3.

3 COLUMN
Column is a vertical structural member intended to transfer a compressive load. Column
might transfer loadsfrom a ceiling, floor or roof slab or from a beam, to a floor or
foundations.

3.3.1 MATERIAL

1. STEEL COLUMN

2. CONCRETE COLUMN
3. TIMBER COLUMN

3.3.2 APPLICATION

1. STEEL COLUMN

Steel is a widely used building material. However, sometimes steel is not recommended for
use due to limitations.

2. CONCRETE COLUMN

Concrete columns are elements that carry axial stresses and bending stresses applied from
other elements such as beams, slabs.

3. TIMBER COLUMN

Timber column refers to the design of poles constructed from two basic categories of wood
products namely Sawn Wood and Glued Laminated members.
3.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS / PROPERTIES

1. STEEL COLUMN

A) WELDABILITY

This feature greatly influences how easily it can be used in construction and fabrication.

B) HARDENABILITY

The hardness of a material allows you to optimise the materials properties.

2. CONCRETE COLUMN

A) STRONG

Concrete column is a combination of concrete and steel formed into a strong and durable
column.

3. TIMBER COLUMN

A) DURABILITY

Good timber is durable enough to withstand the action of chemical agents, biological agents,
physical agencies. However, wood is weak against the action of strong acids and alkalis but it
can withstand weak acids and alkali solutions.

B) HARDNESS

Hardness is resistance to penetration. Good wood should be hard and usable. The hardness of
wood depends on the density and nature of the core wood. The stronger the core wood, the
higher the hardness level of the wood.
3.4 FLOOR/SLAB

3.4.1: MATERIAL

A floor is the bottom surface of a room or vehicle. Floors vary from simple dirt in a cave to
many-layered surfaces made with modern technology.

Materials

Wooden/Timber Floor

Brick floor
Marble floor
Wood or timber is one of the most common methods of flooring. It is mostly utilized in hilly
areas where it is cheaply available. Timber blocks are provided as flooring covers. Cleaning
wooden floors involved the application of polishing shine solution while scrubbing from time to
time and mere sweeping. Wooden floors are most suitable for dance floors, rooms, auditoriums
and others.Concrete is the most widely employed flooring material as it is suitable for any type
of construction and is cheaper as well as durable than others.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Contributes to a healthier indoor air Prone to water damage

Boosts your home interior Get scratched easily

Makes maintenance a breeze Cost of the materials and installation service

Table 1 : Advantages and Disadvantages of Wooden/Timber Floor

Brick can be utilized for flooring purposes but they are not suitable for public or residential
buildings. These brick floorings are normally used in vague rooms like workshops, godowns,
warehouses etc. The bricks which are well burnt are preferred for this type of flooring and they
should be of uniform size and same colour. It provides a non-slippery and fire resistant surface.
Bricks are one of the oldest materials used in Construction.

Bricks used in flooring are made of shale and kaolin. This gives bricks a smoother texture and
finishes required Indoor application.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Low cost Lack of comfort (too hard)

Retains warm temperature Stains and fungal growth (due to porosity of

bricks)

Easy and quick to maintain Uneven surface

Table 2 : Advantages and Disadvantages of Brick Floor

Marble is a type of metamorphic rock and is widely used for flooring in commercial buildings,
bathrooms and kitchens. This type of flooring is stain proof and easily cleanable. Therefore they
are employed ahere extra cleanliness is required especially in bathrooms. Marbles can be turned
into beautiful flooring, if they are properly given finishing. These are the most sophisticated
flooring to install at home.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

High durability Very slippery in wet

Hardness Soft so it's easy to cracking and chipping

Ease of cleaning Very time consuming to install

Table 3 : Advantages and Disadvantages of Marble Floor

3.4.2: CHARACTERISTICS

1)Wooden/Timber Floor

(i)Bending Strength
Bending strength determines the load that wood can withstand when applied perpendicular to the
grain. This is not so much an issue in flooring where a subfloor will help distribute the wood but
is important in an application like decking boards which are laid across beams and may bow if
not of an adequate bending strength.

(ii)Stability
Dimensional stability is a reading that combines many factors together to ultimately determine a
woods resistance to environmental changes from temperature, humidity, moisture, etc. All wood
undergoes changes (expanding and contracting) based on these fluctuations but stability
determines just how much. A lower number like .00144 (natural bamboo) indicates a more
resistant wood than a higher number like .00411 (true hickory).

(iii)Moisture Content
Wood is a hygroscopic material which means the moisture content inside of it will fluctuate
depending on the relative humidity of the room / surrounding air. When the humidity rises, so
does the amount of moisture inside the wood which causes it to expand. When the humidity
decreases, subsequently the wood shrinks.While the moisture content of the wood will have
various high peaks and low ranges as it reacts to the air over the years, proper drying before
installation will limit the damage caused by these fluctuations.
2)Brick Floor

(i)Color
The color of a brick depends on the source of the clay used, how it is mixed, and how long it is
fired for. Standard brick flooring ranges from light tan colors, through deep ruby reds, and on
into charcoal hues. However, bricks can also be dyed green, blue, black, or can be speckled with
several multicolors.

(ii)Texture
The surface of brick flooring can be smooth and somewhat polished, rough and mottled, ribbed,
or slightly ridged depending on the texture that you want in an area.While most pavers are
impervious to water some engineered brick or second-hand brick floors may need to be sealed in
moist environments. For outdoor flooring, you also want to make sure that you use frost proof
bricks.

3)Marble Floor

(i)Appearance of Marble
Marble comes with a beautiful veins pattern, which also comes in different shapes, sizes, and
colours. Marble colours vary in different earth-toned colours, including green, grey, pink, white,
red and of course pure spotless white.

(ii)Porosity
Marble is more porous as compared to granite as lemons, wine and vinegar will get absorbed into
marble. Therefore, it may cause a permanent stain on the surface and marble colour may fade
away. Hence, it is less stain resistant as compared to other natural stones.

(iii)Acid Resistance
Marble can’t resist acid or acidic foods.Therefore, marble colour and texture may get changed or
damaged when it comes in contact with acidic contents.

(iv)eat Resistance
Marble does not conduct heat as compared to carpet or tile flooring. It remains cool, no matter
what is the temperature, making it an ideal choice for homes built in hot regions.

3.4.3: APPLICATION

1)Wooden/Timber Floor

In the kitchen:
And it's beautiful. Installing a wood floor in the kitchen creates a calm and united atmosphere,
especially if the floor crosses over to the living room. A wooden floor is literally the foundation
of the whole home.When you choose to apply a different floor in the kitchen, it can actually
emphasize that the kitchen is another room.

House:
Installing wooden floorboards in a newly built house can often be done without problems: the
house is already drying during construction.

Apartments:
When installing a wooden floor in an apartment, you are bound by the noise level determined by
the Association of Owners or by the relevant housing cooperative.

2)Brick Floor

A brick floor is defined as a floor surface constructed out of many individual bricks laid like
tiles, either with or without mortar or grouting.

Red brick is used for the flooring which is made from clay. Red brick is the most popular and
leading building material because it is cheap, hard, durable and easy to handle and to work with.
Brick flooring is derived from pavers, which are thinner than the regular bricks used in walls and
other structural elements. Brick Flooring is commonly used in godowns; ware houses, residential
houses, garden, roads and in areas where good bricks are available.

3)Marble Floor

House:
very suitable because the floor will look beautiful and comfortable because of the flat and shiny
surface.

Bathroom:
While marble tiles are waterproof, they’re still quite porous. This means that the surface is solid
enough to withhold water, however, the surface is porous enough to absorb any spills that will
ultimately result in discoloring the tile and possibly giving it another look altogether. Again, this
is something you might be able to get away with in the darker shades, but not so much with the
lighter tones.

Office:
Easier to clean and maintain. Unlike other natural stone marble floors cleaning and maintenance
is very easy and cost effective. This is the reason why you should choose a marble office floor.
Once installed the marble floor can be easily cleaned and maintained.
3.5 WINDOW

3.5.1 : MATERIAL

Window is a light framework constructed of wood, metal, or plastic that

incorporates glass or glazed aperture frames that is installed in a wall or
roof to allow light and air in or to allow visibility.

Diagram 1 : Aluminium Window

Diagram 2 : Wood/Timber Window

 Diagram 3 : Stainless Steel Window

Aluminum window frames and sliding tracks were used here. They give
the window structural strength even with thinner frames, allowing you to
design sliding windows with greater openings. They're anodized with a
variety of colour oxides that don't fade over time.

Depending on the size of the opening and the application, the sliding
track can be 2, 3, or 4 track systems.

Aluminum windows are a prevalent window material. Because it is

believed to be more heavy-duty and long-lasting, aluminium has gradually
begun to supplant wood windows as the most popular form. Every form of
window, including aluminium, has advantages and disadvantages.

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Affordability High U-Value
Durability Condensation
Long-Lasting Corrosion

Table 1 : Advantage and Disadvantage of Aluminium Window

 Next, for wood or timber they can be milled in an infinite number of
designs and shapes, giving you a lot of options. The cost is mostly
determined by the type of wood used, the design motif, and the final
finish. This is the most common type of window, which can be found all
over the world.

Actually there are also many folks will always choose the far more
expensive option of purchasing high-quality wood frames. Despite these
disadvantages, wood has several advantages over other materials,
including attractive appearance, and is a far better material altogether.

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Aesthetics The Need For Paint
Insulation Insects
Wood Lasts Longer Initial Cost

Table 2 : Advantage and Disadvantage of Wood/Timber Window

Then for stainless steel window, in terms of manufacture, the stainless

steel window is similar to M.S. windows. They are rustproof and have a
metallic shine of their own. However, as compared to M.S. windows, the
price is higher.

Steel windows may not be your first choice when it comes to house
improvements, but you'll be surprised by the advantages they provide.
Listed below are some examples of it advantage and disadvantage :
 ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Don’t need much Metal coating, these
maintenance window can end up being
fairly heavy
Not vulnerable to Fairly expensive
cracking, bowing and rust
Come in various degrees Easily corroded by airborne
of fire-resistance salts

Table 3 : Advantage and Disadvantage of Stainless Steel Window

3.5.2 : DIMENSION

WINDOW DIMENSION/SIZE
Aluminium Window 4 x 3 feet
Wood/Timber Window 2.5 x 3 feet
Stainless Steel Window 2.5 x 2.5 feet

Table 4 : Window Dimension

3.5.3 : APPLICATION
1) ALUMINIUM WINDOW
There are many options available when it comes to window selection.
All windows let in light and allow for ventilation, but they differ in terms
of design, purpose, and size.
All aluminium windows, in general, are made up of two primary
components: a custom-made aluminium extrusion profile and glass. To
improve the strength, wear resistance, thermal conductivity, and corrosion
resistance of aluminium windows, alloys are adjusted to vary the metal's
casting characteristics. As a result, when compared to other materials such
as wood and PVC, aluminium windows are stronger, more lasting, and
highly resilient.
Looking at the glass of the aluminium windows, the picture in the
diagram below shows tempered glass, which is often used in Malaysian
residential projects.
 Diagram 5 : Fixed Glass Panel Window

2. WOOD/TIMBER WINDOW
Timber windows have traditionally been the most preferred alternative
among all other options. Designers typically specify wooden windows
with timber frames because they fit better than other materials, as well as
because wood variations are plentiful and availability is usually not an
issue. Furthermore, window frame contractors in Malaysia strongly advise
the usage of hardwood materials because they are long-lasting and simple
to deal with. Even though the number required is little and window
manufacturers cannot create such small orders, woodworking is very
straightforward for many carpenters if any custom built window shape,
pattern, or texture is desired.

3. STAINLESS STEEL WINDOW

Security is becoming a more essential consideration in both residential

and business building projects. As a result, an increasing number of
building owners are evaluating the advantages of window grill. Windows
are, without a doubt, one of the most common access points for vandals
and criminals, second only to doors. As a result, they require security and
a strong defence against intruders.
 Window grills are good in deterring even attempted criminal activity. In
the event that a break-in is attempted, a strong and well-designed window
grill should deter and defeat the criminals. It's important to remember that
most intruders are looking for easy ways to steal and vandalise. Many
valuables are exposed without effective home security, which can result in
significant losses.

Most essential, proper home security ensures that you and your family
are safe while inside. For these reasons, a grill should be installed on even
the tiniest windows in your home. Window grills can be used on both the
inside and outside of a building. It's worth mentioning that grills allow
windows to function as both light and ventilation sources. As a result,
they're especially useful in hot weather or in places where people work,
such as workshops or kitchens.

Window grills can be completely personalised, making them ideal for

both traditional and contemporary homes. Because window grills come in
a variety of designs, they can simply be used to improve a property's
looks.

Diagram 6 : Window Grills

3.5.4 CHARACTERISTICS/PROPERTIES
1) ALUMINIUM WINDOW
a) Strength
The strength of the windows is mostly reflected in the materials used to
construct them. This decides if it can sustain extremely high pressure in
order to prevent break-ins and keep your home safe and secure. Second,
the windows' airtightness. This is primarily represented in the window
structure. To have strong sound reduction and waterproof capabilities, the
inner and outer frames of the windows must be sealed firmly.

b) Thickness
the aluminium profiles and glass thicknesses Hardware components such
as hinges, locks, knobs, and levers are frequently overlooked. Windows
cannot be constructed or function properly without them, which may
result in errors. In reality, certain criteria for aluminium windows have
been established in our country. When choosing one, make sure the
thickness, strength, and oxide coating of the aluminium used in high-
quality aluminium windows fit our national criteria.

c) High Quality

Fine processing, an uniform angle (the primary frame is usually 45 or 90

degrees), no visible gaps during the splicing process, high sealing
performance, and smooth operation are all important. Poor window
craftsmanship will result in poor seal performance and water leaks. Under
severe wind and substantial external forces, the glass may also crack and
fall off, causing injuries.
2) WOOD/TIMBER WINDOW

a) Appearance

Wooden doors and windows give a property a more attractive,

modern, and straightforward appearance.

b) Production Cost

In terms of production costs, the wooden door is less expensive than

the more expensive steel door.

c) Space

According to the demands and preferences, windows have the

property of taking up less space.

3. STAINLESS STEEL WINDOW

a) Durability

The chromium layer on the stainless-steel window frames oxidises

when it comes into contact with air, forming a thin protective surface
layer. This protection is especially effective in situations that are
subjected to wear from time and weather.

b) Self-Healing

Allow the product to automatically cure minor surface damage over

time.

c) Resistance to High And Low Temperatures

As a result, they are particularly well suited to manufacturing, as they

are both resistant and workable.
3.5. Types Of Window

1. SINGLE HUNG WINDOW

Single hung windows open vertically, with the lower sash (bottom
window panel) sliding up and down while the upper sash remains
immovable. This implies that when you open the window, the interior of
the upper sash is covered. The fundamental distinction between single and
double hung windows is how these pieces move.

Diagram 7 : Single Hung Window

2. DOUBLE HUNG WINDOW
A double-hung window looks similar to a single-hung window, but both
the lower and top sashes can slide up and down and tilt out for easy
cleaning and maintenance.

Diagram 8 : Double Hung Window

3. ARCHED WINDOW
The rounded tops of arched windows give architectural flair to any
home. Most arched windows do not open or close, and they are frequently
placed above normal ventilation windows. Some of them can open in the
same way as a casement window can.

Diagram 9 : Arched Window

3.6 DOOR

Door can be constructed of many different materials, from common wood to the
newer UPVC and fibreglass models which we currently finding their way into homes
across Australia Getting the choice right for the material, especially on exterior facing
doors like the front entryway is crucial for the longivity and appearance of the door.

3.6.1 : MATERIAL

1. SOLID CORE TIMBER DOOR

Diagram 1: Solid Core Timber Door

Solid core wooden doors are heavily constructed doors made from whole bits of
timber.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Traditional look equals style High maintenance
Insulation Expensive
Authenticity and aesthetics -

Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Solid Core Timber Door

2. ALUMINIUM DOOR

Diagram 2: Aluminium Door

Aluminium door are made of aluminium as it is called. The material used are
known to be long-lasting, high strength and firm, also not rusty if it’s coated well with
suitable paint.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Durability and strength Staining from water
Rust resistant Expensive
Able to stand climatic condition -

Table 2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Aluminium Door

3. STEEL DOOR
 Diagram 3: Steel Door

For steel door, no material on the market is tougher than it. Steel offers extra
security and widely used in the construction of screen doors and grills.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Energy efficiency Denting and rusting
Security Overpriced
Durability Not cut to fit

Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel Door

4. FIBREGLASS DOOR
 Diagram 4: Fibreglass Door

Fibreglass door are a relatively new addition to the material. Offering excellent
strength, water proofing, sound proofing and insulation.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Excellent strength Sizing
Water and sound proofing Expensive
Insulation -

Table 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Fibreglass Door

5. GLASS DOOR
 Diagram 5: Glass Door

Glass doors look fantastic, although their performance in terms of things like
insulation and strength depends very much on the way they're constructed meaning
that, it can be fragile if the way it’s constructed is wrong but will definitely give
advantage if it’s done correctly.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Allow light to pass through Does not usually permit privacy
Durable and easy to keep clean More liable to crack and break (fragile)
Designs can be added -

Table 5: Advantages and Disadvantages of Glass Door

3.6.2 : CHARACTERISTICS

1. SOLID CORE TIMBER DOOR

1(A) : Tradition look equals style - Meaning that the door is elegant and can be
designed as how the customer wished for.
 1(B) : Insulation - Timber door offers great insulation in term of heat and
electricity which means it doesn’t channel the energy gained from any sources. So, it
doesn’t harm the consumers.

1(C) : Authenticity and aesthetics.

2. ALUMINIUM DOOR

2(A) : Durability and strength - High durability and strength can ensure that the
door can be used in a long term. Also, it will reduce the maintenance costs.

2(B) : Rust resistant - Aluminium door wont get rusty easily.

2(C) : Able to stand climatic condition - This door doesn’t affected by the
different weather in different places.

3. STEEL DOOR

3(A) : Energy efficiency.

3(B) : Security - Provides high security.

3(C) : Durability - Long lasting.

4. FIBREGLASS DOOR

4(A) : Excellent strength - Able to withstand loads.

4(B) : Water and sound proofing - doesn’t get broken easily if exposed to water.
Also, can reduce loud sound.

4(C) : Insulation - Can prevent heat and electric flows.

5. GLASS DOOR
 5(A) : Allow light to pass through - Save up costs and eco-friendly.

5(B) : Durable and easy to keep clean - Long lasting and will remain like a new
one once it’s cleaned.

5(C) : Designs can be added.

3.6.3 : APPLICATION

1. SOLID CORE TIMBER DOOR

Timber door are the most commonly used material in building either it’s on
apartment, high rise, bungalow, terrace etc.

2. ALUMINIUM DOOR
Usually can be seen at house and office or even public toilet.

3. STEEL DOOR
Found in hospital where certain places have this type of door near the stairs and
elevators. Grills also considered as part of steel door.

4. FIBREGLASS DOOR
Can be found at houses such as bungalow, terrace and also office.

5. GLASS DOOR
Usually can be found in the toilet, at balcony, office and the entrance of buildings.
4.0 CONCLUSION

As the conclusion, material selection play an important role to determine the

workability of certain building elements which are very crucial to avoid building
defects. In addition, the material used for each element has its own pros and cons
which are the characteristics or properties that can be considered before the decision
being made by the owner of the building or the contractors itself. We also learned that
the importance of material selection which means it is decided during the preliminary
phase of construction which is before the building get approved by the authority. If
the architecture drawing does not fit the requirements according to the standards, the
modification to the drawing should be done either the building structures,
measurements or materials used for the building. It’s to ensure that the building could
function well after the construction works has been finished.

Moreover, to avoid defects, also one of the reasons why it is crucial to decide
which of the listed materials should be used for certain building depending on the
purposes of the building being built. Meaning that, whether the material used can
withstand loads, pressure, heat, etc. Furthermore, the aim for each building is it can be
use in a long term up to more than 10 years without any defects detected on the
building which are known to be impossible but as long as it can stand firm and
function well, the owner can save up costs for maintenance. Also, the selection of
material will lead to an environmental impacts that should be taken into consideration.
It’s either the material can be recycled or not.

Last but not least, materials selection strongly related to safety which is the most
important part to pay attention for, not just the designs are good but the safety of
certain building should be top notch too. To avoid inconvenience and accidents when
using those facilities provided in the building and also the elements of the building
that have been discussed in the report. Always bear in mind that safety comes first in
every situation, so choosing the wrong material can have extremely negative
consequences and even be deadly.
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