Introduction to Electronics

Part 1: Circuit Analysis

L5: Nodal Analysis

Dr. Rik Dey

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, IIT KANPUR

2023-24 SEM-II ESC201A INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS

1
 What will you learn today?

• Superposition Principle – Recap

• Dependent Voltage Sources and Current Sources

• Nodal Analysis: What and Why?

• Nodal Analysis with Current Sources in Linear Circuits

• Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources using Super-Node

• Nodal Analysis with Dependent Current Sources

• Nodal Analysis with Dependent Voltage Sources

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 2

 Superposition Method
The superposition principle states that
The total response is the sum of the responses to
each of the independent sources acting individually.

V
C eV
0
Input Output
+
0 eI
C
I
Input Output
–
V
I C eV+eI= e
1. Find circuit response to each source acting alone Inputs Output
2. Sum individual responses to get the total response

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 3

 Superposition Method
Response to voltage source only 1Ω Response to current source only
+
1V 1Ω
1Ω – 1A 1Ω

+ +
1V 1Ω 1Ω
– – 1A

𝑒𝑣 = 0.5 𝑉 𝑒𝐼 = 0.5 𝑉

The total response: 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑣 + 𝑒𝐼 = 1 𝑉 and 𝑃 = 1 𝑊

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 4
 Superposition Method
Q. Can we apply superposition principle to calculate power dissipated in R?
Response to voltage source only 1Ω Response to current source only
+
1V 1Ω
1Ω – 1A 1Ω

+ +
1V 1Ω 1Ω
– – 1A

𝑒𝑣 = 0.5 𝑉 𝑃𝑣 = 0.25 𝑊 𝑒𝐼 = 0.5 𝑉 𝑃𝐼 = 0.25 𝑉

Dr. Rik Dey 𝑃 ≠ 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑃𝐼 = 1 𝑉 ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 5
 Favorite Example
Q. Can we apply superposition principle to calculate voltage across R?

2V
Response to voltage source only Response to current source only

𝑣1 = 2 𝑉 𝑣2 = 0 𝑉
2V
𝑖1 = 2 𝐴 𝑖2 = 0 𝐴

Ans: The total response: 𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 2 𝑉 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 2 𝐴

Caution: The superposition theorem in misleading to tell what is happening physically.
Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 6
 What will you learn today?

Dependent Voltage and Current Sources

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 Dependent sources
• A new lumped element

• Voltage/current source whose value depends on the voltage/current somewhere else

• example: transistors

+ 𝑓(𝑣𝐼 ) +
control + output
𝑣𝐼 𝑣𝑂
port - port
- -

• Can be viewed as a two port device

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 8

 Dependent (Controlled) Voltage Sources
+
2Vx +- Vx Ix 3Ix +-
-

Voltage-controlled Current-controlled
Voltage source Voltage source
❑ Very useful in constructing circuit models for real-world devices (transistors and amplifiers)

❑ For a voltage controlled voltage source: V = K1Vx, VCVS

K1 is a gain parameter with no units

❑ For a current controlled voltage source: V = K2Ix, CCVS

K2 is a gain parameter with units [V/A]
Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 9
 Dependent (Controlled ) Current Sources

+
2Vx Vx Ix 3Ix
-

Voltage-controlled Current-controlled
current source current source

❑ For a voltage controlled current source: I = K3Vx, VCCS

K3 is a gain parameter with units [A/V]

❑ For a current controlled current source: I = K4 Ix, CCCS

K4 is a gain parameter with no units
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 Four Combinations of Controlled Sources

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 Example with Dependent Sources

Find source voltage VS

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 Superposition with Dependent Sources

Negative resistance
+

+ +

– –

𝑣1 − 10 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣2
+ − 0.1𝑣1 = 0 − 2 + − 0.1𝑣2 = 0
20 4 20 4

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 13

 What will you learn today?

Nodal Analysis

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 V-I Equations

➢ Elemental relationship (V-I) can be linear or non-linear

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 KCL and KVL Equations

➢ All KCL and KVL equations are linear

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 Nodal Analysis

➢ We can reduce the number of variables

➢ Introduce voltages at each node except the reference node

➢ Previously, we had E # of variables for voltages

➢ Now, we will have (N – 1) # of variables for voltages

➢ Can reduce the number of equations

➢ Since, for connected graph with N node, at least (N – 1) branches

➢ A spanning tree (making no loop) connecting all nodes has (N – 1) branches

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 Nodal Analysis
• In nodal analysis, the variables used to describe the circuit will be “Node Voltages” (Related to Nodes)
• Nodal voltage are the voltages of each node with respect to a pre-selected reference node

• Steps:
• Designate a node as reference or ground
• Label voltages of remaining nodes which are unknown variables
• Use KCL for all nodes except ground,
• Write currents in terms of node voltages and using V-I equations

• Solve for node voltages

• Back solve for branch voltages using I-V relations, if required

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 Circuits with Independent Current Source
Nodal Analysis: Calculating node voltages 𝑣1, 𝑣2 and 𝑣3 with respect to the reference node
➢ KCL at Node 1 along with I-V relation:

➢ KCL at Node 2 along with I-V relation:

Node
➢ KCL at Node 3 : with I-V relation:
3 along
v3 v3 − v2
N nodes => (N − 1) independent equations
+ − is = 0
R5 R4

Dr. Rik Dey ESC201, 2023-24 Sem-II 19

 Circuits with Independent Voltage Source
Nodal Analysis: Calculating node voltages 𝑣1, 𝑣2 and 𝑣3 with respect to the reference node
One end of voltage source is taken as ground ➢ I-V relation: (Node voltage is known)

Current through voltage source is unknown

➢ KCL at Node 2 along with I-V relation:

➢ KCL at Node 3 along with I-V relation:

N nodes => (N − 1) independent equations

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 Circuits with Independent Sources: Example
➢ Node 3 voltage is known
Number of unknowns = 2, Node 3 voltage is known

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 Circuits with Independent Voltage Sources
Circuits with voltage sources that are not connected to ground: Super node
Node 1
v1 v1 − v3 v1 − v2
+ + i =0
v2 R2 R1 ?
v1 v3 = -15 V
𝑖
Node 2 v2 − v1 = 10
v2 v2 − v3 v2 − v1
+ + (-i) =0
R4 R3 ?

Current entering the voltage source = i Node 1 and node 2 are merged together
into a super node (merging two nodes).
KCL is applied to the super node:
Current entering the voltage source 𝑣1 𝑣1 − 𝑣3 𝑣2 𝑣2 − 𝑣3
+ + + =0
= current leaving the voltage source 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑅3
Reduce # of equations using super node
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 Circuits with Dependent Current Sources
At Node 1

v1 − v2
− is − 2ix = 0
R1
At Node 2

At Node 3

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 Circuits with Dependent Voltage Sources

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 Choosing a Reference Node

𝑣1

v1 v1 − 10 10
+ + 1 = 0  v1 =
10 5 3
10 − v1
ia = =1.33 A
5
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 Choosing a Reference Node

2 1

Super node: v1 − v2 = 10V

v1 v2
KCL at super node: −1 + = 0
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 What will come next?

• Nodal Analysis: Representing Equations in Matrix Form (Linear Circuits) for

• Nodal Analysis with Independent Current Sources
• Nodal Analysis with Independent Voltage Sources
• Nodal Analysis with Dependent Current Sources
• Nodal Analysis with Dependent Voltage Sources

• Dual of Nodal Analysis: Mesh Analysis

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