Delmars Standard Textbook of Electricity 7th Edition Ebook PDF Version

Delmar’s Standard Textbook of
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vi CONTENTS
2–9 The Watt 60

2–10 Other Measures of Power 61
2–11 Ohm’s Law 62
2–12 Metric Prefixes 67
UNIT 3
Static Electricity 73
3–1 Static Electricity 74
3–2 Charging an Object 76
3–3 The Electroscope 76
3–4 Static Electricity in Nature 79
3–5 Nuisance Static Charges 81
3–6 Useful Static Charges 81
UNIT 4
Magnetism 86
4–1 The Earth Is a Magnet 87
4–2 Permanent Magnets 88
4–3 The Electron Theory of Magnetism 88
4–4 Magnetic Materials 90
4–5 Magnetic Lines of Force 91
4–6 Electromagnetics 92
4–7 Magnetic Measurement 95
4–8 Magnetic Polarity 97
4–9 Demagnetizing 97
4–10 Magnetic Devices 98
UNIT 5
Resistors 103
5–1 Uses of Resistors 104
5–2 Fixed Resistors 105
5–3 Color Code 109
5–4 Standard Resistance Values of Fixed Resistors 113
5–5 Power Ratings 114
5–6 Variable Resistors 115
5–7 Schematic Symbols 118
SECTION 2
Basic Electric Circuits 122
UNIT 6
Series Circuits 123
6–1 Series Circuits 124
6–2 Voltage Drops in a Series Circuit 124
6–3 Resistance in a Series Circuit 126
6–4 Calculating Series Circuit Values 127
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CONTENTS vii
6–5 Solving Circuits 128

6–6 Voltage Dividers 139
6–7 The General Voltage Divider Formula 140
6–8 Voltage Polarity 141
6–9 Using Ground as a Reference 142
UNIT 7
Parallel Circuits 149
7–1 Parallel Circuit Values 150
7–2 Parallel Resistance Formulas 153
UNIT 8
Combination Circuits 173
8–1 Combination Circuits 174
8–2 Solving Combination Circuits 174
8–3 Simplifying the Circuit 175
SECTION 3
Meters and Wire Sizes 200
UNIT 9
Measuring Instruments 201
9–1 Analog Meters 202
9–2 The Voltmeter 204
9–3 Multirange Voltmeters 205
9–4 Reading a Meter 207
9–5 The Ammeter 210
9–6 Ammeter Shunts 211
9–7 Multirange Ammeters 213
9–8 The Ayrton Shunt 214
9–9 AC Ammeters 218
9–10 Clamp-On Ammeters 221
9–11 DC–AC Clamp-On Ammeters 223
9–12 The Ohmmeter 225
9–13 Shunt-Type Ohmmeters 227
9–14 Digital Meters 228
9–15 The Low-Impedance Voltage Tester 231
9–16 The Oscilloscope 232
9–17 The Wattmeter 242
9–18 Recording Meters 244
9–19 Bridge Circuits 245
UNIT 10
Using Wire Tables and Determining Conductor Sizes 250
10–1 The American Wire Gauge (AWG) 251
10–2 Using the NEC Charts 253
viii CONTENTS
10–3 Factors That Determine Ampacity 255

10–4 Correction Factors 257
10–5 Calculating Conductor Sizes and Resistance 262
10–6 Calculating Voltage Drop 271
10–7 Parallel Conductors 273
10–8 Testing Wire Installations 275
SECTION 4
Small Sources of Electricity 282
UNIT 11
Conduction in Liquids and Gases 283
11–1 The Ionization Process: Magnesium and Chlorine 284
11–2 Other Types of Ions 286
11–3 Electroplating 287
11–4 Electrolysis 288
11–5 Conduction in Gases 288
11–6 Ionization in Nature 292
UNIT 12
Batteries and Other Sources of Electricity 294
12–1 History of the Battery 295
12–2 Cells 296
12–3 Cell Voltage 297
12–4 Primary Cells 298
12–5 Secondary Cells: Lead-Acid Batteries 306
12–6 Other Secondary Cells 313
12–7 Series and Parallel Battery Connections 315
12–8 Other Small Sources of Electricity 317
UNIT 13
Magnetic Induction 327
13–1 Electromagnetic Induction 328
13–2 Fleming’s Left-Hand Generator Rule 330
13–3 Moving Magnetic Fields 331
13–4 Determining the Amount of Induced Voltage 331
13–5 Lenz’s Law 333
13–6 Rise Time of Current in an Inductor 335
13–7 The Exponential Curve 336
13–8 Inductance 338
13–9 R-L Time Constants 339
13–10 Induced Voltage Spikes 341
CONTENTS ix
SECTION 5
Basics of Alternating Current 348
UNIT 14
Basic Trigonometry and Vectors 349
14–1 Right Triangles 350
14–2 The Pythagorean Theorem 351
14–3 Sines, Cosines, and Tangents 353
14–4 Formulas 356
14–5 Practical Application 356
UNIT 15
Alternating Current 367
15–1 Advantages of AC 368
15–2 AC Waveforms 368
15–3 Sine Wave Values 375
15–4 Resistive Loads 381
15–5 Power in an AC Circuit 382
15–6 Skin Effect in AC Circuits 383
SECTION 6
Alternating Current (AC) Circuits Containing Inductance 388
UNIT 16
Inductance in AC Circuits 389
16–1 Inductance 390
16–2 Inductive Reactance 393
16–3 Schematic Symbols 396
16–4 Inductors Connected in Series 397
16–5 Inductors Connected in Parallel 398
16–6 Voltage and Current Relationships in an Inductive Circuit 399
16–7 Power in an Inductive Circuit 400
16–8 Reactive Power 401
16–9 Q of an Inductor 402
UNIT 17
Resistive-Inductive Series Circuits 409
17–1 R-L Series Circuits 410
17–2 Impedance 411
17–3 Total Current 414
17–4 Voltage Drop Across the Resistor 414
17–5 Watts 415
17–6 Calculating the Inductance 416
17–7 Voltage Drop Across the Inductor 416
17–8 Total Voltage 416
x CONTENTS
17–9 Calculating the Reactive Power 416

17–10 Calculating the Apparent Power 418
17–11 Power Factor 420
17–12 Angle Theta 421
UNIT 18
Resistive-Inductive Parallel Circuits 434
18–1 Resistive-Inductive Parallel Circuits 435
18–2 Calculating Circuit Values 435
SECTION 7
AC Circuits Containing Capacitors 454
UNIT 19
Capacitors 455
19–1 Capacitors 456
19–2 Electrostatic Charge 459
19–3 Dielectric Constant 462
19–4 Capacitor Ratings 462
19–5 Capacitors Connected in Parallel 464
19–6 Capacitors Connected in Series 464
19–7 Capacitive Charge and Discharge Rates 465
19–8 RC Time Constants 466
19–9 Applications for Capacitors 468
19–10 Nonpolarized Capacitors 468
19–11 Polarized Capacitors 471
19–12 Variable Capacitors 473
19–13 Capacitor Markings 474
19–14 Temperature Coefficients 476
19–15 Ceramic Capacitors 476
19–16 Dipped Tantalum Capacitors 476
19–17 Film Capacitors 477
19–18 Testing Capacitors 478
UNIT 20
Capacitance in AC Circuits 484
20–1 Connecting the Capacitor into an AC Circuit 485
20–2 Capacitive Reactance 486
20–3 Calculating Capacitance 487
20–4 Voltage and Current Relationships in a Pure Capacitive Circuit 488
20–5 Power in a Pure Capacitive Circuit 490
20–6 Quality of a Capacitor 491
20–7 Capacitor Voltage Rating 492
20–8 Effects of Frequency in a Capacitive Circuit 492
20–9 Series Capacitors 494
20–10 Parallel Capacitors 497
CONTENTS xi
UNIT 21
Resistive-Capacitive Series Circuits 504
21–1 Resistive-Capacitive Series Circuits 505
21–2 Impedance 506
21–3 Total Current 507
21–4 Voltage Drop Across the Resistor 507
21–5 True Power 507
21–6 Capacitance 508
21–7 Voltage Drop Across the Capacitor 508
21–8 Total Voltage 508
21–9 Reactive Power 508
21–10 Apparent Power 510
21–11 Power Factor 511
21–12 Angle Theta 511
UNIT 22
Resistive-Capacitive Parallel Circuits 521
22–1 Operation of RC Parallel Circuits 522
22–2 Calculating Circuit Values 523
SECTION 8
AC Circuits Containing Resistance-Inductance-Capacitance 536
UNIT 23
Resistive-Inductive-Capacitive Series Circuits 537
23–1 RLC Series Circuits 538
23–2 Series Resonant Circuits 548
UNIT 24
Resistive-Inductive-Capacitive Parallel Circuits 556
24–1 RLC Parallel Circuits 557
24–2 Parallel Resonant Circuits 566
UNIT 25
Surge, Spike, and Lightning Protection 577
25–1 Surges and Spikes 578
25–2 Capacitors 579
25–3 Capacitor Charge Rate 580
25–4 Inductors 581
25–5 Isolation Transformers 583
25–6 Electrical Noise 583
25–7 Metal-Oxide Varistor (MOV) 585
25–8 Thermal Fuses 587
25–9 Surge Protector Ratings 588
25–10 Lightning Arresters 590
xii CONTENTS
SECTION 9
Three-Phase Power 594
UNIT 26
Three-Phase Circuits 595
26–1 Three-Phase Circuits 596
26–2 Wye Connections 597
26–3 Delta Connections 600
26–4 Three-Phase Power 603
26–5 Watts and VARs 603
26–6 Three-Phase Circuit Calculations 604
26–7 Load 3 Calculations 611
26–10 Alternator Calculations 613
26–11 Power Factor Correction 614
SECTION 10
Transformers 622
UNIT 27
Single-Phase Transformers 623
27–1 Single-Phase Transformers 624
27–2 Isolation Transformers 625
27–3 Autotransformers 647
27–4 Transformer Polarities 650
27–5 Voltage and Current Relationships in a Transformer 654
27–6 Testing the Transformer 656
27–7 Transformer Nameplates 656
27–8 Determining Maximum Current 658
27–9 Transformer Impedance 658
UNIT 28
Three-Phase Transformers 670
28–1 Three-Phase Transformers 671
28–2 Closing a Delta 676
28–3 Three-Phase Transformer Calculations 677
28–4 Open-Delta Connection 682
28–5 Single-Phase Loads 683
28–6 Closed Delta with Center Tap 686
28–7 Closed Delta without Center Tap 687
28–8 Delta–Wye Connection with Neutral 687
28–9 T-Connected Transformers 688
28–10 Scott Connection 691
28–11 Zig-Zag Connection 691
28–12 Six-Phase Transformer Connections 692
CONTENTS xiii
28–13 The Double-Delta Connection 694

28–14 The Double-Wye Connection 695
SECTION 11
DC Machines 700
UNIT 29
DC Generators 701
29–1 What Is a Generator? 702
29–2 Armature Windings 710
29–3 Brushes 711
29–4 Pole Pieces 711
29–5 Field Windings 712
29–6 Series Generators 714
29–7 Shunt Generators 716
29–8 Compound Generators 720
29–9 Compounding 721
29–10 Countertorque 722
29–11 Armature Reaction 724
29–12 Setting the Neutral Plane 727
29–13 Paralleling Generators 728
UNIT 30
DC Motors 733
30–1 DC Motor Principles 734
30–2 Shunt Motors 737
30–3 Series Motors 739
30–4 Compound Motors 740
30–5 Terminal Identification for DC Motors 742
30–6 Determining the Direction of Rotation of a DC Motor 743
30–7 Speed Control 745
30–8 The Field-Loss Relay 747
30–9 Horsepower 748
30–10 Brushless DC Motors 750
30–11 Converters 753
30–12 Permanent Magnet Motors 754
30–13 The Right-Hand Motor Rule 760
SECTION 12
AC Machines 764
UNIT 31
Three-Phase Alternators 765
31–1 Three-Phase Alternators 766
31–2 The Rotor 769
31–3 The Brushless Exciter 770
xiv CONTENTS
31–4 Alternator Cooling 770

31–5 Frequency 773
31–6 Output Voltage 774
31–7 Paralleling Alternators 775
31–8 Sharing the Load 777
31–9 Field-Discharge Protection 777
UNIT 32
Three-Phase Motors 780
32–1 Three-Phase Motors 781
32–2 The Rotating Magnetic Field 781
32–3 Connecting Dual-Voltage Three-Phase Motors 793
32–4 Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors 799
32–5 Wound-Rotor Induction Motors 820
32–6 Synchronous Motors 823
32–7 Selsyn Motors 829
UNIT 33
Single-Phase Motors 836
33–1 Single-Phase Motors 837
33–2 Split-Phase Motors 837
33–3 Resistance-Start Induction-Run Motors 840
33–4 Capacitor-Start Induction-Run Motors 847
33–5 Dual-Voltage Split-Phase Motors 848
33–6 Determining the Direction of Rotation for Split-Phase Motors 851
33–7 Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run, or Permanent Split Capacitor, Motors 852
33–8 Shaded-Pole Induction Motors 854
33–9 Multispeed Motors 858
33–10 Repulsion-Type Motors 859
33–11 Construction of Repulsion Motors 860
33–12 Repulsion-Start Induction-Run Motors 863
33–13 Repulsion-Induction Motors 865
33–14 Single-Phase Synchronous Motors 865
33–15 Stepping Motors 867
33–16 Universal Motors 874
UNIT 34
Motor Installation 886
34–1 Motor Full-Load Current 887
34–2 Single-Phase AC Motors 887
34–3 Three-Phase Motors 889
34–4 Determining Conductor Size for a Single Motor 890
34–5 Termination Temperature 890
34–6 Overloads 892
34–7 Sizing Overload Heaters for Large Motors 897
34–8 Motor Starter Size 900
34–9 Short-Circuit Protection 900
34–10 Multiple Motor Calculations 910
CONTENTS xv
UNIT 35
Harmonics 916
35–1 What Are Harmonics? 917
aPPENDIX a
Identifying the Leads of a Three-Phase,
Wye-Connected, Dual-Voltage Motor 927
aPPENDIX B
AC Formulas 930
aPPENDIX C
Greek Alphabet 941
aPPENDIX D
Metals 942
aPPENDIX E
Scientific Notation 944
aPPENDIX f
Answers to Practice Problems 948
Glossary 966
Index 978
PrEfaCE
Intended Use
Delmar’s Standard Textbook of Electricity, 7th edition, is intended for students in electrical trade programs at
high schools and community colleges, as well as those in industry training. It assumes that the reader has
had no prior knowledge of electricity but also provides enough comprehensive coverage to be used as a
reference tool for experienced electricians.
Subject and Approach

The content itself is presented as a blend of the practical and theoretical. It not only explains the different
concepts relating to electrical theory but also provides many practical examples of how to do many of
the common tasks the industrial electrician must perform. An extensive art program containing full color
photographs and line drawings, as well as the inclusion of practical exercises for the student, also serve
to further clarify theoretical concepts.
Design of Text
The subject matter has been divided into 35 separate units—each designed to “stand alone.” The
“stand-alone” concept permits the information to be presented in almost any sequence the instructor
desires, as teaching techniques vary from one instructor to another. The information is also presented in
this manner to allow students and instructors quick reference on a particular subject.
Math Level
The math level has been kept to basic algebra and trigonometry, and Appendix B contains a section
of electrical formulas—all divided into groups that are related to a particular application. Unit 14 of the
text provides an introduction to basic trigonometry and vectors for those students weak in the subject.
A Note about Calculations

Delmar’s Standard Textbook of Electricity, 7th edition, like all other scientific texts, contains numerous
mathematical equations and calculations. Students often become concerned if their answers to problems
are not exactly the same as the solutions given in the text. The primary reason for a discrepancy is the
rounding off of values. Different scientific calculators carry out numbers to different places, depending
on the manufacturer and model. Some calculators carry numbers to 8 places, some to 10 places,
and some to 12 places. There may also be times when numbers that are reentered into the calculator
are carried to only 2 or 3 decimal places of accuracy. For example, the numbers shown below will be
multiplied with a calculator that carries numbers out to 8 places of accuracy:
3.21 3 34.6 3 4.32 3 0.021 3 3.098 3 0.467
The answer is 14.577480.
The same problem will again be multiplied, but this time each answer will be reentered before it
is multiplied by the next number. Each time the answer is reentered, it will be rounded off to 3 places
after the decimal. If the fourth number after the decimal is 5 or greater, the third decimal place will
be rounded up. If the fourth number is less than 5, it will be rounded down. The answer is 14.577405.
The same set of numbers will again be multiplied, but this time each answer will be reentered after
rounding off the number to one place after the decimal. The answer is 14.617100.
xvii
xviii PrEfaCE
Notice that all three answers are different, but all three are essentially correct. The most accurate
answer is 14.577480, and the least accurate answer is 14.617100. Although these answers may look
substantially different, they are within approximately 1% of each other.
Another consideration is problems that contain multiple steps. The more steps it takes to solve a
problem, the more chance there is for inaccuracy. In most instances in this text, the answers were left
in the display of the calculator, which permits the greatest degree of accuracy. When numbers had to
be re-entered, they were taken to 3 places of accuracy. When you work a problem in this text and your
answer is different, consider the degree of difference before concluding that your answer is incorrect.
New to This Edition

The seventh edition of Delmar’s Standard Textbook of Electricity continues to remain true to the
comprehensive nature and visually appealing style that are its trademark features but will now offer more
emphasis on the practical approach to electrical theory. New to this edition:
● Updated graphics.
● Extended coverage of batteries to include AGM batteries.
● Added coverage of three-phase transformers to include connections for six-phase transformer
connections.
● The previous-edition unit on filters has been revised to include more practical applications
concerning surge, spike, and lightning protection.
● A new unit on motor installation in accord with the NEC. The unit concerns conductor selection,
fuse or circuit-breaker sizing, and overload heater selection.
Features of the Text

“Safety Overview”
At the beginning of Section I, Safety Overview provides information on general safety rules, per-
sonal protective equipment, potential job hazards, lock-out/tag-out procedures, GFCI, Ground-
ing—and more! Students are acquainted with the all important safety concerns applicable to working
in a lab and on the work site.
“Cautions”
Author highlights text where students should be aware of potential risks in working with various
types of electrical equipment.
caution
The ammeter, unlike the voltmeter, is a very low-impedance device. The ammeter is used to measure
current and must be connected in series with the load to permit the load to limit the current
flow (Figure 9-13).
PrEfaCE xix
Math Presentation 356 section 5 Basics of Alternating Current
Section on vectors in Unit 16 is presented

EXAMPLE 14–3
earlier in the text in Unit 14, Basic Using the same triangle (Figure 14–7), determine the number of degrees in angle Y.
Trigonometry, providing a foundation Solution

In this example, the lengths of the hypotenuse and the adjacent side are known. The cosine function
for students as they work through math can be used to find the angle:
equations.
cosine ∠Y 5 0.643
To find what angle corresponds to the cosine of 0.643, use the trigonometric tables in Appendices A
and B or the COS function of a scientific calculator:
COS21 or ARC COS 0.643 5 508
14–4 Formulas
Some formulas that can be used to find the angles and lengths of different sides follow:
Adj. 5 cos /u 3 Hyp.
Opp 5 sin /u 3 Hyp. Opp. 5 Adj. 3 tan /u
14–5 Practical Application

Although the purpose of this unit is to provide preparation for the study of AC circuits, basic
trigonometry can provide answers to other problems that may be encountered on the job. Assume
that it is necessary to know the height of a tall building (Figure 14–8). Now assume that the only tools
available to make this measurement are a 1-foot ruler, a tape measure, and a scientific calculator.
To make the measurement, find a relatively flat area in the open sunlight. Hold the ruler upright and
measure the shadow cast by the sun (Figure 14–9). Assume the length of the shadow to be 7.5 inches.
Using the length of the UNIT 4 Magnetism
shadow 99 triangle and the ruler as the other side, the angle
as one side of a right
“Why You Need to Know”

This element at the beginning of each
Permanent
Electromagnet
Delmar Online Electricity
unit explains to students the magnet
importance Training Simulation & Wiring
of learning the material presented in each UNIT
33
unit, and how it may apply to actual job
Single-Phase Motors
situations. S N
Cone
Key Terms Why You Need to Know
S
Centrifugal switch ingle-phase motors are used almost exclusively in residential applications
Compensating winding and to operate loads that require fractional horsepower motors in indus-
FIGURE 4–20 A speaker uses both an electromagnet andConductive compensation
a permanent magnet. trial and commercial locations. Many of these motors you will recognize from
Consequent-pole motor everyday life and may have wondered how they work. Unlike three-phase
Encoder motors, there are many different types of single-phase motors and they do
Holtz motor not all operate on the same principle. There are some that operate on the
Inductive compensation principle of a rotating magnetic field, but others do not. Some single-phase
Multispeed motors motors are designed to operate at more than one speed. This unit
The speaker uses two separate magnets. One is a permanent Neutral plane magnet, and the other is an electro-
presents several different types of single-phase motors and explains how they
magnet. The permanent magnet is held stationary, and the electromagnet is attached
Repulsion motor to the speaker
●
Run winding operate.

cone. When current flows through the coil of the electromagnet, Servo motor a magnetic ● field ishow
explains produced. The
to determine the appropriate motor to be used under a given
polarity of the field is determined by the direction of current Shaded-poleflow.
inductionWhen
motor the electromagnet
situation has
by evaluating the a principles of each.
operating
north polarity, it is repelled from the permanent magnet, Shading
causing coil the speaker cone to move outward
Split-phase motors Outline
and displace air. When the current flow reverses through the coil, the electromagnet has a south
“Practical Applications” Start winding
polarity and is attracted to the permanent magnet. The speaker
Stepping motors
33–1 Single-Phase Motors
cone then moves inward and again
33–2 Split-Phase Motors
30–9 Multispeed Motors
30–10 Repulsion-Type Motors
displaces air. The number of times per second that the current
Synchronousthrough
motors the 33–3
coil reverses determines
Resistance-Start Induction-Run 30–11 Construction of Repulsion
Word problems step the students through potential situations on the job and encourage them to
Torque motor
the tone of the speaker. Two-phase
Motors Motors
33–4 Capacitor-Start Induction-Run 30–12 Repulsion-Start Induction-Run
Universal motor
develop critical thinking skills. Warren motor
33–5
Motors
Dual-Voltage Split-Phase Motors
Motors
30–13 Repulsion-Induction Motors
33–6 Determining the Direction of 30–14 Single-Phase Synchronous
Rotation for Split-Phase Motors Motors
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 33–7 Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run

Motors
30–15 Stepping Motors
30–16 Universal Motors
33–8 Shaded-Pole Induction Motors
Industry often employs the use of an electromagnet to pick up metal objects. These large
magnets are called round horseshoe magnets. They contain a center core surrounded
by an outer core. A direct current winding of magnetic
836wire is wound around the center
core. An illustration of a round horseshoe magnet that has been cut in half is shown in
Figure 4–21. When direct current flows through the winding, the magnetic field produces
the polarities as shown. The dimensions of the magnet are shown in Figure 4–22. It is
assumed that the magnetic field developed has a flux density of 2 webers per square
inch. Determine the maximum pulling force of the magnet.
xx PrEfaCE
Text Design
A fresh design creates a text that makes it even easier to navigate through content, serving to
facilitate learning for students.
New, Up-to-Date Art
Approximately 110 new four-color photos and line illustrations combined bring text up to date,
keeping students aware of the latest technology in the industry.
Dedication to Technical Accuracy and Consistency

Text was thoroughly reviewed for technical accuracy and consistency, ensuring existing errors
were corrected, enabling students to readily grasp more difficult concepts.
Supplement Package
● Lab-Volt Manual provides experiments for students to test and troubleshoot key concepts pre-
sented in the text, using Lab-volt equipment. (Order #: 978-1-111-53916-0).
● The Complete Laboratory Manual for Electricity, by Steve Herman. This manual is designed to be
conducted with common lab equipment. (Order #: 978-1-133-67382-8).
MindTap
MindTap is well beyond an eBook, a homework solution or digital supplement, a resource center website,
a course delivery platform, or a Learning Management System. MindTap is a new personal learning
experience that combines all your digital assets—readings, multimedia, activities, and assessments—into
a singular learning path to improve student outcomes.
Instructor Site
An Instructor Companion website containing supplementary material is available. This site contains an
Instructor Guide, an image gallery of text figures, chapter presentations done in PowerPoint, and testing
powered by Cognero.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible, online system that allows you to:
● author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions
● create multiple test versions in an instant
● deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want
Contact Cengage Learning or your local sales representative to obtain an instructor account.
Accessing an Instructor Companion Website from SSO Front Door
1. Go to http://login.cengage.com and log in using the instructor e-mail address and password.
2. Enter author, title, or ISBN in the Add a title to your bookshelf search.
3. Click Add to my bookshelf to add instructor resources.
4. At the Product page, click the Instructor Companion site link.
Delmar Online Training Simulation: Electricity

Delmar Online Training Simulation: Electricity is an immersive simulation that offers electrical students a
learning path from basic electrical concepts to real world electrical applications. It features a variety of
engaging simulation activities including interactive wiring diagrams and practical exercises like wiring a
lighting branch circuit in a realistic 3D setting.
PrEfaCE xxi
Delmar Online Electricity Certain Units in this text will display the Delmar Online Training Simulation: Electricity icon
Training Simulation & Wiring at the end of the unit and will specify which modules in the simulation contain activities
related to that unit.
The interactive wiring diagrams are visually powerful and illustrate how electricity flows in a system. Stu-
dents can use a realistic multimeter to measure voltage, amperage, and resistance and rapidly increase their
understanding of practical electrical concepts. There are also extensive animations and tutorials to gradually
build student confidence with challenging topics.
The lighting branch simulations are realistic and will give students the practical context to under-
stand common electrical tasks. Students will have to choose cable types and wire individual conduc-
tors to make the circuits work properly. Circuits include a variety of single pole and 3-way switches.
Printed Access Code ISBN: 978-1-305-26447-2 or Instant Access Code ISBN: 978-1-305-26445-8
available for instant purchase on www.cengagebrain.com.
A Note about the Lab Manuals

Two laboratory manuals are available to The Standard Textbook of Electricity: Experiments in Electricity
for Use with Lab-Volt EMS Equipment and The Complete Laboratory Manual for Electricity, 4E, provide
extensive opportunities for students to apply what they have learned. Both manuals contain multiple
hands-on experiments for selective units of the textbook and have been extensively field-tested to ensure
that all the experiments will work as planned. The engineers at Lab-Volt conducted each of the experiments
in Experiments in Electricity for Use with Lab-Volt EMS Equipment, and, following their testing, Lab-Volt
has endorsed this manual. It is the manual they recommend to their customers. The Complete Laboratory
Manual for Electricity was field-tested at the Shreveport-Bossier Regional Technical School under the
direction of Richard Cameron.
aBOUT ThE aUThOr

Stephen L. Herman has been both a teacher of industrial electricity and an industrial electrician for
many years. His formal training was obtained at Catawba Valley Technical College in Hickory, North
Carolina. Mr. Herman has worked as a maintenance electrician for Superior Cable Corp. and as a class
“A” electrician for National Liberty Pipe and Tube Co. During those years of experience, Mr. Herman
learned to combine his theoretical knowledge of electricity with practical application. The books he has
authored reflect his strong belief that a working electrician must have a practical knowledge of both
theory and experience to be successful.
Mr. Herman was the Electrical Installation and Maintenance instructor at Randolph Technical Col-
lege in Asheboro, North Carolina, for 9 years. After a return to industry, he became the lead instructor
of the Electrical Technology Curriculum at Lee College in Baytown, Texas. He retired from Lee College
after 20 years of service and, at present, resides in Pittsburg, Texas, with his wife. He continues to stay
active in the industry, write, and update his books.
aCkNOwlEDgmENTS
The author and publisher would like to express thanks to those reviewers who provided insightful feed-
back throughout the development of this text:
James Blackett, Thomas Nelson Community College, Hampton, VA

Oscar Buschinelli, Centre for Skills Development and Training, Burlington, ON, Canada
James Cipollone, Antelope Valley Community College, Lancaster, CA
xxii PrEfaCE
Eduardo Del Toro, MacArthur High School/Independent Electrical Contractors, San Antonio, TX
Anne Koering, Clark College, Vancouver, WA
Randy Ludington, Guilford Community College, Greensboro, NC
Robert B. Meyers, Jr., Harrisburg Area Community College, Harrisburg, PA
J.C. Morrow, Hopkinsville Community College, Hopkinsville, KY
Quinton Phillips, Athens Area Vocational Technical Institute, Athens, GA
Larry Pogoler, LA Trade Tech College, Los Angeles, CA
Rick Reardon, Eastern Maine Community College, Bangor, ME
Dean Senter, Pratt Community College, Pratt, KS
Justin Shores, Antelope Valley Community College, Lancaster, CA
Elmer Tepper, Gateway Community College, Phoenix, AZ
Raul Vasquez, Independent Electrical Contractors, San Antonio, TX
Kevin Weigman, Northeast Wisconsin Technical College, Green Bay, WI
INTrODUCTION
ElECTrICal OCCUPaTIONS
OrgaNIzaTION Of ThE INDUSTry
The electrical industry is one of the largest in the United States and Canada. In 2008, electricians
held about 692,000 jobs. Electrical contracting firms employed about 65% of the wage and salaried
workers. The remainder worked as electricians in other related industries. About 9% of the electricians
were self-employed. The opportunity for employment and advancement as an electrician is one of
the highest of any industry. Basically, the entire country runs on electricity. Industry, commercial
locations, and homes all employ electricity as the main source of power. It has been estimated that
between 2008 and 2018 the need for qualified electricians will increase at a rate of about 12%. That
represents an annual increase of over 8000 electricians over the next 10 years. The lay-off rate of
electricians is one of the lowest of any occupation. If industry operates, it will require electricians
to keep it running.
Electrical Personnel
Electricians can generally be divided into several categories, depending on their specific area of
employment. Each of these categories may require special skills.
Construction
Electricians working in the construction industry generally require a basic knowledge of electrical
theory and an extensive knowledge of National Electrical Code® requirements and wiring prac-
tices. Electricians in the construction area can generally be divided into helpers, journeymen, and
masters. Many states require tests for journeymen and master levels.
Industrial Electricians
Industrial electricians are generally concerned with maintaining equipment that has already been
installed. Electricians in an industrial environment require an extensive knowledge of electrical
theory and National Electrical Code® requirements for installation of motors, capacitor banks, and
transformers. Industrial electricians should also possess a basic knowledge of electronics and
electronic devices. Modern industry employs many electronic devices, such as variable frequency
drives, solid state controls for direct current motors, and programmable logic controllers. Another
area of concern for most industrial electricians is motor controls. Motor control systems are gen-
erally either relay logic or electronic in the form of programmable logic controllers or distributive
control systems.
Instrumentation Technicians
Instrumentation technicians calibrate and maintain devices that sense such quantities as
temperature, pressure, liquid level, flow rate, and others. These people should have an extensive
knowledge of electrical theory, especially as it pertains to low-voltage and closed-loop systems.
Related Industries
The fields related to the electrical industry are too numerous to mention but include air condi-
tioning and refrigeration, aircraft electronics, automotive, cable TV, broadcast media, energy and
utilities, and home appliance and repair, as well as many, many others. The opportunity for em-
ployment in the electrical field is almost unlimited.
xxiii
xxiv INTrODUCTION
Union and Nonunion Employees

The largest percentage of electricians are nonunion employees. Many construction electricians receive
training at various trade and technical schools. Some employers also sponsor apprenticeship programs.
Apprenticeship-type programs generally require the electrician to work on the job as well as attend
classes. The advantage to apprenticeship training is that it permits a person to earn money while he or
she attends class. The disadvantage is that it can create an extremely busy schedule. Most industrial
electricians, and those in related fields, require special training at a trade or technical school.
The largest electrician’s union is the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW). The
construction electricians who belong to the IBEW generally receive apprenticeship-type training for an
organization called the National Joint Apprenticeship Training Committee (NJATC). Union electricians
who work in related fields generally belong to unions organized for their particular industry, such as
United Auto Workers or United Steel Workers.
Apprentices, whether union or nonunion, attend classes several hours a week and work on the job
under the supervision of a journeyman. Most journeymen have completed their apprenticeship training
and a set number of hours of practical work, and are required to pass an examination to become a
journeyman. Journeymen work under the supervision of a master electrician. The master is ultimately
responsible for the work performed and is answerable to the architect or owner. Most states require not
only that a master pass a very rigorous examination but also be bonded for a particular sum of money,
depending on the size of the job he or she bids on.
Ethics
Probably the greatest document concerning ethical behavior was given to a man named Moses on
top of a mountain several thousand years ago and is called the Ten Commandments. Ethics are the
principles by which behavior is judged to be right or wrong. There is an old saying stating that the best
advertisement is word of mouth. This type of advertisement, however, can be a two-edged sword.
People who do poor work, charge for work that was not done, make promises that are never kept, and
cheat people at every opportunity gain a reputation that eventually catches up with them.
People who do an honest day’s work for an honest wage, keep promises, and deal fairly with other
people gain a reputation that will lead to success. Many years ago I worked for a man who had a busi-
ness of rebuilding engines. He charged about twice the going rate of any other person in town and had
more business than he could handle. I once asked him how he could charge more than anyone else
and still have more business than anyone else. His answer was simple. He said, “There are two ways by
which a business can be known. One is as the cheapest in town and the other is as the best in town.
I’m the best in town.” Most people are willing to pay more for a person that has a reputation for doing
quality work and dealing honestly with customers.
Appearance
Appearance plays a major role in how a person is perceived. The old saying that first impressions are the
most important is true. This doesn’t mean that formal office attire is required to make a good impression
on a prospective customer, but a professional person is expected to look professional. A person who
wears clean work clothes and drives a relatively clean vehicle makes a much better impression than
someone who shows up in filthy clothes with shirttail hanging out and pants sagging almost to the
knees.
Communication
Communication skills are extremely important on any job. These skills can be divided into several areas
such as speaking, listening, and writing.
introduction xxv
Speaking: Speaking well is probably one of the most important skills for obtaining a successful
career in any field. Generally, one of the first impressions you make concerns your ability to speak
properly. Even though slang is widely used among friends, family, and the media, a person who uses
proper English gives the impression of being educated, informed, and professional.
The ability to speak also involves communicating with people on the job, whether that person is a
journeyman or an employer. The ability to explain clearly how a job was done or why it was done a certain
way is also important, as it is often necessary to communicate with people who have no knowledge of the
electrical field. The ability to explain to a homeowner why a receptacle or switch should or should not be
placed in a particular location is important.
Listening: Listening is probably the most understated skill concerning communication. You should
not only listen to what a person wants but also make sure you understand what he or she is saying.
Not understanding what a person wants can lead to extremely costly mistakes. The most costly work
is that which has to be redone because of a misunderstanding. An example of how misunderstandings
can lead to costly mistakes is shown in Figure Occupations 1.
Writing: Many jobs require the electrician to fill out work reports that can include a description of the
job, the materials used, and the time required to complete the job. This is especially true of a person in
charge of other workers, such as a journeyman.
Maintenance electricians in an industrial environment generally submit a report on the maintenance
performed on a particular machine. The report commonly includes the particular machine, the problem
encountered, the materials necessary for repair, and the time spent in troubleshooting and repair.
Working on a Team
Teamwork is essential on most construction jobs. The typical construction job may include people
that pour the concrete foundation; carpenters; brick masons; stone masons; plumbers; landscapers;
people that install flooring and carpet; air-conditioning and refrigeration contractors; and, of course,
electricians. One of the key elements to a successful team effort is communication. If conduit is to be
run under the slab, it is better to communicate with the people doing the foundation and inform them
that conduit needs to be run before the slab is poured.
Be respectful of other trades. If an electrical outlet box is in the way of a sewer line, the plumber
may ask that it be moved. It is much easier to move an outlet box than it is to reroute a sewer line. If
electrical boxes are to be placed in an outside brick wall, ask the brick mason how he would like the
box to be placed. A little respect for other trades plus communication can solve many problems before
they happen.
If possible, help other people. If you are already in an attic and the air-conditioning contractor asks
whether you would be willing to do a small job that would save him time and effort, it is good working
relations to do so. Grudges and hard feelings do not happen in a work setting where kindness is
practiced.
What the architect drew What was built What the customer wanted
FIGURE OccUpaTIOns 1 Listening to the customer can save money and time.
xxvi INTrODUCTION
Building Codes
Many cities, counties, and states have their own building codes that supersede the National Electrical
Code®. The National Electrical Code® is law only if the local authority has adopted it as law. Always
check local codes before beginning a construction project. Local codes often specify the manner in
which wiring is to be installed and the size or type of wire that must be used for a particular application.
Green Building
“Green building” basically means making buildings more energy efficient. This can encompass many
areas of the construction such as using “low E” energy-efficient windows, adding extra insulation,
adding solar collectors to assist the water heater, and installing solar panels and/or wind generators
to assist the electrical service. For the electrician, it may be installing larger wire than necessary to
help overcome voltage drop, or installing energy-efficient appliances such as heat pump–type water
heaters. These water heaters use about half the amount of power of a standard electric water heater.
Energy-efficient appliances are generally identified by an Energy Star label. Energy Star is a government-
backed symbol awarded to products that are considered energy efficient. Energy Star was established
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants caused by inefficient use of energy, and to
aid consumers in identifying and purchasing energy-efficient products that will save money without
sacrificing performance, features, or comfort.
Before a product can receive an Energy Star label, it must meet certain requirements set forth in
Energy Star product specifications:
● Product categories must produce significant energy sav-
ings nationwide.
● Qualified products must deliver the features and perfor-
mance demanded by customers as well as increase en-
ergy efficiency.
● If the qualified product cost more than a conventional,
less-efficient counterpart, purchasers must be able to
recover their investment in increased energy efficiency
through utility bill savings, within a reasonable period of
time.
● Energy efficiency must be achievable through broadly
available, nonproprietary technologies offered by more
than one manufacturer.
● Product energy consumption and performance must be
measurable and verified with testing.
● Labeling should effectively differentiate products and be
clearly visible to purchasers.
Solar Energy
One of the primary sources of green energy is solar power.
Solar energy is the primary source of heating water in many
countries and can be as simple as a dark colored container
FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 2 Solar water heaters
mounted on a roof. mounted on the roof of a structure, Figure Occupations 2.
Other types of solar water heaters involve a solar collector, a
special tank that contains a heat exchanger, and related equipment, Figure Occupations 3. Most of
these types of water heaters contain backup electric heating elements for cloudy weather when the
solar collector cannot supply enough energy to heat the water.
INTrODUCTION xxvii
Solar collector
Hot water outlet
Cold water inlet
Heat exchanger
Pump
FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 3 Some solar water heaters use a solar panel and special tank with a
heat exchanger.
Some solar systems generate electricity and are generally called PV (photovoltaic) systems. In these
types of systems solar panels are mounted on the roof of a dwelling or in an open area on the ground,
Figure Occupations 4. Photovoltaic cells generate direct current, which must be changed into alternat-
ing current by an inverter, Figure Occupations 5. The home remains connected to the utility company
at all times. The solar panels augment the incoming power to help reduce the energy supplied by the
utility company. There are various methods of supplying power to the utility company, depending on the
requirements of the utility company and state laws. Some systems cause the electric meter to run back-
ward during times that the solar panels are producing more energy than is being supplied by the utility
company. Other systems require the use of two separate meters, Figure Occupations 6. One records
the amount of power supplied by the utility company and the other records the amount of power sup-
plied by the solar cells. The utility company then purchases the power from the homeowner or in some
cases gives the homeowner credit for the amount of power generated. Other systems employ batteries
to store the electricity produced by the solar panels. An uninterruptable power supply (UPS) converts
the direct current into alternating current. In the event of a power failure, the UPS continues to supply
power from the storage batteries.
The amount of electricity produced by the solar panels is directly proportional to the intensity of
sunlight striking the panels. The graph shown in Figure Occupations 7 illustrates the power output over
a 24-hour period. The information was gathered during the month of March. Solar cells have a very long
life span, generally considered to be 50 years or more. Most manufacturers of solar panels cover the
cells with a material that is designed to remain clear in direct sunlight and is strong enough to withstand
the average hail storm. Solar panels connect cells in series and parallel to obtain the desired voltage
and current capacity.
xxviii INTrODUCTION
FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 4 Solar panels are often mounted on the roof or in an open area.
FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 5 Inverter changes FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 6 One meter records the power
the direct current produced by the solar cells into supplied by the utility company, and another records the
alternating current. amount of power supplied by the solar panels.
INTrODUCTION xxix
3.0
2.5
kWh production
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
10:00 AM
10:00 PM
12:00 PM
12:00 AM
11:00 AM
11:00 PM
4:00 AM
6:00 AM
8:00 AM
9:00 AM
4:00 PM
6:00 PM
8:00 PM
9:00 PM
2:00 AM
2:00 PM
3:00 AM
5:00 AM
3:00 PM
5:00 PM
1:00 AM
7:00 AM
1:00 PM
7:00 PM
FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 7 Generation of electric power over a 24-hour period.
Regardless of the type of system, there are generally specific procedures that must be followed
during the installation of solar systems. Special circuit breakers designed for direct current and high
amperage interrupt capability are often required. Manufacturers’ recommendations as well as national
and local electrical codes should be followed.
Wind Power
Another widely used form of “Green” energy is wind. Wind is actually a product of solar energy. The Sun
heats different areas of the Earth’s surface at different rates. Hot air rises at a faster rate than cool air. As
the hot air rises, cool air rushes in to replace the void left by the rising hot air, and wind is created. Air has
mass, and moving air can contain a lot of energy. Wind generators convert the kinetic energy of moving
air into electricity. Wind energy increases by the cube of the speed, which means that each time the wind
speed doubles, the amount of energy increases eight times. This is the reason that the shape of many
automobiles is designed to move through the air with less friction. The wind resistance of an automobile
traveling at 60 miles per hour will be eight times greater than when traveling at 30 miles per hour.
Wind generators are often referred to as wind turbines. There are two basic designs of wind tur-
bines, the horizontal axis and the vertical axis, Figure Occupations 8. Vertical axis turbines are often
called “egg beaters.” The main advantage of vertical axis turbines is that they are omnidirectional,
Rotor blades
Gear box
Generator
Nacelle
Rotor blades
Tower
Generator
Gear box
Horizontal axis Vertical axis
FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 8 Wind turbine types.
xxx INTrODUCTION
FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 9 Wind farm.
meaning that they will operate regardless of wind direction. Although horizontal axis turbines must
turn to face the wind, they are mostly used for producing electricity. The size of wind turbines can vary
greatly depending on the amount of electricity they are intended to produce. Utility scale turbines used
in land-based wind farms, Figure Occupations 9, can have rotor diameters that range from 50 meters
(164 feet) to 90 meters (295 feet). The tower height is generally the same as the rotor diameter. Utility
wind turbines generally feed the electricity they produce directly into the power grid to aid other elec-
tricity-generating plants that use fossil fuels.
Wind turbines intended for residential or small commercial use are much smaller. Most have rotor
diameters of 8 meters (26 feet) or smaller and are mounted on towers of 40 meters (131 feet) or less.
As with solar installations, wind-powered systems can be installed to connect directly to the power grid
or to charge a bank of batteries. An inverter is used to convert the direct current of the batteries into
alternating current to supply the home. Inverters used to couple the wind turbine to the power line must
be able to maintain a steady power flow with varying wind speeds and varying voltages. They must also
be able to shape the waveform to that of a sine wave. Similar to solar installations, some wind-powered
systems cause the electric meter to run backward when it is producing more power than is required
by the home. Some utility companies will give credit for the amount of power generated, and some will
purchase the power from the customer. Other utilities require the use of two separate meters to deter-
mine the amount of wind power produced.
As with solar systems, when installing a wind-powered system, manufacturers’ instructions and
utility requirements should be followed. Before installing a wind-powered system, check to make certain
that the area has a high enough average wind speed to justify the cost of the system.
Lighting
Electric lighting began in 1879 when Thomas Edison invented the first incandescent lamp. He employed
the use of a carbon filament that was heated to a temperature that produced a dim light by today’s
standards. In 1906, the incandescent lamp was improved by replacing the carbon filament with one
made of tungsten. Tungsten could be heated to a much higher temperature and therefore could produce
a much brighter light. Incandescent lamps today still use tungsten filaments. Incandescent lamps have
the advantage of being inexpensive to purchase, but they also have a disadvantage in that they are very
energy inefficient. These lamps are basically room heaters that produce light as a byproduct. At best,
incandescent lamps are about 5% efficient, which means that a 100-watt lamp actually produces about
95 watts of heat and about 5 watts of light. They consume about 400% more energy to produce the
same amount of light as a standard fluorescent lamp.
Light is measured in lumens. The lumens, a metric measure of light intensity as perceived by the human
eye, is based on the English measurement of a candela. Basically, a light source that uniformly radiates
1 candela in all directions is equal to 4π lumens. Lighting efficiency is measured by the lumens produced by
1 watt of electricity (lumens per watt). The chart in Figure Occupations 10 lists the average lumens per watt
INTrODUCTION xxxi
100
90
80
70
Lumens per watt 60
50
40
30
20
10
10–17 12–22 20–60 25–60 30–110 40–70 50–140 70–115
Incandescent Halogen White Mercury Linear Compact High- Metal

LED vapor fluorescent fluorescent pressure halide
sodium
FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 10 Efficiencies of different types of lighting.
for different types of lighting. The actual light output per watt can vary greatly for each type of lamp, depend-
ing on many conditions such as temperature, age, wattage, and so on. The range is listed for each type.
The chart indicates that some types are much more energy efficient than others, but all are not suited
for use inside buildings. High-pressure sodium is the most efficient, but it has a very orange color, mak-
ing it unsuitable for many applications. These lamps are generally used in outdoor applications such as
parking lots and street lamps. Metal halide is also very efficient and has a near white color. These lamps
are often used in large buildings like factories, warehouses, and commercial locations such as build-
ing supply stores. Florescent lighting is probably the type most used for homes, office buildings, and
retail stores. Compact fluorescent lamps are replacing incandescent lamps in many homes. Although
compact fluorescent lamps have an initial cost that is greater than incandescent lamps, they use about
one-fourth the energy to produce a similar amount of light, and their average life expectancy is about
10 times longer. Because compact fluorescent lamps are more energy efficient, they produce less heat
for the same amount of light, reducing the load on air-conditioning systems. Over the life expectancy of
the lamp, the average cost of the compact fluorescent lamp will be less than a similar incandescent lamp.
Because of developments in LED lighting, LED lamps now produce more lumens per watt than
compact fluorescents. LED lamps exhibit another quality that overcomes a common problem with flu-
orescent lighting. In cold temperatures, fluorescent lamps require some period of time to warm before
they can attain full brightness. LED lamps do not exhibit this problem with cold temperatures.
Summary
The electrical field offers many avenues that can lead to success. Most electricians work in the construction
industry, but many are employed as maintenance technicians in industry and other related fields. The
demand for qualified electricians is expected to increase at a rate of over 8000 new jobs per year over the
next 10 years. The lay-off rate for electricians is one of the lowest in the country. Electricity is the power
that operates homes, businesses, and industry. If industry runs, it will require electricians to keep it running.
SEctiOn
1
Safety, Basic Electricity,
and Ohm’s Law
© K. Miri Photography/Shutterstock.com
Delmar Online Electricity
Training Simulation & Wiring
Safety Overview
Why You Need to Know Key terms
S afety is the job of each individual. You should be concerned not only Artificial respiration
with your own safety but also with the safety of others around you. This Cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR)
is especially true for persons employed in the electrical field. Some general
Confined spaces
rules should be followed when working with electric equipment or circuits.
De-energized circuit
Disconnect
Outline Energized circuit
S–1 General Safety Rules S–6 Fires Fibrillation
S–2 Effects of Electric Current on S–7 Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupters Fire-retardant clothing
the Body S–8 Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters Horseplay
S–3 On the Job (AFCIs) Idiot proofing
S–4 Protective Clothing S–9 Grounding Lockout and tagout
S–5 Ladders and Scaffolds Material safety data sheet
(MSDS)
Meter
Milliamperes (mA)
Occupational Safety and
Health Administration
(OSHA)
Scaffolds
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no related content on Scribd:
DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Delmar’s Standard Textbook of

Electricity 7th Edition – Ebook PDF

2–9 The Watt 60

6–5 Solving Circuits 128

10–3 Factors That Determine Ampacity 255

17–9 Calculating the Reactive Power 416

28–13 The Double-Delta Connection 694

31–4 Alternator Cooling 770

Subject and Approach

A Note about Calculations

New to This Edition

Features of the Text

Math Presentation 356 section 5 Basics of Alternating Current

Section on vectors in Unit 16 is presented

Trigonometry, providing a foundation Solution

COS21 or ARC COS 0.643 5 508

Adj. 5 cos /u 3 Hyp.

Opp 5 sin /u 3 Hyp. Opp. 5 Adj. 3 tan /u

14–5 Practical Application

“Why You Need to Know”

of learning the material presented in each UNIT

Run winding operate.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 33–7 Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run

Dedication to Technical Accuracy and Consistency

Delmar Online Training Simulation: Electricity

A Note about the Lab Manuals

aBOUT ThE aUThOr

James Blackett, Thomas Nelson Community College, Hampton, VA

Union and Nonunion Employees

Hot water outlet

Cold water inlet

FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 8 Wind turbine types.

FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 9 Wind farm.

10–17 12–22 20–60 25–60 30–110 40–70 50–140 70–115

Incandescent Halogen White Mercury Linear Compact High- Metal

FIGURE OCCUPATIONS 10 Efficiencies of different types of lighting.

Why You Need to Know Key terms

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

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