechanical efficiency. Draw up an overall energy balance
in kJ/s and as a percentage.
= 27 21 = 567 ⁄
Indicated power = =
Swept volume = 14 lites =14 10
.
Indicated power = 567 = 26.2
Brake power = 2 =2 6.6 9.81 77 0.7 = 22
Mech efficiency = = 84%
.
Energy from fuel = 44 00 x 0.002 = 88 kJ/s
Energy to brake power = 22 kW
Energy to coolant = 0.15 4.18 (71 − 38) =
20.7 ⁄
Energy to exhaust (given)= 33.6 kJ/s
Energy to surrounding, etc = 88 – (22 + 20.7 + 33.6) = 11.7 kJ/s
Energy balance table
kJ %
Energy from 88 100
fuel
Energy to 22 25
brake power
Energy to 20.7 23.5
coolant
Energy to 33.6 38.2
exhaust
Energy to 11.7 13.3
surrounding

Exercise
In a trial of an oil engine, the following data were obtained:
Duration of trial 30 min, Speed 1750 rev/min, Brake torque 330 N m, Fuel consumption 9.35 kg, Fuel calorific
value 42 300 kJ/kg, Jacket cooling water circulation 483 kg, Inlet temperature 17oC, Outlet temperature 77oC,
Air consumption 182 kg, Exhaust temperature 486 oC, Atmospheric temperature17oC,Mechanical efficiency
83%, Mean specific heat capacity of exhaust gas 1.25 Kj/Kg K.
Ddetermine
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 i. Brake power
ii. Brake specific fuel consumption
iii. Indicated power
iv. The energy balance, express the various items in kJ/min
Solution

i. =2 = = 60.5
.
ii. = = 0.309 / ℎ
.
.
iii. = = 72.8
.
iv. Energy balance for one minute
.
Energy from fuel= = 13 200
Energy from BP =60.5 60 = 3630
Energy to cooling water = 4.18 (77 − 17)
= 4038 kJ
.
Energy to exhaust = 1.25 (486 − 17)
=3739 kJ
Enercy to surrounding = 13184 – (3630 + 4038 +3739)
=1777 kJ

Exercise
During a trial on a four-cylinder petrol engine running at 50 rev/s the braeke load was 267 N when all cylinders
were working. When each cylinder was cut out in turn and the speed returned to 50 rev/s the brake readings
were 178 N, 187 N, 182 N and 182 N. using these readings, detemie the brake power of the engine and estimate
its indicated power and mechanical efficiency. For the brake, . = 445 where F e brake load in Newtons
and N = revs/s. the following g results were also obtained during the trial.
Fuel consumption 0.568 litre in 130s, specific gravity of fuel 0.72, calorific value 43 000 kJ/kg, Air:fuel rartio
14:1, Exhaust temperature 760 oC, specific heat capacity of exhaust 1.015 kJ/kgK, cooling

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example

A three- cylinder direct injection, water cooled two stroke oil engine with two horizontal opposed piston per
cylinder has a bore of 82.6 mm and each piston has a stroke of 102 mm. The engine was tested against a brake
with a torque arm of 0.381 m. The results taken on a variable speed test are as shown in table below. Plot curves
of torque, bp and specific fuel consumption against speed.

Speed Brake load Fuel consumption

(rev/min) (N) (kg/min)
1000 607.8 0.146
1100 614.6 0.157
1200 621.4 0.172
1300 621.4 0.185
1400 621.4 0.201
1500 621.4 0.216
1600 616.0 0.229
1700 609.0 0.241
1800 596.5 0.252

Solution

Fuel
Speed Brake Load torque BP
consumption
(rev/min) (N) (kg/min)
1000 607.8 0.146 232 24
1100 614.6 0.157 234 27
1200 621.4 0.172 237 30
1300 621.4 0.185 237 32
1400 621.4 0.201 237 35
1500 621.4 0.216 237 37
1600 616 0.229 235 39
1700 609 0.241 232 41
1800 596.5 0.252 227 43

Calculation for first row

= = 607 0.381

2 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 1000 ∗ 232

BP = 2πnT = = 24.28 kW
60 ∗ 1000
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 ṁ 0.146
BSFC = = ∗ 3600 = 0.365 kg/kWh
BP 24 ∗ 60

Eastop, T. D. and Mc Conkey, 1996. Applied Thermodynamic for Engineering Technologists. Longman
Singapore publishers. Fifth Edition.
Khurmi R. S and Gupta J.K., 2006. Thermal engineering. S. Chand and Company Publishers ltd

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