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Brief Contents vii
Chapter 25 The International Revolt against Soviet Communism 987

Chapter 26 Europe and the Changing Modern World 1019
Appendix Rulers and Regimes A1
Index I1
Suggestions for Further Reading Online at www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e
Contents
List of Chapter Illustrations xiv

List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts,
and Tables xxii
Preface xxv
Geography and History 1
Chapter 1 THE RISE OF EUROPE 9

1. Ancient Times: Greece, Rome, and Christianity 11
2. The Early Middle Ages: The Formation of Europe 19
3. The High Middle Ages: Secular Civilization 29
4. The High Middle Ages: The Church 38
Chapter 2 THE UPHEAVAL IN WESTERN CHRISTENDOM,

1300–1560 49
5. Disasters of the Fourteenth Century 50
6. The Renaissance in Italy 56
7. The Renaissance Outside Italy 70
8. The New Monarchies 74
9. The Protestant Reformation 77
10. Catholicism Reformed and Reorganized 93
Chapter 3 THE ATLANTIC WORLD, COMMERCE, AND WARS

OF RELIGION, 1560–1648 99
11. The Opening of the Atlantic 100
12. The Commercial Revolution 108
13. Changing Social Structures 117
14. The Wars of Catholic Spain: The Netherlands and England 124
15. The Disintegration and Reconstruction of France 133
16. The Thirty Years’ War, 1618–1648: The Disintegration
of Germany 138
Chapter 4 THE GROWING POWER OF WESTERN EUROPE,

1640–1715 147
17. The Grand Monarque and the Balance of Power 148
18. The Dutch Republic 151
viii
Contents ix
19. Britain: The Civil War 158

20. Britain: The Triumph of Parliament 165
21. The France of Louis XIV, 1643–1715: The Triumph
of Absolutism 173
22. The Wars of Louis XIV: The Peace of Utrecht, 1713 186
Chapter 5 THE TRANSFORMATION OF EASTERN EUROPE,

1648–1740 195
23. Three Aging Empires 196
24. The Formation of an Austrian Monarchy 206
25. The Formation of Prussia 210
26. The Transformation of Russia 218
Chapter 6 THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW OF THE WORLD 233

27. The Emergence of a Scientific Culture: Bacon and Descartes 234
28. The Road to Newton: The Law of Universal Gravitation 240
29. New Knowledge of Human Beings and Society 251
30. Political Theory: The School of Natural Law 260
Chapter 7 THE GLOBAL STRUGGLE FOR WEALTH

AND EMPIRE 267
31. Elite and Popular Cultures 268
32. The Global Economy of the Eighteenth Century 275
33. Western Europe after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713–1740 285
34. The Great War of the Mid-Eighteenth Century: The Peace
of Paris, 1763 294
Chapter 8 THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT 309

35. The Philosophes—and Others 310
36. Enlightened Despotism: France, Austria, Prussia 324
37. Enlightened Despotism: Russia 333
38. The Partitions of Poland 339
39. New Stirrings: The British Reform Movement 343
40. The American Revolution 352
Chapter 9 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 363

41. Social and Cultural Backgrounds 364
42. The Revolution and the Reorganization of France 369
x Contents
43. The Revolution and Europe: The War and the “Second”
Revolution, 1792 385
44. The Emergency Republic, 1792–1795: The Terror 389
45. The Constitutional Republic: The Directory, 1795–1799 400
46. The Authoritarian Republic: The Consulate, 1799–1804 405
Chapter 10 NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 411

47. The Formation of the French Imperial System 412
48. The Grand Empire: Spread of the Revolution 420
49. The Continental System: Britain and Europe 425
50. The National Movements and New Nationalist Cultures 431
51. The Overthrow of Napoleon: The Congress of Vienna 437
Chapter 11 INDUSTRIES, IDEAS, AND THE STRUGGLE

FOR REFORM, 1815–1848 449
52. The Industrial Revolution in Britain 451
53. The Advent of the “ISMS” 460
54. The Leaking Dam and the Flood: Domestic 475
55. The Leaking Dam and the Flood: International 479
56. The Breakthrough of Liberalism in the West:
Revolutions of 1830–1832 487
57. Triumph of the West European Bourgeoisie 495
Chapter 12 REVOLUTIONS AND THE REIMPOSITION OF ORDER,

1848–1870 501
58. Paris: The Specter of Social Revolution in the West 502
59. Vienna: The Nationalist Revolutions in Central Europe
and Italy 508
60. Frankfurt and Berlin: The Question of a Liberal Germany 515
61. The New European “ISMS”: Realism, Positivism,
Marxism 520
62. Bonapartism: The Second French Empire, 1852–1870 530
Chapter 13 THE CONSOLIDATION OF LARGE NATION-STATES,

1859–1871 535
63. Backgrounds: The Idea of the Nation-State 536
64. Cavour and the Italian War of 1859: The Unification
of Italy 539
Contents xi
65. The Founding of a German Empire and the Dual Monarchy

of Austria-Hungary 544
66. Tsarist Russia: Social Change and the Limits of Political
Reform 555
67. Nation-Building in the Wider Atlantic World: The United States
and Canada 563
Chapter 14 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, 1871–1914:

ECONOMY AND POLITICS 569
68. The Modern “Civilized World” 570
69. Basic Demography: The Increase of Europe’s Population 573
70. The World Economy of the Nineteenth Century 583
71. The Advance of Democracy: Third French Republic, United
Kingdom, German Empire 593
Chapter 15 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, 1871–1914:

SOCIETY AND CULTURE 611
72. The Advance of Democracy: Socialism, Labor Unions, and
Feminism 612
73. Science, Philosophy, the Arts, and Religion 620
74. The Waning of Classical Liberalism 636
Chapter 16 EUROPE’S WORLD SUPREMACY, 1871–1914 643

75. Imperialism: Its Nature and Causes 645
76. The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire 653
77. The Partition of Africa 662
78. Imperialism in Asia: The Dutch, the British, and the Russians 671
79. Imperialism in Asia: China and Europe 678
80. The Russo-Japanese War and Its Consequences 685
Chapter 17 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 689

81. The International Anarchy 689
82. The Armed Stalemate 699
83. The Collapse of Russia and the Intervention
of the United States 709
84. The Collapse of the Austrian and German Empires 714
85. The Economic, Social, and Cultural Impact of the War 716
86. The Peace of Paris, 1919 724
xii Contents
Chapter 18 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND THE EMERGENCE

OF THE SOVIET UNION 735
87. Backgrounds 737
88. The Revolution of 1905 744
89. The Revolution of 1917 749
90. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 758
91. Stalin: The Five-Year Plans and the Purges 765
92. The International Impact of Communism, 1919–1939 774
Chapter 19 DEMOCRACY, ANTI-IMPERIALISM,

AND THE ECONOMIC CRISIS AFTER THE FIRST
WORLD WAR 779
93. The Advance of Democracy after 1919 779
94. The German Republic and the Spirit of Locarno 784
95. Anti-Imperialist Movements in Asia 790
96. The Great Depression: Collapse of the World Economy 802
Chapter 20 DEMOCRACY AND DICTATORSHIP

IN THE 1930S 811
97. Trials and Adjustments of Democracy in Britain and France 812
98. Italian Fascism 821
99. Totalitarianism: Germany’s Third Reich 827
Chapter 21 THE SECOND WORLD WAR 843

100. The Weakness of the Democracies: Again to War 844
101. The Years of Axis Triumph 853
102. The Western-Soviet Victory 861
103. The Foundations of the Peace 876
Chapter 22 THE COLD WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION

AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR 883
104. The Cold War: The Opening Decade, 1945–1955 884
105. Western Europe: Economic Reconstruction 897
106. Western Europe: Political Reconstruction 901
107. Europe and the Global Economy 912
108. Communist Societies in the U.S.S.R.
and Eastern Europe 918
Contents xiii
Chapter 23 DECOLONIZATION AND THE BREAKUP

OF THE EUROPEAN EMPIRES 925
109. The Emergence of Independent Nations in South Asia and
Southeast Asia 927
110. The African Revolution 936
111. Europe and the Modern Middle East 947
Chapter 24 COEXISTENCE, CONFRONTATION,

AND THE NEW EUROPEAN ECONOMY 959
112. Confrontation and Détente, 1955–1975 960
113. Collapse and Recovery of the European and Global Economy:
The 1970s and 1980s 970
114. The Cold War Rekindled and Defused 981
Chapter 25 THE INTERNATIONAL REVOLT

AGAINST SOVIET COMMUNISM 987
115. The Crisis in the Soviet Union 988
116. The Collapse of Communism in Central and Eastern
Europe 992
117. The Collapse of the Soviet Union 1000
118. After Communism 1005
Chapter 26 EUROPE AND THE CHANGING

MODERN WORLD 1019
119. Western Europe after the Cold War 1020
120. Nation-States and Economies in the Age of Globalization 1024
121. Intellectual and Social Transitions in Modern Cultures 1036
122. Europe and International Conflicts in the Early Twenty-First
Century 1058
123. Social and Environmental Challenges in the Twenty-First
Century 1067
Appendix RULERS AND REGIMES A1
Index I1
Suggestions for Further Reading Online at www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e
List of Chapter Illustrations
The Parthenon 12
Ruins of the Roman Forum 14
Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus 15
St. Augustine 18
Hagia Sophia 22
Medieval Spanish Monastery 27
Medieval Peasant 31
Symbol of Florentine Wool Guild 35
The Meeting of St. Anthony and St. Paul by Sassetta 43
Thomas Aquinas by Fra Bartelemo 44
European Crusaders at Antioch 47
Religious Procession of Medieval Flagellants 54
Renaissance Italian Bankers 57
Renaissance Italian Wool Merchants 58
Procession of the Three Kings to Bethlehem by Benozzo Gozzoli 59
Lorenzo de’ Medici Examining a Model of His Villa 60
Portrait of a Condottiere by Giovanni Bellini 62
Detail from Zacharias in the Temple by Domenico Ghirlandaio 64
Portrait of a Family by Lavinia Fontana 66
Florentine Council Debating on War with Pisa by Giorgio Vasari 68
Niccoló Machiavelli 69
Erasmus of Rotterdam by Hans Holbein, the Younger 73
Interrogation of the Jews 78
Martin Luther and His Wife Catherine by Lucas Cranach, the Elder 81
Siege of Munster, Germany, in 1534 83
John Calvin 87
Queen Elizabeth I 90
Pierre de Moucheron and Family 92
St. Ignatius Loyola by Peter Paul Rubens 96
Detail from An Episode in the Conquest of America by Jan Mostaert 103
European Meeting with an African Council in Guinea 106
Slaves Processing Diamonds in Brazil 106
The Aztec Language in the Latin Alphabet 109
The Silver Mines at Potosí 110
Jakob Fugger by Albrecht Dürer 111
Study of Two Black Heads by Rembrandt van Rijn 112
The Four Estates of Society: Work by Jean Bourdichon 114
xiv
List of Chapter Illustrations xv
The Dutch East India Company Headquarters 117

Old Woman Cooking Eggs by Diego Valázquez 120
Monk Teaching Students at the University of Salamanca 122
King Philip II of Spain by Titian 126
The Spanish Armada 130
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre by François Dubois 136
“The Hanging Tree” [from] The Great Miseries of War by Jacques Callot 141
Masters of the Cloth Guild by Rembrandt Van Rijn 152
Portrait of the Artist with Isabelle Brandt by Peter Paul Rubens 153
Girl Reading a Letter at an Open Window by Jan Vermeer 154
The Geographer by Jan Vermeer 156
William Shakespeare 159
The Execution of King Charles I 164
Woman Speaking at a Quaker Meeting 165
Molière Performing in “The School for Wives” by François Delpech 175
Inspiration of the Epic Poet by Nicolas Poussin 177
Louis XIV by Hyacinthe Rigaud 180
The Building of Versailles by Adam François van der Mueleh 182
View of the Château of Versailles by Pierre Denis Martin 182
Persecution of the Huguenots 186
The Battle of Blenheim 190
Peasant Family in a Room by Louis Le Nain 191
Count Stanislas Potocki by Jacques-Louis David 201
Suleiman the Magnificent 204
Turkish Siege of Vienna in 1683 208
Frederick William, the Great Elector 213
Prussian Army Uniforms 219
Stephen Razin as Painted by Surikov 223
Peter the Great 225
The Construction of St. Petersburg 228
Execution for Witchcraft in the Seventeenth Century 236
René Descartes by Frans Hals 239
A Scholar Holding a Thesis on Botany by Willem Moreelse 241
The Copernican Conception of the Solar System 243
Galileo and His Telescope 244
Founding of the Academy of Sciences and the Observatory in 1666
by Henri Testelin 249
Isaac Newton 250
Ambassadors from Siam at Versailles 253
Seventeenth-Century Library 256
Baruch Spinoza by Samuel Van Hoogstraten 260
xvi List of Chapter Illustrations
John Locke by John Greenhill 265

Gin Lane by William Hogarth 271
Café Frascati by Philibert-Louis Debucourt 271
A Carnival on the Feast Day of Saint George by Pieter Bruegel, the Younger 274
Women at Work in an Irish Cottage 276
Enslaved Workers on a Plantation in Barbados 282
The Duet by Arthur Devis 284
John Law, Wind Monopolist 289
M. Bachelier, Director of the Lyons Farms by Jean-Baptiste Oudry 292
Frederick the Great of Prussia as a Young Man 296
Maria Theresa and Her Family by Martin van Meytens 298
Schönbrunn Palace 300
The Battle of Quebec 304
A British Army Officer’s Wife in India 306
Reading at the Salon of Mme. de Geoffrin by Anicet-Charles-Gabriel Lemonnier 315
Voltaire by Maurice-Quentin de La Tour 316
Jean-Jacques Rousseau by Allan Ramsay 321
The Parlement of Paris 330
Catherine the Great by Alexander Roslin 336
Emelian Pugachev in an Iron Cage 337
The Hon. Mrs. Graham by Thomas Gainsborough 347
Edmund Burke 349
Mrs. Isaac Smith by John Singleton Copley 354
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense 357
Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull 360
Eighteenth-Century French Peasants Working in Fields 365
Meeting of the French Estates General 372
The Tennis Court Oath by Jacques-Louis David 374
The Capture of the Bastille 376
Olympe de Gouges 377
A Woman of the Revolution by Jacques-Louis David 378
Frenchmen Creating a New Constitution 380
French Paper Money, the “Assignats” 382
The Festival of the Federation, 1790 384
Parisians Pulling Down a Statue of Louis XIV 392
The Battle of Fleurus 397
The Execution of Robespierre 398
Napoleon Crossing the Alps by Jacques-Louis David 407
Toussaint L’Ouverture 413
Napoleon and Alexander I Meeting on the Niemen River 417
The Third of May 1808 by Francisco de Goya 419
List of Chapter Illustrations xvii
Germaine de Staël by François Gérard 426

The Arch of Triumph in Paris 429
The Madeleine Church in Paris 430
Blowing Up the Corsican Bottle Conjurer 433
The French Army’s Retreat from Russia 440
The Congress of Vienna 443
English Cotton Mill 453
Early Train in Nineteenth-Century England 456
The British Houses of Parliament 464
Mary Wollstonecraft 467
Saint-Simonian Feminist by Malreuve 469
Caricature of George Sand by Alcide Lorentz 471
Coronation of Charles X in Reims 477
German Students at a Festival in 1817 479
The “Peterloo Massacre” by Cruikshank 480
Simón Bolívar 485
Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix 490
Big Investments by Honoré Daumier 497
The London Police 500
Parisian Crowd in the Revolution of 1848 504
Crowds in the Streets of Vienna in 1848 510
Joseph Mazzini 515
The Frankfurt Assembly in 1848 519
A Burial at Ornans by Gustave Courbet 524
Workers in Manchester during the 1840s 525
Karl Marx 528
Construction Workers and the Rebuilding of Paris 533
Florence Nightingale at a Military Hospital in Crimea 539
Giuseppe Garibaldi 544
Otto von Bismarck 547
Battle of Sedan in 1870 551
Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles by Anton von Werner 553
The Arrival of the Bride by Miklos Barabas 555
Russian Peasants in the Late Nineteenth Century 561
Emancipated Ex-Slaves in the American South during the Civil War 564
Train in the Snow by Claude Monet 572
The Gleaners by Jean-François Millet 577
Victorian-Era English Family 578
Immigrant Family Arriving in New York 582
Steel Factory in Late Nineteenth-Century Britain 585
Classic Landscape by Charles Sheeler 587
xviii List of Chapter Illustrations
Workers Transporting Tea in India 592

The Bon Marché Department Store in Paris 595
Supporters of the Paris Commune in 1871 597
Captain Alfred Dreyfus in the 1890s 598
Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte by Georges Seurat 603
British Coal Miners in the Early Twentieth Century 604
Cartoon Portrayal of Kaiser William II’s Removal of Bismarck by John Tenniel 608
Illustration of British Miners Voting to Strike 614
Emmeline Pankhurst 619
Women Demanding Equal Voting Rights in Britain 619
Charles Darwin 621
Sigmund Freud 625
Albert Einstein 626
Ia Orana Maria by Paul Gauguin 628
Cathedral at Rouen by Claude Monet 629
Young Girl Boating by Berthe Morisot 630
The Boating Party by Mary Cassatt 631
Self-Portrait with Beret by Paul Cezanne 632
Les Demoiselles d’Avignon by Pablo Picasso 633
Theodor Herzl 636
John Stuart Mill 637
Coal Miners in France 641
Railroad Locomotive Arriving in Central India 647
British Missionary and Africans Making Bread 649
British Officials with Indian Servants in India 652
Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II 657
British Ship in the Suez Canal 660
Workers in the Congo Harvesting Rubber for Export 665
Workers Building a Gold Mine in Southern Africa 668
British Soldiers in South Africa during the Boer War 671
The Sepoy Rebellion in India 674
Jawaharlal Nehru 675
The Boxer Uprising in China 684
Japanese Troops at Battle of Mukden in Russo-Japanese War of 1905 686
Kaiser William II in Morocco in 1905 694
Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria with Catholic Leaders in Sarajevo 697
German Soldiers at the Berlin Railway Station in 1914 701
French Departure Trench on the Western Front 702
Soldiers on the Battlefield at Passchendaele in 1917 703
British Front in Flanders in 1917 704
T. E. Lawrence with Prince Faisal at Versailles 707
List of Chapter Illustrations xix
American Soldiers in France in 1917 714

German Women Working in an Armaments Factory during the First World War 718
Austrian and French Wartime Propaganda Posters 720
Wilfred Owen 721
Leaders of the Allied Powers at the Versailles Peace Conference 729
Russian Peasants Harvesting Hay 740
Lenin Addressing a Crowd 743
Protest March in St. Petersburg in 1905 746
Tsar Nicholas II and His Family 750
Rasputin 750
Demonstration in St. Petersburg in 1917 752
Leon Trotsky 756
Red Army Artillery Battalion 757
Soviet Political Poster 759
Farmers in the Soviet Union Using New Tractors 768
Soviet Automobile Factory with Portrait of Stalin 772
Soviet Propaganda Poster of Stalin by Konstantin Ivanov 773
Lenin at Meeting of Third International in 1920 776
Poster Urging American Women to Use Their New Right to Vote 781
Outdoor Cafe and Park in Vienna 783
Crowd Burning Spartacist Publications in Berlin 786
German Merchants Calculating Daily Sales 789
Greek Muslim Refugees in Turkey in 1923 794
Mustapha Kemal Atatürk Dancing at His Daughter’s Wedding 796
Mohandas Gandhi and Other Indian Nationalists at a Protest March 799
Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai on the “Long March” 802
Crowd at a London Cinema 804
British “Hunger March” in 1935 807
Autour d’Elle by Marc Chagall 809
British Marchers in General Strike of 1926 in London 813
British Army Troops in Dublin 817
French Workers at a Subway Construction Site 818
French Premier Léon Blum Addressing Supporters of the Popular Front 819
Fascists in “March on Rome” in October 1922 823
Benito Mussolini Speaking at an Italian Fascist Rally 824
Italian Woman at a Fascist Rally 826
Hitler with Supporters at the Time of the “Beer Hall Putsch” 828
Nazi Military Parade in Nuremburg 830
Damage to Jewish Shops after Kristallnacht in Berlin 832
Nazi Image of the “New People” 838
Saluting Adolf Hitler at a Nazi Rally in Nuremberg 839
xx List of Chapter Illustrations
Hitler Entering Vienna in 1938 after the Anschluss 846

Anti-Fascist Rally in Spain 848
Guernica by Pablo Picasso 849
Sudetens Welcoming Arrival of German Troops in 1938 851
German Troops Entering a Polish Village in 1939 854
German Soldiers Marching through the Arc de Triomphe in Paris 857
Russian Casualties on Eastern Front in Early 1942 860
British Women in the Auxiliary Territorial Service 863
Urban Desolation during the Battle of Stalingrad 865
Survivors Liberated from the Concentration Camp at Buchenwald 871
A Nazi Concentration Camp in 1945 874
Hiroshima, Devastation after the Atomic Bomb 875
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin at Yalta 879
The Survivor by George Grosz 880
Filipino Representative Pedro Lopez Addressing the United Nations 886
Churchill Giving a Speech Describing the New Iron Curtain across Eastern
Europe 888
The Berlin Airlift 891
Children Near a Tank during the Korean War 896
Women at Work in a British Television Factory 900
French Kindergarten in 1950 904
Students and Police Clash in Paris in May 1968 907
Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer 910
High-Speed Train in Japan 913
The London Stock Exchange 917
Nikita Khrushchev with President Eisenhower and Vice President Nixon 920
Protesters in Budapest Burn Pictures of Joseph Stalin in 1956 924
Presentation of Flag on India Independence Day 927
Refugees Fleeing from West Pakistan in 1947 930
British High Commissioner MacGillivray leaving Kuala Lumpur in 1957 932
Independence Day Parade in Kuala Lumpur 932
Indonesian President Sukarno at Bandung in 1955 934
French Soldiers after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 935
French Soldiers in the Streets of Oran, Algeria 940
Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana 941
Refugees from Uganda Arriving in London in 1972 943
David Ben-Gurion, the First Prime Minister of Israel 949
Palestinians in a Refugee Camp in 1956 950
British Soldiers in Suez in 1956 952
Iranian Women Wielding Guns after the Iranian Revolution 956
Construction of the Berlin Wall 964
List of Chapter Illustrations xxi
Protest against the Vietnam War in Britain 966

Citizens of Prague Destroy a Soviet Tank 968
Protest by French Newspaper Workers 971
Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher 973
French Workers Protesting Conditions at an Auto Factory 976
Helmut Kohl in Strasbourg 978
French Voter at the Time of the Referendum on Maastricht Treaty 980
German Protest against New Missile Deployments 985
Mikhail Gorbachev Meets with Potato Farmers Near Moscow 991
Supporters of the Solidarity Movement in Warsaw 995
Alexander Dubcek, Vaclav Havel, and Marta Kubisova 997
Destruction of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 998
Boris Yeltsin Waves to Supporters outside the Parliament Building in Moscow 1004
People Forced to Flee Violence in Chechen City of Grozny 1009
Muslims Mourning the Victims of “Ethnic Cleansing” in Sarajevo Cemetery 1014
People in Belgrade Demand the Resignation of President Slobodan Milosevic 1017
Multicultural School in Contemporary London 1022
Ségolène Royal and Angela Merkel 1026
Dutch Soccer Team at Euro Cup Competition in 2008 1032
President of European Commission Addressing European Parliament in Brussels 1033
Students at University Computer Center Working in “Virtual Library” 1035
French and Russian Astronauts 1041
Jean-Paul Sartre 1042
Fabulous Race-Track of Death by Matta 1045
Family Life by Jean Dubuffet 1046
Mother and Child by Henry Moore 1047
Pope John Paul II in Poland 1050
Mosque in Duisburg, Germany 1053
Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones in Los Angeles 1054
Simone de Beauvoir 1056
Supporters of Same-Sex Marriage in Spain 1057
Wheel Man by Ernest Trova 1061
Barack Obama in Prague 1063
World Trade Center Towers after Crash of Second Aircraft 1064
German Soldiers in Afghanistan 1068
British Troops in Iraq 1069
List of Chronologies,
Historical Interpretations and
Debates, Maps, Charts, and Tables
Chronologies
Notable Events, 500 B.C.E.–1300 C.E. 39
Notable Events, 1309–1555 84
Historical Interpretations and Debates

Europe and the Americas 107
The Meaning of the English Revolution 169
Continuity and Discontinuity in the Scientific Revolution 246
Social Institutions and Culture in the Age of Enlightenment 322
The Political and Social Significance of the French Revolution 399
Women and the Industrial Revolution 459
The Roots of Modern Nationalism 540
The Rationales and Paradoxes of Modern European Imperialism 654
xxii
List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts, and Tables xxiii
Cultural Responses to the First World War 722

Women in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany 834
The Nature and Legacy of the Cold War 982
Maps, Charts, and Tables

Europe: Physical 4–5
The Mediterranean World about 400, 800, and 1250 C.E. 25
Crusading Activity, 1100–1259 45
Estimated Population of Europe, 1200–1550 51
Europe, 1526 79
State Religions in Europe about 1560 89
European Discoveries, 1450–1600 101
The Low Countries, 1648 129
Europe, 1648 144–145
The Expansion of France, 1661–1713 149
England in the Seventeenth Century 170
France from the Last Years of Louis XIV to the Revolution of 1789 184
The Atlantic World after the Peace of Utrecht, 1713 192
Central and Eastern Europe, 1660–1795 199
Aging Empires and New Powers 200
The Growth of the Austrian Monarchy, 1521–1772 209
The Growth of Prussia, 1415–1918 214–215
The Growth of Russia in the West 230–231
The Growth of Geographical Knowledge 255
The World in 1763 307
Europe, 1740 327
Poland since the Eighteenth Century 342
The French Republic and Its Satellites, 1798–1799 404
Napoleonic Europe, 1810 423
Napoleonic Germany 425
Europe, 1815 446
Britain before and after the Industrial Revolution 457
The Industrial Revolution in Britain (as Shown by Sources of Income) 462
Languages of Europe 473
European Revolutions, 1848 512
Nation-Building, 1859–1867 543
The German Question, 1815–1871 549
Europe, 1871 558–559
Estimated Population of the World by Continental Areas 574
Emigration from Europe, 1850–1940 579
Immigration into Various Countries, 1850–1940 580
xxiv List of Chronologies, Historical Interpretations and Debates, Maps, Charts, and Tables
Migration from Europe, 1850–1940 581

Export of European Capital to 1914 590
The Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, 1699–1914 661
Precolonial Africa: Sites and Peoples 667
Africa, 1914 670
Imperialism in Asia, 1840–1914 676–677
“The British Lake,” 1918 679
Northeast China and Adjoining Regions in the Era of Imperialism 683
Anglo-German Industrial Competition, 1898 and 1913 693
The Balkans, 1878 and 1914 698
The First World War 700
Europe, 1923 730–731
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 1922–1991 762–763
Europe, 1942 864
The Second World War 868–869
The Holocaust 870
Deportation and Settlement, 1939–1950 892–893
Germany and Its Borders, 1919–1990 909
The Indian Subcontinent, 2000 931
Contemporary Africa 938
The Modern Arab World 946
Israel and Adjoining Regions after the Era of the British Mandate 954–955
The World about 1970 962–963
Vietnam and Its Neighbors after the Era of French Colonialism, Showing Boundaries
in 1970 967
Russian Federation in 2000 1008
Nationalities in Central and Eastern Europe at the End of the Twentieth Century 1013
The Global Population Explosion 1070
Preface
Dramatic events in the contemporary world—wars, revolutions, political upheavals, ter-

rorist attacks, catastrophic natural disasters, economic crises, and the endless stream of
daily news—often obscure the long-developing historical processes that have created the
societies in which we live and the current problems with which we have to cope. The mass
media pay little attention to the broader historical patterns and contexts that shape the
deeper meaning of swiftly moving public events and private lives. This new edition of this
book, which has been retitled A History of Europe in the Modern World, may therefore be
seen as the newest version of an ongoing search for historical perspectives on the complex,
often bewildering, events of our own era. The book’s new title, which adds the words
“Europe in” to the concise phrase that has entitled every previous edition, acknowledges
the fact that even a long book cannot adequately describe historical events in the entire
“modern world.” At the same time, however, this slight change in a familiar title reflects
other revisions in a new edition that focuses more specifically on the history of Europe,
while also emphasizing that modern European history has always evolved through interac-
tions and exchanges with the wider world.
It is impossible to understand European history without placing it “in the modern
world,” just as it is impossible to understand the modern world without knowing the his-
tory of Europe. This book thus carries the guiding assumption that events and ideas in
modern European societies have often influenced people in every part of the world, but
that Europeans have also been constantly influenced by their encounters with other peoples
and cultures. More generally, the themes of this book build on the presupposition that con-
temporary events and conflicts are deeply connected to the diverse cultures, institutions,
social systems, economic exchanges, power struggles, empires, and ideas of earlier eras in
human history. Nobody can truly understand present times, in short, without studying the
past; and in modern times the history of Europe has often entered (for better or for worse)
into the history of almost the whole world.
The multiple levels of human history and cross-cultural exchanges have created
modern societies that both resemble and differ from the “modernity” that has evolved in
Europe since about the fifteenth century. This book thus describes the main features of this
dynamic modern history by examining specific nations and landmark events, such as great
revolutions, economic transitions, and changing cultural beliefs; but it also emphasizes
broad historical and social trends that have developed beneath the most prominent events,
gradually creating what we now call “the modern world.” Although the following narra-
tive explores the rise of nation-states and the conflicts that have reshaped modern societies
over the last several centuries, it links such public events to the wider historical influence
of the global economy, the development of science, technology, and new forms of knowl-
edge, the rise of industry, the significance of religious and philosophical beliefs, the origin
and diffusion of new political ideas, the changing mores of family and social life, the
evolving views of human rights, and the complex relations between European cultures and
other cultures around the world.
The term modern, as it is used in this book, refers to a phase of human history that
began about five or six centuries ago and steadily transformed both the material conditions
xxv
xxvi Preface
of human societies and the meaning of individual identities or selfhood. “Modern” ways of
life have developed in diverse historical contexts, and they are now evolving more rapidly
and in more places than ever before. This book affirms that every culture and historical era
have made important contributions to the collective history of human beings, but it focuses
primarily on developments in Europe, even as it traces the growing European involve-
ments with other peoples, economies, and political systems far beyond the relatively small
continent of Europe itself. The narrative stresses the influence of European societies on the
emergence of “modern” institutions and social practices, yet it also notes the worldwide
exchanges that have contributed to the increasingly global culture of the contemporary
era. Europeans were never the only influential “actors” in the global creation of moder-
nity, but they were often present wherever the transitions to modernity were taking place.
These historical transitions generated violence and oppression and political conflicts as
well as social, cultural, and economic progress; and it is the combined effects of these
modern developments on all human lives (and the natural environment) that provide the
essential rationale for historical studies and for this new edition of A History of Europe in
the Modern World.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK:

CHANGES AND CONTINUITIES
As in the past, the book is organized in chapters that carry the narrative across specific
chronological eras, moving steadily toward the present. Yet the clearly defined and num-
bered sections within each chapter often deal with themes, events, or issues that do not
develop in simple chronological order. Each chapter focuses on a specific time frame
but also on themes and problems of continuing historical importance. The chronological
organization gives readers a broad historical framework and provides opportunities for
further analysis and discussion of specific historical themes or problems—discussions
that can draw, for example, on the Suggestions for Further Reading and other materials
that can be found on the companion Online Learning Center Web site (www.mhhe.com/
palmerhistory11e), which includes an Interactive Glossary.
Although the history of political systems, state power, revolutions, and international
conflicts remains important, some details of national political history have been reduced
in this new edition, and whole sections on China, Japan, Africa, and the Americas have
been removed. These changes provide a sharper analytical focus on Europe, shorten the
text, and align the book more closely with contemporary survey courses. This book goes
beyond a “textbook summary” of information by providing analytical themes to engage
both nonacademic readers and students who seek broad perspectives on more specific
kinds of historical scholarship. The narrative therefore explains major events and also
draws on the work of recent social, cultural, and intellectual historians who have con-
tributed important new insights to modern historical studies. There are discussions of the
evolving roles of women in various historical contexts; descriptions of cultural movements
and intellectual debates from the early modern to the contemporary period; and new analy-
sis of the political, economic, and cultural interactions that took place in European empires
and in the anticolonial movements that ultimately brought about the dissolution of imperial
systems. Chapters on the breakup of European empires, however, have been shortened and
consolidated to emphasize the interactions between Europeans and other peoples around
the world.
Preface xxvii
Another important new feature in this edition appears in a series of brief excerpts from
the writings of historians who have helped to shape the modern interpretations of notable
historical events. Historical knowledge is never simply fixed or final, because historians
constantly find new sources to analyze; or they develop new perspectives to explain long-
known persons and conflicts; or they draw new comparisons between events and problems
in different cultures and historical eras. This new edition thus includes an introduction to
exemplary “Historical Interpretations and Debates,” thereby giving readers concise sum-
maries and comparisons of diverse perspectives on past cultures and events. The excerpts
that express key themes in these debates come from a wide range of works, including
both “classic” historical studies and recent reinterpretations. The purpose of the excerpts
is to introduce readers to influential debates about key issues and to show how historians
develop or revise their analytical themes. Well-informed historical thinking requires both
knowledge about past events and the critical evaluation of divergent historical interpreta-
tions. The themes of the various debates therefore provide an additional “entry” into the
multiple spheres of historical thought and into the constant expansion and revision of his-
torical knowledge.
This book describes major events such as the religious wars of earlier centuries, the
Scientific Revolution, the French and Russian Revolutions, the Industrial Revolution, the
development of European imperialism, the twentieth-century world wars and globaliz-
ing economy, the spread of democracy and the challenges it has faced, the collapse of
European-dominated empires, the continuing search for an international order, and the
emergence of the European Union. All of these broad developments are analyzed with
references to specific examples or people, and there are transnational comparisons in the
discussion of every historical era.
The visual components have been revised to include new images and illustrations,
especially in the later chapters on contemporary European history. Like other kinds of
sources, the images and artwork from past cultures provide important historical informa-
tion. Knowing how to “read” and critically evaluate illustrations, paintings, and photo-
graphs is essential for analytical thought and for cross-cultural comparisons. The brief
captions that accompany the illustrations thus connect the visual themes to the book’s
historical narrative and interpretations. Other key features of the new edition include new,
easier-to-read maps, which are presented in new colors. The maps and charts show the
changing boundaries, populations, and economies of different regions or nations as they
have changed across the centuries; and each chapter includes a chronological timeline that
summarizes the most notable events. The revised entries in the comprehensive Sugges-
tions for Further Reading, long a valued feature of this book, provide up-to-date listings of
useful Web sites as well as the titles of significant new scholarly publications on specific
national histories and the themes of transnational historical research. For this edition, the
Suggestions for Further Reading can be found on the Online Learning Center at www.
mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e.
The changes in A History of Europe in the Modern World have been introduced to
make this new edition more accessible and to tighten its analytical focus, but not to weaken
the prose style, content, or analytical qualities that have long appealed to both teachers
and students of European history. Readers will therefore find that the book reaffirms a
strong belief in the value of historical knowledge and historical perspectives for anyone
who wishes to live a well-informed and engaged life in the changing modern world. It
achieves its purpose whenever it gives readers new insights into the meanings of European
xxviii Preface
or modern history and whenever it helps readers gain new perspectives on their own lives,
cultures, and social experiences.
SUPPLEMENTS FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

Instructor’s Manual/Test Bank The first half of this unique manual offers a chapter-
by-chapter guide to some of the best documentaries, educational and feature films, videos,
and audio recordings to enhance classroom discussion. Brief overviews help instructors
select the films best suited to each course topic. The manual also provides instructors with
chapter objectives and points for discussion for each chapter, followed by a test bank con-
taining multiple-choice, essay, and identification test questions.
Instructor Online Learning Center Web Site (www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e)
At the home page for this text-specific Web site, instructors will find a downloadable ver-
sion of the Instructor’s Manual. Instructors can also create an interactive course syllabus
using McGraw-Hill’s PageOut site. Suggestions for Further Reading are also included in
the Online Learning Center for this edition.
PageOut (www.mhhe.com/pageout) On the PageOut Web site instructors can cre-
ate their own course Web sites. PageOut requires no prior knowledge of HTML, no long
hours of coding, and no design skills on the instructor’s part. Instructors need simply to
plug the course information into a template and click on one of the 16 designs. The process
takes little time and creates a professionally designed Web site. Powerful features include
an interactive course syllabus that lets instructors post content and links, an online grade-
book, lecture notes, bookmarks, and a discussion board where instructors and students can
discuss course-related topics.
Videos A wide range of videos on classic and contemporary topics in history is
available through the Films for the Humanities and Sciences collection. Instructors can
illustrate and enhance lectures by selecting from a series of videos correlated to the course.
Contact your local McGraw-Hill sales representative for further information.
SUPPLEMENTS FOR THE STUDENT

Student Online Learning Center Web Site (www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e) At this
text-specific Web site, students can link to an Interactive Glossary, an important learning
tool for students that complements the terms and topics highlighted in the margins of the
textbook. A number of other resources are also available, including Suggestions for Fur-
ther Reading and useful Web sites.
PowerWeb PowerWeb for World History gives students password-protected, course-
specific articles with assessments from current research journals and popular press articles,
refereed and selected by World History instructors, and especially useful for materials that
go beyond the scope of this book.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the contributions and assistance of the many people who
have worked on the production of this book. Special appreciation goes to the editors
and staff of McGraw-Hill, Inc., which has published this book since its seventh edi-
tion. Publishing expertise and essential support at McGraw-Hill have been provided by
numerous talented people, including Penina Braffman, Erin Melloy, Lisa Bruflodt, Lisa
Preface xxix
Pinto, Alexandra Schultz, Adina Lonn, and Matthew Busbridge. Erin Guendelsberger
and Kala Ramachandran managed editorial details with efficiency and wide-ranging
skills; and Mickey Cox brought valuable insights to each phase of the planning for this
revised edition. David Tietz helped to collect new illustrations, and Rachel Olsen and
Diana Chase assisted in organizing manuscript materials. Equally important, Maximil-
ian Owre, an historian of modern Europe and the associate director of the Program in
the Humanities and Human Values at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill,
contributed his knowledge and careful research to the updated Suggestions for Further
Reading and the summaries of useful Web sites, which appear for this edition in the
Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/palmerhistory11e.
This new edition has also benefited from the expert advice of reviewers who offered
ideas for revisions and for new features to improve the book. Insightful comments came
from Marc Baer, Hope College; Catherine Graney, Bergen Community College; Mary
R. O’Neil, University of Washington; David J. Proctor, Tufts University; Leonard N.
Rosenband, Utah State University; Barbara Syrrakos, The City College, City University
of New York; and Brian Weiser, Metropolitan State University of Denver. None of these
individuals are responsible for any of the book’s shortcomings, but all have added to its
strengths. Other colleagues, teachers, and family members provided valuable assistance
and advice in numerous discussions about the book; and a particular “thank you” goes to
Gwynne Pomeroy for her exceptional role in facilitating the work on every aspect of this
new edition.
Finally, I deeply regret that the revisions for the latest edition of this book have
been developed without the insights of my two deceased colleagues and co-authors,
R. R. Palmer and Joel Colton. The distinguished historical works of both Professor Palmer
(who died in 2002) and Professor Colton (who died in 2011) have long attracted wide
attention on both sides of the Atlantic, partly because of their remarkable knowledge of
modern events and partly because of their exceptional ability to write clear, analytical
prose about the diverse historical issues that they examined. Their long collaboration on
this narrative, which until this edition was always entitled A History of the Modern World,
became an outstanding example of how intellectual partnerships can enhance historical
knowledge, expand historical perspectives, and connect the history of specific conflicts or
people with the broadest historical developments of modern times. In revising this new edi-
tion of a book that has often been known as simply Palmer-Colton, I have sought always to
build on the high quality of their previous work, even as I changed the structure or content
of various chapters and also introduced new perspectives, sources, and images. I learned
from each of these historians about the nature of intellectual work, academic friendships,
and human communities; and my many conversations with Joel Colton in recent years
deeply enriched my personal life as well as my understanding of the past. This book thus
continues to convey the far-reaching intellect and insights of Professors Palmer and Colton
in a narrative that has been updated to include changing themes in modern historical schol-
arship and changing perspectives on modern European history.
Lloyd Kramer
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Geography and History
History is the experience of human beings in time, but that experience takes place also in
geographic space. Geography describes and maps the earth, but geographers also study the
cultural practices that shape human interactions with the environments in which they live.
The universe, of which our planet earth and our solar system form but a small part,
is now thought to be at least 12 billion years old. Most scientists believe the earth is about
4.6 billion years old. Yet the entire history (and prehistory) of humankind goes back only
3.5 to 5 million years, or perhaps only 2 million years, depending on how humans are
defined. What we call history—the recorded cultures and actions of human beings—began
with the invention of early forms of writing only about 5,500 years ago.
Oceans and continents have moved about over time, changing in size, shape, and loca-
tion. The continents as we know them took on their distinctive forms less than 100 million
years ago. Dinosaurs, which became extinct some 60 million years before the first humans
even emerged, could walk from North America to Europe (as we now call
these continents) on solid land in a warm climate. It is only a few thousand
years since the end of the most recent glacial age. That Ice Age, which Ice Age
began about 2 million years ago and reached its coldest point only 20,000
years ago, was caused by a slight shift in the earth’s orbit around the sun. Water froze into
ice 1–2 inches thick and covered the northern parts of the planet (in North America as far
south as present-day Chicago and in Europe across large parts of the British Isles and the
nearby mainland). The melting of this ice produced the coastlines, offshore islands, inland
seas, straits, bays, and harbors that we know today, as well as some of the large river sys-
tems and lakes. The process of change in the earth’s surface continues. Niagara Falls, on
the border between the United States and Canada, has been receding because the ongoing
cascade of water erodes the underlying rock. The ocean’s tides and human construction
erode our shorelines as well, and most scientists believe current patterns of global warm-
ing will gradually change the oceans and coasts in much of the world.
Oceans presently cover more than two-thirds of the earth’s surface, and many
large land areas in the remaining third are poorly suited for habitation by human beings or
most other animal and plant organisms. One-tenth of the land remains under ice, as in
Antarctica and Greenland; much is tundra; much is desert, as in the Sahara; and much land
lies along the windswept ridges of high mountains. Like the oceans, these regions have
been important in human history, often acting as barriers to movement and settlement.
Human history has therefore evolved in relatively small, scattered sections of the earth’s
total surface.
Researchers have found persuasive material evidence to show that
human beings originated in Africa. Humans belonging to the species Homo Origins of human
erectus, the Latin term used by anthropologists and others to denote the beings
upright, walking predecessors of modern humans, seem to have migrated
from Africa about 1.8 million years ago, perhaps because of environmental pressures or
perhaps because of simple curiosity. Our own species Homo sapiens, the Latin term con-
noting increased cognitive and judgmental abilities, emerged about 150,000 years ago.
When humans went beyond merely utilitarian accomplishments and demonstrated aesthetic
and artistic interests as well as advanced toolmaking (about 35,000 years ago), we refer to
1
2 Geography and History
them as the subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens. They were the remaining survivors of a very
complex human family tree.
The great Ice Age lowered the seas by hundreds of feet and froze huge quantities of
water. The English Channel became dry. Land bridges opened up between Siberia and
North America over what we now call the Bering Strait. Hunters seeking game walked
from one continent to the other. When the glaciers melted, forests sprang up, and many of
the open areas in which humans had hunted disappeared, providing added motivation for
movement.
Our human ancestors spread eventually to every continent except Antarctica. In doing
so, human groups became isolated from each other for millennia, separated by oceans,
deserts, or mountains. Wherever they wandered, they evolved slightly over time, develop-
ing superficial physical differences that modern cultures have defined as the
characteristics of various racial groups. But “race” is a cultural idea rather
Race: a cultural than a mark of biologically significant differences. All human beings
concept belong to the Homo sapiens species, all derive from the same biological
ancestry, and all are mutually fertile. Only a very few human genes are
responsible for physical differences such as skin pigmentation, in comparison to the vast
number of genes that are shared by all members of the human species.
The basic anatomy and genetic makeup of modern humans has not
changed over the last 100,000 years. Geographic separation accounts for
Geography and the emergence over shorter time periods of distinctive cultures, which can
culture be seen, for example, in the different historical and cultural development
of the pre-Columbian Americas, Africa, China, India, the Middle East, and
Europe. On a still smaller time scale, geographic separation also explains differences in
languages and dialects.
Geographic distances and diversity of climate have also produced differences in flora
and fauna, and hence in the plants and animals upon which humans depend. Wheat became
the most common cereal in the Middle East and Europe, millet and rice in East Asia, sor-
ghum in tropical Africa, maize in pre-Columbian America. The horse, first domesticated in
north-central Asia about 4,500 years ago, was for centuries a mainstay of Europe and Asia
for muscle power, transportation, and fighting. The somewhat less versatile camel was
adopted later and more slowly in the Middle East, and the Americans long had no beasts
of burden except the llama. Such differences did not begin to diminish until early modern
travelers crossed the oceans, taking plants and animals with them and bringing others back
to environments where they had never lived before.
Although much remains obscure about the origins of life, and new discoveries and
calculations are always displacing older hypotheses, paleontologists studying plant and
animal fossils (including human ones) have used techniques such as radiocarbon dating
to transform our knowledge of the earth and of the earliest human beings. In geography,
aerial and satellite photography and computer technology have enabled us to refine older
conceptions of continents and oceans. And astrophysicists are now studying vast amounts
of new data about the universe, which have been sent to them from powerful telescopes
mounted on unmanned spaceships.
Cartography, the art and science of mapmaking, has evolved rapidly, but we tend to
forget how our maps often remain conventional and even parochial. It was Europeans and
descendants of Europeans who designed our most commonly used maps, which are oriented
North-South and West-East from fixed points in their horizons, and which therefore reflect
their own European cultural assumptions. Similar biases can be found in the maps of other
Geography and History 3
cultures too. The Chinese for centuries defined and visualized their country as the “Middle
Kingdom.” In the early modern centuries maps drawn in India typically represented South
Asia as forming the major part of the world. One such map depicted the European continent
as a few marginal areas labeled England, France, and “other hat-wearing islands.”
Changing conceptualizations of the globe continue in our day. A map drawn and
published in contemporary Australia, demonstrating the Australian perspective from
“down under,” shows South Africa at the top of the map and Capetown at the very tip, the
large expanse of contemporary African nations in the middle, and the various European
countries crowded at the bottom, the latter appearing quite insignificant. The European-
invented term “Middle East” has been called into question, and this region of the world is
perhaps better designated as Western Asia. Even the traditional concept of Europe as one
of the seven continents (Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America, Australia,
and Antarctica) is now questioned. Why, for example, should the Indian peninsula be a
“subcontinent” when it roughly matches the size and exceeds the population and diversity
of the European “continent” (at least that part of the “continent” that lies west of the for-
mer Soviet Union)? Europe itself is, of course, actually a peninsula, in a way that the other
continents are not. Some geographers ask us to consider it more properly as part of Asia,
the western part of a great “Eurasian landmass.” Defined in these terms, Europe becomes
more of a cultural conception, arising out of perceived differences from Asia and Africa,
than a continent in a strictly geographical sense.
Europe’s Inﬂuence on Modern History

However we define its place on the globe, Europe has undoubtedly shaped much of mod-
ern world history—partly because of its overseas expansion, partly because of what it
borrowed from other parts of the world, and partly because of its deci-
sive economic and cultural influence on the emergence of an increasingly
Europe and history
global civilization. Europe is of course only one of many important cultural
spheres in human history. Its economy, political systems, religious tradi-
tions, and social institutions are not the sole historical path to modernity; indeed, people in
other regions of the world have often challenged or rejected European forms of “modern-
ization” as they have built their own modern societies. Yet even the critique or rejection
of European institutions has usually required historical analysis of Europe’s development
and role in the world. Much of the modern global economy, for example, emerged in
the international trade that Europe’s imperial powers controlled and expanded after the
sixteenth century. European political ideas, science, philosophy, cultural mores, and people
also spread widely across the world, contributing to both the constructive and destructive
patterns of modern political, social, and cultural life. Ideas and people have meanwhile
flowed constantly into Europe from other parts of the world, so that European societies
remain a vital center for cross-cultural exchanges and conflicts.
It is possible to narrate a “history of the modern world” from widely diverging per-
spectives and with an emphasis on quite different historical themes. This book, however,
begins with the recognition that Europe developed and promoted many of the distinc-
tive “modern” ideas and institutions that have now evolved in various forms throughout
the contemporary world. Historical understanding of modernity must therefore include a
comprehensive analysis of Europe—though an accurate history of the modern world must
also insist that Europe represents only one of the diverse, complex cultures that continue
to shape modern global history. The title of this book’s new edition has thus been changed
4 Geography and History
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Chapter 25 The International Revolt against Soviet Communism 987

List of Chapter Illustrations xiv

Chapter 1 THE RISE OF EUROPE 9

Chapter 2 THE UPHEAVAL IN WESTERN CHRISTENDOM,

Chapter 3 THE ATLANTIC WORLD, COMMERCE, AND WARS

Chapter 4 THE GROWING POWER OF WESTERN EUROPE,

19. Britain: The Civil War 158

Chapter 5 THE TRANSFORMATION OF EASTERN EUROPE,

Chapter 6 THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW OF THE WORLD 233

Chapter 7 THE GLOBAL STRUGGLE FOR WEALTH

Chapter 8 THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT 309

Chapter 9 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 363

Chapter 10 NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 411

Chapter 11 INDUSTRIES, IDEAS, AND THE STRUGGLE

Chapter 12 REVOLUTIONS AND THE REIMPOSITION OF ORDER,

Chapter 13 THE CONSOLIDATION OF LARGE NATION-STATES,

65. The Founding of a German Empire and the Dual Monarchy

Chapter 14 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, 1871–1914:

Chapter 15 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION, 1871–1914:

Chapter 16 EUROPE’S WORLD SUPREMACY, 1871–1914 643

Chapter 17 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 689

Chapter 18 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND THE EMERGENCE

Chapter 19 DEMOCRACY, ANTI-IMPERIALISM,

Chapter 20 DEMOCRACY AND DICTATORSHIP

Chapter 21 THE SECOND WORLD WAR 843

Chapter 22 THE COLD WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION

Chapter 23 DECOLONIZATION AND THE BREAKUP

Chapter 24 COEXISTENCE, CONFRONTATION,

Chapter 25 THE INTERNATIONAL REVOLT

Chapter 26 EUROPE AND THE CHANGING

Appendix RULERS AND REGIMES A1

The Dutch East India Company Headquarters 117

John Locke by John Greenhill 265

Germaine de Staël by François Gérard 426

Workers Transporting Tea in India 592

American Soldiers in France in 1917 714

Hitler Entering Vienna in 1938 after the Anschluss 846

Protest against the Vietnam War in Britain 966

Historical Interpretations and Debates

Cultural Responses to the First World War 722

Maps, Charts, and Tables

Migration from Europe, 1850–1940 581

Dramatic events in the contemporary world—wars, revolutions, political upheavals, ter-

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK:

SUPPLEMENTS FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

SUPPLEMENTS FOR THE STUDENT

Europe’s Inﬂuence on Modern History

ENNR. ERZ MTS

PENINSULA NEE A rno LM

Strait o Algiers SICILY

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE