Transducer

A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another. The process
of converting energy from one form to another is known as transduction.

Fig. Transducer Element

The word “Transducer” is the collective term used for both Sensors which can be used to sense a
wide range of different energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant energy,
thermal or magnetic energy etc, and Actuators which can be used to switch voltages or currents.

Parts of Transducer

A transducer consists of the following two important parts:

 Sensing element
 Transduction element
Transducers have other vital parts such as signal processing equipment, amplifiers and power
supplies.

Sensing Element

It is the part of a transducer that responds to the physical sensation. The response of the sensing
element depends on the physical phenomenon.

Transduction Element

The transduction element of the transducer converts the output of the sensing element into an
electrical signal. The transduction element is also called the secondary transducer.
There are many different types of sensors and transducers, both analogue and digital and input
and output available to choose from. The type of input or output transducer being used, really
depends upon the type of signal or process being “Sensed” or “Controlled” but we can define a
sensor and transducers as devices that converts one physical quantity into another.
Devices which perform an “Input” function are commonly called Sensors because they “sense” a
physical change in some characteristic that changes in response to some excitation, for example
heat or force and covert that into an electrical signal. Devices which perform an “Output”
function are generally called Actuators and are used to control some external device, for
example movement or sound.

Types of Transducers

There are two types of transducers, as follows:

 Input Transducer
 Output Transducer
 Active Transducers
 Passive Transducers
 Analogue Sensor
 Digital Sensor

Input Transducer

An input transducer or a sensor takes in physical energy and converts it into an electrical signal
that can be read. A microphone, for example, converts physical sound waves into an electrical
signal that can be transferred through wires.

Output Transducer

An output transducer, or an actuator, takes in electrical signals and converts them into other
forms of energy. A lamp converts electricity into light and a motor, on the other hand, converts
electricity into motion.
Active Transducers
The transducer, which can produce one of the electrical quantities such as voltage and current is
known as active transducer. It is also called self-generating transducer, since it doesn’t require
any external power supply.
The block diagram of active transducer is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, active transducer will produce an electrical quantity (or signal), which is
equivalent to the non-electrical input quantity (or signal).
Examples
Following are the examples of active transducers.

 Piezo Electric Transducer

 Photo Electric Transducer
 Thermo Electric Transducer

Piezo Electric Transducer

An active transducer is said to be piezo electric transducer, when it produces an electrical
quantity which is equivalent to the pressure input. The following three substances exhibit piezo
electric effect.

 Quartz
 Rochelle salts
 Tourmaline
The piezo-electric effect exhibited by these three substances is Tourmaline, Quartz, and Rochelle
salts, in this ascending order. The ascending order of mechanical strength having by these three
substances is Rochelle salts, Quartz, Tourmaline.
Quartz is used as piezo electric transducer, as it exhibits the moderate piezo electric effect and
having moderate mechanical strength among those three piezo electric substances.
Quartz Transducer
The circuit diagram of Quartz transducer is shown in below figure. As shown in the figure,
quartz crystal is placed between base and force summing member. The output voltage can be
measured across the metal electrodes, which are placed on two sides of quartz crystal.
The output voltage, V0 of above pressure transducer will be
V0 = Q/C

Photo Electric Transducer

An active transducer is said to be photo electric transducer, when it produces an electrical
quantity which is equivalent to the illumination of light input. The circuit diagram of photo
electric transducer is shown in below figure.

The working of photo electric transducer is mentioned below.

Step1 − The photo electric transducer releases electrons, when the light falls on cathode of it.
Step2 − The photo electric transducer produces a current, I in the circuit due to the attraction of
electrons towards anode.
We can find the sensitivity of photo electric transducer by using the following formula.
S=I/i
Where,
S is the sensitivity of photo electric transducer
I is the output current of photo electric transducer
i is the illumination of the light input of photo electric transducer

Thermo Electric Transducer

An active transducer is said to be thermo electric transducer, when it produces an electrical
quantity which is equivalent to temperature input. The following two transducers are the
examples of thermo electric transducers.

 Thermistor Transducer
 Thermocouple Transducer
Now, let us discuss about these two transducers one by one.
Thermistor Transducer
The resistor, which depends on temperature is called thermal resistor. In short, it is
called Thermistor. The temperature coefficient of thermistor is negative. That means, as
temperature increases, the resistance of thermistor decreases.
Mathematically, the relation between resistance of thermistor and temperature can be
represented as

Where,
R1 is the resistance of thermistor at temperature T01K
R2 is the resistance of thermistor at temperature T02K
β is the temperature constant
The advantage of Thermistor transducer is that it will produce a fast and stable response.
Thermocouple Transducer
Thermocouple transducer produces an output voltage for a corresponding change of temperature
at the input. If two wires of different metals are joined together in order to create two junctions,
then that entire configuration is called Thermocouple. The circuit diagram of basic
thermocouple is shown below −
The above thermocouple has two metals, A & B and two junctions, 1 & 2. Consider a constant
reference temperature, T2 at junction 2. Let the temperature at junction, 1 is T1. Thermocouple
generates an emf (electro motive force), whenever the values of T1 and T2 are different.
That means, thermocouple generates an emf, whenever there is a temperature difference between
the two junctions, 1 & 2 and it is directly proportional to the temperature difference between
those two junctions. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Where,
E is the emf generated by thermocouple
The above thermocouple circuit can be represented as shown in below figure for practical
applications.

The part of the circuit, which lies between hot & cold junctions including those two junctions is
an equivalent model of basic thermocouple. A PMMC galvanometer is connected across the cold
junction and it deflects according to the emf generated across cold junction. Thermocouple
transducer is the most commonly used thermoelectric transducer.
Passive Transducers
The transducer, which can’t produce the electrical quantities such as voltage and current is
known as passive transducer. But, it produces the variation in one of passive elements like
resistor (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C). Passive transducer requires external power supply.
The block diagram of passive transducer is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, passive transducer will produce variation in the passive element in
accordance with the variation in the non-electrical input quantity (or signal).
Examples
Following are the examples of passive transducers.

 Resistive Transducer
 Inductive Transducer
 Capacitive Transducer

(i) Resistive Transducer

A passive transducer is said to be a resistive transducer, when it produces the variation

(change) in resistance value. the following formula for resistance, R of a metal conductor.
R=рl/A
Were,
ρ is the resistivity of conductor
l is the length of conductor
A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor
The resistance value depends on the three parameters ρ,l & A. So, we can make the resistive
transducers based on the variation in one of the three parameters ρ,l & A. The variation in any
one of those three parameters changes the resistance value.

(ii) Inductive Transducer

A passive transducer is said to be an inductive transducer, when it produces the variation
(change) in inductance value. the following formula for inductance, L of an inductor.
L=N2/S
Where,
N is the number of turns of coil
S is the number of turns of coil

(iii) Capacitive Transducer

A passive transducer is said to be a capacitive transducer, when it produces the variation
(change) in capacitance value. the following formula for capacitance, C of a parallel plate
capacitor.
Where,
C= εA/d
ε is the permittivity or the dielectric constant
A is the effective area of two plates
d is the effective area of two plates
The capacitance value depends on the three parameters ε,A, & d. So, we can make the capacitive
transducers based on the variation in one of the three parameters ε, A, & d. Because, the
variation in any one of those three parameters changes the capacitance value.

Analogue and Digital Sensors and Transducers

Analogue Sensors
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional
to the quantity being measured. Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure,
Displacement, Strain etc are all analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature. For
example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer or thermocouple
which continuously responds to temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.

Fig: Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue Signal

Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing smoothly and continuously
over time. These signals tend to be very small in value from a few mico-volts (uV) to several
milli-volts (mV), so some form of amplification is required.

Digital Sensors
As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete digital output signals or voltages that are
a digital representation of the quantity being measured. Digital sensors produce a Binary output
signal in the form of a logic “1” or a logic “0”, (“ON” or “OFF”). This means then that a digital
signal only produces discrete (non-continuous) values which may be outputted as a single “bit”,
(serial transmission) or by combining the bits to produce a single “byte” output (parallel
transmission).

Fig: Light Sensor used to Produce a Digital Signal

In our simple example above, the speed of the rotating shaft is measured by using a digital
LED/Opto-detector sensor. The disc which is fixed to a rotating shaft (for example, from a motor
or robot wheels), has a number of transparent slots within its design. As the disc rotates with the
speed of the shaft, each slot passes by the sensor in turn producing an output pulse representing a
logic “1” or logic “0” level.
These pulses are sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display to show the speed or
revolutions of the shaft. By increasing the number of slots or “windows” within the disc more
output pulses can be produced for each revolution of the shaft. The advantage of this is that a
greater resolution and accuracy is achieved as fractions of a revolution can be detected. Then this
type of sensor arrangement could also be used for positional control with one of the discs slots
representing a reference position.
Applications of Transducer

 A transducer measures load on the engines

  They are used to detect the movement of muscles; this process is known as
acceleromyograph.
 Transducers are used in an ultrasound machine.
 The transducers in a speaker convert electrical signals into acoustic sound.
 A transducer is used in the antenna to convert electromagnetic waves into an electrical
signal.

Difference Between a Transducer and a Sensor

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity. For example, in a mercury thermometer,
the mercury simply expands when the temperature rises to give a reading to the user. Here there
are no electrical inferences or changes. On the other hand, a transducer measures similar
quantities as a sensor but the signal in a transducer is converted from one form to another. This is
the reason why transducers are also referred to as energy converters.
Transducers Sensors

It converts energy from one form to another. It senses physical quantities and converts it
into a readable form.

Cable extension transducer, linear transducer Thermistors, pressure switches and motion
and microphones are some examples of sensors are some examples of sensors.
transducers.

BASIC METHODS OF FORCE MEASUREMENT.

Methods of force measurement

1. Balancing it against the known gravitational force as a standard mass, either directly or
through a system of levers.
2. Measuring the acceleration of a body of known mass to which the unknown force is
applied.
3. Balancing it against a magnetic force developed by interaction of a current carrying coil
and a magnet.
4. Transducing the force to a fluid pressure and then measuring the pressure.
5. Applying the force to some elastic member and measuring the resulting deflection.
6. Measuring the change in processing of a gyroscope caused by an applied torque related to
the measured force.
7. Measuring the change in natural frequency of a wire tensioned by the force.
Method 1:

Beam Balance: Beam balance works on the principle of balancing of moments. The unknown
mass m1, is placed in the left-hand pan and standard masses, rn2, are placed in the right-hand
pan to obtain equilibrium (Fig. 1). The balance has been constructed so that the distances, d, of
the pans from centre beam bearing are equal.

A physical balance determines the gravitational mass of a body by making use of the principle of
moments.

Load × Load arm = Effort × Effort arm

m1g × a1 = m2g × a2

m1a1 = m2a2

A body with a gravitational mass m1 is placed in the left pan and a standard weight of m2 is
placed in the right pan to keep the beam horizontal for a beam balance, a1 = a2, then m1 = m2.

Pendulum Scale: The pendulum scale is a deflection-type instrument in which the unknown
force is converted to a torque that is then balanced by the torque of a fixed standard mass
arranged as a pendulum. The practical version of this principle utilizes specially shaped sectors
and steel tapes to linearize the inherently nonlinear torque-angle relation of a pendulum. The
unknown force Fi may be applied directly through a system of levers, such as that shown for the
platform scale, to extend the range. An electrical signal proportional to force is easily obtained
from any angular-displacement transducer attached to measure the angle θo.

Method 2:

The use of an accelerometer for force measurement, is of somewhat limited application since the
force determined is the resultant force on the mass. Often several unknown forces are acting, and
they cannot be separately measured by this method.
 The acceleration of a moving body is generally measured by the help of sensors it is
called accelerometers.

Types of accelerometers

For measurement of acceleration, generally following two types of accelerometers are used:

 Piezoelectric Type: A piezoelectric accelerator is probably the simplest and most commonly
used transducer for measuring acceleration.

Construction:

It consists of a piezoelectric crystal sandwiched between two electrodes and has mass placed on
it. The unit has fastened with the base whose acceleration characteristics are to be obtained. They
can be threaded to the base acts as a spring and squeezes the mass against the crystal. Mass
exerts a force on the crystal and certain voltage output is generated.

Working piezoelectric accelerometer :

When the base is accelerated downward inertial reaction force on the base acts upward against
the top of the can. This relieves stress on the crystal. According to Newton’s second law of
motion, force = mass * acceleration, since the mass is a fixed quantity, the decrease in force is
proportional to the acceleration. Similarly, an acceleration in the upward direction would
increase the force on the crystal in proportion to the acceleration. The resulting change in the
output voltage is recorded and corrected to the acceleration imposed on the base.
 Seismic type: They have following parts:
 A mass that is able to move around, called a proof mass
 A spring suspension to hold the proof mass
 Some damping either due to designed damper or due to air resistance
 A displacement sensor to measure the proof mass movement
 A frame to connect the accelerometer to the thing you want to measure

Working:

When they accelerate, the casing moves off immediately but the mass lags behind and the spring
stretches with a force that corresponds to the acceleration. The distance the spring stretches
(which is proportional to the stretching force) can be used to measure the force and the
acceleration in a variety of different ways. Seismometers (used to measure earthquakes) work in
broadly this way, using pens on heavy masses attached to springs to register earthquake forces.
When an earthquake strikes, it shakes the seismometer cabinet but the pen (attached to a mass)
takes longer to move, so it leaves a jerky trace on a paper chart.

Alternative designs of accelerometers measure force not by making a pen trace on paper but by
generating electrical or magnetic signals. In piezoresistive accelerometers, the mass is attached to
a potentiometer (variable resistor), a bit like a volume control, which turns an electric current up
or down according to the size of the force acting on it. Capacitors can also be used in
accelerometers to measure force in a similar way: if a moving mass alters the distance between
two metal plates, measuring the change in their capacitance gives a measurement of the force
that's acting.

Method 3

The The electromagnetic balance (method 3) utilizes a photoelectric (or other displacement
sensor) null detector, an amplifier, and a torquing coil in a servo-system to balance the difference
the difference between the unknown force Fi and the gravity force on a standard mass. Its
advantages relative to mechanical balances are ease of use, less sensitivity to environment, faster
response, smaller size, and ease of remote operation. Also, the electric output signal is
convenient for continuous recording and/or automatic-control applications. Balances with built-
in microprocessors allow even greater convenience, versatility, and speed of use by automating
many routine procedures and providing features not formerly feasible. Automatic tare-weight
systems subtract container weight from total weight to give net weight when material is placed in
the container. Statistical routines allow immediate calculation of mean and standard deviation for
a series of weighings. “Counting” of small parts by weighing is speeded by programming the
microprocessor to read out the parts by weighing is speeded by programming the microprocessor
to read out the parts count directly, rather than the weight. Accurate weighting of live laboratory
animals (difficult on an ordinary balance because of animal motion) is facilitated by averaging
scale readings over a preselected time. Interfacing the balance to (external to built-in) printers for
permanent recording also is eased by the microprocessor.
Method 4:

Principle of Hydraulic Load cell

When a force is applied on a liquid medium contained in a confined space, the pressure of the
liquid increases. This increase in pressure of the liquid is proportional to the applied force. Hence
a measure of the increase in pressure of the liquid becomes a measure of the applied force when
calibrated.

The main parts of a hydraulic load cell are as follows

 A dirphragm
 A piston with a loading platform (as shown in figure) placed on top of the diaphragm.
 A liquid medium which is under a pre-loaded pressure is on the other side of the
diaphragm.
 A pressure gauge (bourdon tube type) connected to the liquid medium.

Fig. Hydraulic Load Cell

Operation of Hydraulic Load Cell

 The force to be measured is applied to the piston.

  The appilied force moves the piston downwards and deflects the diaphragm and this
deflection of the diaphragm increases the pressure in the liquid medium (oil).
 This increase in pressure of the liquid medium is proportional to the applied force. The
increase in pressure is measured by the pressure gauge which is connected to the liquid
medium.
 The pressure is calibrated in force units and hence the indication in the pressure gauge
becomes a measure of the force applied on the piston.

Method 5

Spring Balance: While all the previously described force-measuring devices are intended
mainly for static or slowly varying loads, the elastic deflection transducers are widely used for
measurement of force. The newton spring balance or spring balance is good example of it.

The Newton spring balance uses a law known as Hooke’s Law to relate the spring extension to
the force being measured. There is a direct relationship between how much the spring extends
and the force required to extend it. If we place a weight at the end of the spring there is a force
applied to the spring due to the weight. Hooke’s law says that the spring will then extend. As it
extends you can measure the force due to the weight by looking at the scale.

When a load F suspended from the lower free end of the spring hanging from rigid support
increases its length by L, then

F∝ L

or

F=K L

Where K is the proportionality constant

K, the proportionality constant, is also known as the force constant or the spring constant of the
spring

From the above equation, it is clear that if , L =1, F = K.

Method 7:

Force Measurement by Natural Frequency of Tension of String

It is a well-known fact that the natural frequency of a tensioned string increases with tension.
Mathematically, the relationship between the resonant frequency of a string and the tension
applied on the string is given by:

Where,

F = Fundamental resonant frequency of string (Hertz)

L = String length (meters)

T = String tension (newtons)

μ = Unit mass of string (kilograms per meter).

This implies that a string can be used as a force sensor. In this type of sensor design, an
electronic oscillator circuit is used to keep a wire vibrating at its natural frequency when under
tension. The principle is similar to that of a guitar string.
The vibrating wire is located in a diaphragm. As the pressure changes on the diaphragm so does
the tension on the wire, which affects the frequency that the wire vibrates or resonates at. These
frequency changes are a direct consequence of pressure changes and as such are detected and
shown as pressure.

The frequency can be sensed as digital pulses from an electromagnetic pickup or sensing coil. An
electronic transmitter would then convert this into an electrical signal suitable for transmission.
This type of pressure measurement can be used for differential, absolute or gauge installations.
Below is a simplified diagram of this type of sensor arrangement:

Temperature variations within this sensor require temperature compensation. This problem limits
the sensitivity of the device. The output generated is non-linear which can cause continuous
control problems. Improvement in technology has led to the production of more linear sensors
using a resonating wire.

TORQUE MEASUREMENT

 Measurement of applied torques is of fundamental importance in all rotating bodies to ensure

that the design of the rotating element is adequate to prevent failure under shear stresses.
 Torque measurement is also a necessary part of measuring the power transmitted by rotating
shafts.
 The four methods of measuring torque consist of
 Measuring the strain produced in a rotating body due to an applied torque
 An optical method
 Measuring the reaction force in cradled shaft bearings
 Using equipment known as the Prony brake.

Measurement of Induced Strain

Measuring the strain induced in a shaft due to an applied torque has been the most common
method used for torque measurement in recent years. The method involves bonding four strain
gauges onto a shaft as shown in Figure, where the strain gauges are arranged in a d.c. bridge
circuit. The output from the bridge circuit is a function of the strain in the shaft and hence of the
torque applied. It is very important that positioning of the strain gauges on the shaft is precise,
and the difficulty in achieving this makes the instrument relatively expensive. This technique is
ideal for measuring the stalled torque in a shaft before rotation commences. However, a problem
is encountered in the case of rotating shafts because a suitable method then has to be found for
making the electrical connections to the strain gauges. One solution to this problem found in
many commercial instruments is to use a system of slip rings and brushes for this, although this
increases the cost of the instrument still further.

Optical Torque Measurement

Optical techniques for torque measurement have become available recently with the
development of laser diodes and fiber-optic light transmission systems. One such system is
shown in Figure. Two black-and-white striped wheels are mounted at either end of the rotating
shaft and are in alignment when no torque is applied to the shaft. Light from a laser diode light
source is directed by a pair of fiber-optic cables onto the wheels. The rotation of the wheels
causes pulses of reflected light, which are transmitted back to a receiver by a second pair of
fiber-optic cables. Under zero torque conditions, the two pulse trains of reflected light are in
phase with each other. If torque is now applied to the shaft, the reflected light is modulated.
Measurement by the receiver of the phase difference between the reflected pulse trains therefore
allows the magnitude of torque in the shaft to be calculated. The cost of such instruments is
relatively low, and an additional advantage in many applications is their small physical size.

Reaction Forces in Shaft Bearings

Any system involving torque transmission through a shaft contains both a power source and a
power absorber where the power is dissipated. The magnitude of the transmitted torque can be
measured by cradling either the power source or the power absorber end of the shaft in bearings,
and then measuring the reaction force, F, and the arm length, L, as shown in Figure. The torque
is then calculated as the simple product, FL. Pendulum scales are used very commonly for
measuring the reaction force. Inherent errors in the method are bearing friction and windage
torques. This technique is no longer in common use.

Prony Brake
The Prony brake is another torque- measuring system that is now uncommon. It is used to
measure the torque in a rotating shaft and consists of a rope wound round the shaft, as
illustrated in Figure. One end of the rope is attached to a spring balance and the other end
carries a load in the form of a standard mass, m.

If the measured force in the spring balance is Fs, then the effective force, Fe, exerted by the rope
on the shaft is given by

Fe = mg - Fs

If the radius of the shaft is Rs and that of the rope is Rr, then the effective radius, Re, of the rope
and drum with respect to the axis of rotation of the shaft is given by

Re = Rs + Rr

The torque in the shaft, T, can then be calculated as

T= Fe*Re

While this is a well-known method of measuring shaft torque, a lot of heat is generated because
of friction between the rope and shaft, and water cooling is usually necessary.

Electrical and Contactless Tachometers

Tachometer
The word tachometer is derived from two Greek words: tachos means “speed” and metron means
“to measure”. It works on the principle of a tachometer generator, which means when a motor is
operated as a generator, it produces the voltage according to the velocity of the shaft. It is also
known as revolution-counter, and its operating principle can be electromagnetic, electronic or
optical-based.

Types of Tachometers

1. Contact Type: A tachometer which is in contact with the rotating shaft is known as contact
type tachometer. This kind of tachometer is generally fixed to the machine or electric motor.
An optical encoder or magnetic sensor can also be attached to this so that it measures its
RPM.

Contact type Electrical Tachometer

The tachometer uses for measuring the rotational speed or angular velocity of the machine which
is coupled to it. It works on the principle of relative motion between the magnetic field and shaft
of the coupled device. The relative motion induces the EMF in the coil which is placed between
the constant magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The developed EMF is directly
proportional to the speed of the shaft. The electrical tachometer converts the angular velocity
into an electrical voltage.
DC Tachometer Generator:

Permanent magnet, armature, commutator, brushes, variable resistor, and the moving coil
voltmeter are the main parts of the DC tachometer generator. The machine whose speed is to be
measured is coupled with the shaft of the DC tachometer generator.
The DC tachometer works on the principle that when the closed conductor moves in the
magnetic field, EMF induces in the conductor. The magnitude of the induces emf depends on the
flux link with the conductor and the speed of the shaft.
The armature of the DC generator revolves between the constant field of the permanent magnet.
The rotation induces the emf in the coil. The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the
shaft speed.
The commutator converts the alternating current of the armature coil to the direct current with
the help of the brushes. The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf. The polarity of the
induces voltage determines the direction of motion of the shaft. The resistance is connected in
series with the voltmeter for controlling the heavy current of the armature.
The emf induces in the dc tachometer generator is given as

Where, E – generated voltage

Φ – flux per poles in Weber
P- number of poles
N – speed in revolution per minutes
Z – the number of the conductor in armature windings.
a – number of the parallel path in the armature windings.
2. Non Contact Type: A tachometer that does not need any physical contact with the rotating
shaft is called as noncontact digital tachometer. In this type, a laser or an optical disk is
attached to the rotating shaft, and it can be read by an IR beam or laser, which is directed by
the tachometer.

Photoelectric Tachometer

Definition: The tachometer which uses the light for measuring the speed of rotation of shaft or
disc of machines is known as the photoelectric tachometer. The opaque disc with holes on its
periphery, light source and laser are the essential parts of the photoelectric tachometer.
The tachometer consists the opaque disc which is mounted on the shaft whose speed needs to be
measured. The disc consists the equivalent holes around the periphery. The light source is placed
on one side of the disc and the light sensor on the other side. They are in line with each other.
When the disc rotates their holes, and the opaque portion comes alternatively between the light
source and light sensor. When the holes come in the line of the light source and the light sensor,
then the light passes through the holes and collapse to the sensor. Hence the pulse is generated.
These pulses are measured through the electric counter.

When the opaque portion comes in the line of light source and sensor, then the disc blocked the
light source, and the output becomes zero. The production of pulses depends on the following
factor.
1. The number of holes on the disc.
2. The speed of rotation of the disc.
The holes are fixed, and hence the pulse generation depends on the speed of the rotation of the
disc. The electronic counter is used for measuring the pulse rate.
Advantages of Photoelectric Tachometer
1. The digital output voltage is obtained, and hence there is no need of analogue to digital
conversion.
2. The pulses of constant amplitude are obtained which simplify the electronic circuitry.
Disadvantages of Photoelectric Tachometer
1. The life of the light source is approximately 50,000 hours. Hence the light source needs
to be replaced timely.

Accelerometer

Accelerometer:
An accelerometer is a device that detects a structure's vibration or motion acceleration. The
piezoelectric material is "squeezed" by vibrations or changes in motion (acceleration),
resulting in a charge proportionate to the force applied to it. Charge is related to acceleration
because charge is proportional to force and mass is constant. Accelerometers are now found in
almost all cellphones. You may use it to see if the phone is moving in particular directions,
and it's also how the automatic screen brightening function works when the phone is flipped
over. Accelerometers can help engineers comprehend machine stability while detecting forces
or vibrations that shouldn't be present in industrial environments.

Accelerometer Working:

Accelerometers are used to determine whether a force is static or dynamic. A constant force
exerted on an object, such as gravity or friction, is known as static acceleration. These factors
are largely predictable and uniform. For example, because gravity's acceleration is constant at
9.8 m/s, gravity is nearly the same everywhere on Earth. Vibration and shock are two
examples of non-uniform dynamic acceleration forces. Dynamic acceleration is well-
exemplified by a car accident. In comparison to the preceding state, the acceleration change
here is sudden. Accelerometers work on the principle of detecting acceleration and converting
it to a measurable quantity, such as an electrical signal.
 Types of Accelerometers
Piezoelectric accelerometer:

The piezoelectric effect of piezoelectric crystals is used in piezoelectric accelerometers. When

some crystals are deformed in a specific direction by a force, polarization occurs within, and
opposite-sign charges are created on their two surfaces; when the external force is removed,
the crystals return to their uncharged state. The "piezoelectric effect" is the name given to this
phenomena. Piezoelectric crystals are crystals that have a "piezoelectric effect." Quartz,
piezoelectric ceramics, and other piezoelectric crystals are commonly utilized.

The force exerted by the mass on the piezoelectric element changes when the accelerometer
vibrates. The force change is proportional to the recorded acceleration when the measured
vibration frequency is substantially lower than the accelerometer's natural frequency.

Figure. Structure of Piezoelectric Accelerometer

The letter S stands for spring. M stands for mass. The letter B stands for base. R is the
clamping ring, while P is the piezoelectric element.

Figure a shows a compression type with a centrally positioned piezoelectric element-mass-

spring system mounted on a circular central pillar that is attached to the base. The resonance
frequency of this structure is quite high. When the base B is linked to the test object, however,
deformation of the base B will directly affect the vibration pickup's output. Changes in the test
object and ambient temperature will also affect the piezoelectric element and alter the preload
force, resulting in temperature drift.

The annular shear type is seen in Figure b, where the piezoelectric element is clamped on the
triangular center column by a clamping ring. The piezoelectric element is subjected to shear
stress when the accelerometer encounters axial vibration. This construction provides great
base deformation and temperature change isolation, as well as a high resonance frequency and
strong linearity.

Figure c shows a triangle shear form with a simple construction that can be turned into a tiny
high-resonance-frequency accelerometer. The annular mass is bonded to the central pillar's
annular piezoelectric element. Because the binder softens as the temperature rises, the
maximum operating temperature is limited.

Large dynamic range, wide frequency range, sturdiness and longevity, reduced external
interference, and the piezoelectric material itself generates a charge signal without any
external power supply are all features of piezoelectric accelerometers. It's the most common
vibration sensor on the market.

Although the piezoelectric accelerometer has a simple structure and a long history of
commercial use, its performance indicators are closely related to material properties, design,
and processing technology, so the actual parameters of performance and stability and
consistency of similar sensors on the market are very different. The major disadvantage of
piezoelectric accelerometers over piezoresistive and capacitive accelerometers is that they
cannot measure zero-frequency impulses.
Piezoresistive Acceleration Sensor

The first silicon micro-accelerometer was the piezoresistive accelerometer (based on MEMS
silicon micromachining technology). The elastic element of a piezoresistive accelerometer is
usually made consisting of a silicon beam and a mass block that is supported by a cantilever
beam and rests on it. To measure bridges, make resistors and connect them. The mass block
travels up and down due to inertial force, and the resistance value of the resistance on the
cantilever beam changes with the action of the stress, causing the output voltage of the
measuring bridge to vary, allowing acceleration to be measured.

Fig. Piezoresistive accelerometer schematic

Piezoresistive silicon micro-acceleration sensors come in a variety of structural

configurations, including cantilever beams, double-arm beams, 4-beams, and double-island-5
beams. The sensitivity, frequency response, range, and other properties of the sensor are
determined by the structural form and size of the elastic element. The mass block can increase
the tension on the cantilever beam when the acceleration is reduced, improving the sensor's
output sensitivity.

Under high acceleration, the mass block's action may cause the cantilever beam's stress to
surpass the yield stress, causing the cantilever beam to break due to excessive deformation. As
a result, the structural form of single-arm beam and double-arm beam with equal mass block
and beam thickness is proposed for high gn value acceleration, as indicated in the picture.
 Figure. Double arm beam structure

The strain piezoresistive accelerometer's sensitive core is built of a semiconductor

material called a resistance measuring bridge, and its structural dynamic model is still a
spring mass system.
With the advancement of current microfabrication manufacturing technology, piezoresistive
form-sensitive cores may now be designed with significant flexibility to meet a variety of
measuring requirements. Piezoresistive accelerometers range in sensitivity and range from
low-sensitivity and high-range shock readings to DC high-sensitivity low-frequency
observations.
Another problem of piezoresistive acceleration sensors is that they are highly impacted by
temperature, which necessitates temperature adjustment in most practical sensors. In terms of
cost, piezoresistive sensors used in large quantities have a low cost of production, while
sensitive cores for unique applications will have a significantly higher manufacturing cost
than piezoelectric acceleration sensors.
Capacitive Accelerometer
Capacitive accelerometers use the capacitance concept to provide polar-distance-variable
capacitive sensors. One electrode is stationary, while the other is an elastic diaphragm that
changes. The capacitance changes as the elastic diaphragm is displaced by an external force
(air pressure, hydraulic pressure, etc.). This sensor can measure the airflow (or liquid flow)
vibration velocity (or acceleration), as well as the pressure.
 Figure. Capacitive accelerometer schematic

Capacitive accelerometers/capacitive accelerometers are a type of acceleration sensor that is

widely used. In some industries, such as airbags, mobile phones, and mobile devices, there is
no equivalent. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are used in capacitive
accelerometers/capacitive accelerometers. It becomes cost-effective in mass production,
ensuring decreased costs.

Servo Accelerometer

When the mass block deviates from the static equilibrium position due to acceleration input
through the accelerometer shell, the displacement sensor detects the displacement signal,
amplifies it by the servo amplifier, and outputs a current, which flows through the
electromagnetic coil and into the permanent magnet's magnetic field. The electromagnetic
restoring force is generated in the center, forcing the mass block to return to its original static
equilibrium position; the accelerometer is in a closed-loop state, and the sensor emits an
analog signal proportionate to the acceleration value.

Figure. Servo Accelerometer Schematic

A closed-loop test system with strong dynamic performance, a large dynamic range, and good
linearity is a servo accelerometer . Its operating idea is that the sensor's vibration system is
made up of the "mk" system, which is similar to a conventional accelerometer but with an
electromagnetic coil coupled to the mass m. The mass block deviates from the equilibrium
position when the base is accelerated, and the displacement is defined by After being
amplified by the servo amplifier, the displacement sensor detects it and converts it to a current
output. Servo accelerometers work in a closed loop because the current passes through the
electromagnetic coil and generates an electromagnetic restoring force in the permanent
magnet's magnetic field, attempting to retain the mass block in its original equilibrium
position in the instrument housing.
The anti-interference ability is improved, the measurement precision is improved, and the
measurement range is expanded as a result of the feedback effect. Inertial navigation and
inertial guidance systems, as well as high-precision vibration measurement and calibration,
utilise servo acceleration measuring technology.
 Piezo-Electric Accelerometers

The Piezoelectric Effect

Piezoelectric materials exhibit electro-elastic coupling i.e. they convert a portion of the energy
associated with any internal mechanical strain into recoverable electrical energy and vice versa.
Basically, piezoelectric transducers convert mechanical energy (when strained) to an electric
signal through the piezoelectric effect. This electric signal is proportional to the mechanical
strain of the piezo and therefore, it is proportional to the vibration or shock event of the system.
Piezoelectric Accelerometer Configurations
The active element in a piezoelectric accelerometer is a piezoelectric ceramic. One side of the
ceramic is rigidly connected to the accelerometer body, the other side has a seismic mass added.
When the accelerometer is subjected to vibration, a force is generated which acts on the
piezoelectric element and the seismic mass. Due to the piezoelectric effect, a charge output
proportional to the applied force is generated from this vibration or shock. Over a wide
frequency range the sensor mass and the sensor base have the same acceleration magnitude and
therefore the sensor measures the acceleration of the accelerometer body.
There are 3 main sensor configurations: shear mode, compression, and bender.

Shear Mode
The piezo wafers are configured to undergo shear deformation from acceleration (i.e. the piezo
wafers are perpendicular to the base). This has become the most popular configuration because
the piezo wafers are isolated from the base which helps reduce the temperature sensitivity and
susceptibility to base strain. But this configuration typically has a relatively low sensitivity-to-
mass ratio which means that you'll need a charge amplifier.
 Figure : A shear mode piezoelectric accelerometer configuration is shown.

Compression Mode
With the piezo in compression, it is directly in line with the base and a seismic mass above. This
provides a moderately high sensitivity-to-mass ratio but this results in effectively a spring-mass
system between the piezoelectric element and the base. This can lead to easily produced
erroneous results from base bending or thermal expansion. Therefore this configuration is rarely
used except in high shock applications because of its robustness.

Figure : A compression mode piezoelectric accelerometer configuration is shown.

Piezoelectric Bender

The easiest-to-conceptualize configuration is with the piezoelectric element acting as a

cantilevered beam with a tip mass. This produces the best sensitivity-to-mass ratio, so much so
that this type of accelerometer will not require power (it can actually provide power - see energy
harvesting). But this configuration also exhibits the highest temperature sensitivity, is relatively
fragile (which is why laminated/packaged piezos can provide a benefit), and typically has a
lower resonant frequency and therefore a lower bandwidth. So these are rarely used now for
accurate testing, but they provide great benefit as an unpowered sensor to wake up the main
sensing system.

Figure: A cantilevered beam piezoelectric accelerometer configuration is shown.

Benefits of Piezoelectric Accelerometer

The key benefits of piezoelectric accelerometers are:

 Wide frequency range

 No moving parts
 Excellent linearity over their dynamic range
 Low output noise
 Self-generating - no external power required
  Acceleration signal can be integrated to provide velocity and displacement

Applications

Major applications of piezoelectric accelerometers include:

 Engine testing - Combustion and dynamic stressing

 Ballistics - Combustion, explosion, and detonation
 Industrial/factory - Machining systems, metal cutting, and machine health monitoring
 Original equipment manufacturer - Transportation systems, rockets, machine tools,
engines, flexible structures, and shock/vibration testers
 Engineering - Dynamic response testing, shock and vibration isolation, auto chassis
structural testing, structural analysis, reactors, control systems and materials evaluation
 Aerospace - Ejection systems, rocketry, landing gear hydraulics, shock tube
instrumentation, wind tunnel and modal testing.

Vibrometer

An instrument designed to measure the amplitude of a vibration. Also known as vibration meter.
It is a form of an electronic device and is also known as an analyzer. It can process the vibration
signals. The sensor generates the voltage signal when it is shaking on the machine. This signal is
transmitted through the cable to the vibration meter. It can not only process voltage signal and
display vibration values but also other parameters like acceleration and velocity. It can record the
vibration with high precision. It is also used to monitor and diagnose the problem in bearings,
machines, engines, etc. Portable and hand-held are two types of vibration meter. It is easy to use
this device and does not require extensive training.
Laser-Doppler vibrometer

The Laser-Doppler vibrometer (LDV) uses the Doppler frequency shift for non-contact speed
measurement.

In principle, it consists of a laser, beam splitters, a reflector, a Bragg cell and a photo detector.
The coherent laser light is split into a measuring beam and the reference beam by means of
polarisation.
The measuring beam is projected onto the vibrating object and is reflected on its surface. The
reference beam is used to be send through a Bragg cell for a frequency shift.

This frequency shift allows the detection of motion direction later. The interference of both
beams leads to a frequency modulated signal. Various demodulation methods are able to
translate the signal into path or speed information.

Commercial LDVs have a frequency range between 0 Hz and 30 MHz and can follow vibration
speeds from 100 nm/s up to 20 m/s.

Vibration Wedge
The vibrating wedge is nothing, but a triangular shaped wedge something like this which is
mounted on a surface and this particular surface when it comes in contact with any vibrating
member this particular surface, then this wedge keeps on vibrating and as the wedge keeps on
vibrating its position keeps on changing continuously
Seismic Transducer
Definition: The seismic transducer is used for measuring the vibration of the ground. The spring
mass damper element and the displacement transducer are the two main component of the
seismic transducer.
The mass that connected to the damper element and spring without any other support is known as
spring mass damper element. And the displacement transducer converts the displacement into the
electrical quantity. The seismic transducer is used for measuring the earth vibration, volcanic
eruption and other vibrations etc.

Construction of Seismic Transducer

The systematic diagram of the seismic transducer is shown in the figure below. The mass is
connected by the help of the damper and spring to the housing. The housing frame is connected
to the source whose vibrations need to be measured.

The arrangement is kept in such a way so that the position of the mass remains same in the space.
Such type of arrangement is kept for causing the relative motion between the housing frame and
the mass. The term relative motion means one of the objects remains stationary, and the other is
in motion concerning the first one. The displacement that occurs between the two is sensed and
represented by the transducer.
Mode of Transducer

The seismic transducer works in two different modes.

 Displacement Mode

 Acceleration Mode

The selection of the mode depends on the combinations of the mass, spring and damper
combinations. The large mass and soft spring are used for the displacement mode measurement
while the combination of the small mass and stiff spring is used for the acceleration mode.

Strain Gauge
If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier and longer, both changes
resulting in an increase of electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, if a strip of conductive
metal is placed under compressive force (without buckling), it will broaden and shorten. If these
stresses are kept within the elastic limit of the metal strip (so that the strip does not permanently
deform), the strip can be used as a measuring element for physical force, the amount of applied
force inferred from measuring its resistance.
Such a device is called a strain gauge. Strain gauges are frequently used in mechanical
engineering research and development to measure the stresses generated by machinery. Aircraft
component testing is one area of application, tiny strain-gauge strips glued to structural
members, linkages, and any other critical component of an airframe to measure stress. Most
strain gauges are smaller than a postage stamp, and they look something like this:
A strain gauge’s conductors are very thin: if made of round wire, about 1/1000 inch in diameter.
Alternatively, strain gauge conductors may be thin strips of the metallic film deposited on a
nonconducting substrate material called the carrier. The latter form of the strain gauge is
represented in the previous illustration. The name “bonded gauge” is given to strain gauges that
are glued to a larger structure under stress (called the test specimen). The task of bonding strain
gauges to test specimens may appear to be very simple, but it is not. “Gauging” is a craft in its
own right, absolutely essential for obtaining accurate, stable strain measurements. It is also
possible to use an unmounted gauge wire stretched between two mechanical points to measure
tension, but this technique has its limitations.

Strain Gauge Transducer

The device finds its wide application as a strain gauge transducer/sensor as it is very accurate in
measuring the change in displacement occurred and converting it into its corresponding value of
resistance, inductance or capacitance. It must be noted that the metal conductor which is
subjected to an unknown force should be of finite length.
Types

Strain gauge transducers are broadly classified into two. They are
1. Electrical Resistance Type Strain Gauge

In an electrical resistance strain gauge, the device consists of a thin wire placed on a flexible
paper tissue and is attached to a variety of materials to measure the strain of the material. In
application, the strain gauge will be attached to a structural member with the help of special
cement. The gauge position will be in such a manner that the gauge wires are aligned across the
direction of the strain to be measured. The wire used for the purpose will have a diameter
between 0.009 to 0.0025 centimeters. When a force is applied on the wire, there occurs a strain
(consider tensile, within the elastic limit) that increases the length and decreases its area. Thus,
the resistance of the wire changes. This change in resistance is proportional to the strain and is
measured using a Wheatstone bridge.
A simple Wheatstone bridge circuit is shown in the figure below. It can be set in three different
ways such as – full bridge, half bridge or quarter bridge. A full bridge will have all four of its
gauges active. The half bridge will have two of its gauges active and thus uses two precise value
resistors. The quarter bridge will have only one gauge and the rest of the resistors will be precise
in value.

A full bridge circuit is used in applications where complimentary pair of strain gauges is to be
bounded to the test specimen. In practice, a half bridge and full bridge circuit has more
sensitivity than the quarter bridge circuit. But since, the bonding is difficult, a quarter bridge
circuits are mostly used for strain gauge measurements. A full bridge circuit is said to be more
linear than other circuits.
An external supply is given to the bridge as shown in the diagram. Initially, when there is no
application of strain, the output measurement will be zero. Thus, the bridge is said to be
balanced. With the application of a stress to the device, the bridge will become unbalanced and
produces an output voltage that is proportional to the input stress.
The application of a full bridge and quarter bridge strain gauge circuit is shown in the figure
below. A quarter bridge output corresponding to the application of a force is shown below.
Initially, the circuit will be balanced without the application of any force. When a downward
force is applied, the length of the strain gauge increases and thus a change in resistance occurs.
Thus an output is produced in the bridge corresponding to the strain. The wire strain gauge can
be further divided into two.
 Fig. Quarter Bridge Strain Gauge Circuit

Half Bridge Circuits

If we were to take the upper strain gauge and position it so that it is exposed to the opposite force
as the lower gauge (i.e. when the upper gauge is compressed, the lower gauge will be stretched,
and vice versa), we will have both gauges responding to strain, and the bridge will be more
responsive to applied force.
This utilization is known as a half-bridge. Since both strain gauges will either increase or
decrease resistance by the same proportion in response to changes in temperature, the effects of
temperature change remain canceled and the circuit will suffer minimal temperature-induced
measurement error:
An example of how a pair of strain gauges may be bonded to a test specimen so as to yield this
effect is illustrated here:

With no force applied to the test specimen, both strain gauges have equal resistance and the
bridge circuit is balanced. However, when a downward force is applied to the free end of the
specimen, it will bend downward, stretching gauge #1 and compressing gauge #2 at the same
time:
Full-Bridge Circuits
In applications where such complementary pairs of strain gauges can be bonded to the test
specimen, it may be advantageous to make all four elements of the bridge “active” for even
greater sensitivity. This is called a full-bridge circuit:

Both half-bridge and full-bridge configurations grant greater sensitivity over the quarter-bridge
circuit, but often it is not possible to bond complementary pairs of strain gauges to the test
specimen. Thus, the quarter-bridge circuit is frequently used in strain measurement systems.
When possible, the full-bridge configuration is the best to use. This is true not only because it is
more sensitive than the others, but because it is linear while the others are not. Quarter-bridge
and half-bridge circuits provide an output (imbalance) signal that is only approximately
proportional to applied strain gauge force. Linearity, or proportionality, of these bridge circuits,
is best when the amount of resistance change due to the applied force is very small compared to
the nominal resistance of the gauge(s). With a full-bridge, however, the output voltage is directly
proportional to an applied force, with no approximation (provided that the change in resistance
caused by the applied force is equal for all four strain gauges).
The strain gauges used are bonded and unbonded strain gauge.
 Types of Strain Gauges
Unbonded Strain Gauge
As shown in the figure below, an unbounded strain gauge has a resistance wire stretched between
two frames. The rigid pins of the two frames are insulated. When the wire is stretched due to an
applied force, there occurs a relative motion between the two frames and thus a strain is
produced, causing a change in resistance value. This change of resistance value will be equal to
the strain input.

Unbonded Strain Guage

Bonded Strain Guage

A bonded strain gauge will be either a wire type or a foil type as shown in the figure below. It is
connected to a paper or a thick plastic film support.
 Bonded Type Strain Gauges
The measuring leads are soldered or welded to the gauge wire. The bonded strain gauge with the
paper backing is connected to the elastic member whose strain is to be measured.
According to the strain to be measured, the gauges can be classified as the following.

 Uniaxial/Wire Strain Gauge

The figure of such a strain gauge is shown above. It mostly uses long and narrow sensing
elements so as to maximize the length of the strain sensing material in the desired direction.
Gauge length is chosen according to the strain to be calculated.
 Gauge Configurations

 Biaxial Strain Gauges

When the measurement of strain is to be done in two directions (mostly at right angles), this
method is used. The basic structure for this is the two element 90 planar rosette or the 90 planar
shear/stacked foil rosette. The gauges are wired in a Wheatstone bridge circuit to provide
maximum output. For stress analysis, the axial and transfers elements have different resistances
which can be selected that the combined output is proportional to the stress while the output of
the axial element alone is proportional to the strain. The figure is given below.
 Three Element Rosettes
It is divided into two types – three element 60delta rosette strain gauge and three element
45planar rectangular rosette. They are used in applications where both the magnitude and
direction of the applied strains are to be found out. Both the figures are shown below. The 60
rosette is used when the direction of the principal strain is unknown. The 45 rosette is used to
determine a high angular resolution, and when the principal strains are known.

2. Semiconductor Strain Gauge

This is the most commonly used strain gauge as a sensor, although the bonded type may also be
used in stress analysis purposes. The bonded type is usually made in wafers of about 0.02
centimeters in thickness with length and resistance values nearly equal to the wire gauge. It uses
either germanium or silicon base materials to be made available in both n-type or p-type. The p-
type gauges have a positive gauge factor while the n-type gauges have a negative gauge factor.
Temperature dependence of gauge factor is governed by the resistivity of the material. The large
value of the gauge factor in semiconductor gauges is attributed to the piezoresistance effect in
such materials.
Variable Inductance Type Strain Gauge

The basic arrangement of a variable inductance strain gauge is shown below. This type of strain
gauge is very sensitive and can be used to measure small changes in length – as small as 1
millionth of an inch. Thus, it is highly applicable as a displacement transducer.

Variable Inductance Type Strain Gauge

The member whose strain is to be measured is connected to one end of a moveable iron
armature. The long part of the armature is placed between the two cores with wires coiled in
between. If the strain produced makes the armature move towards the left core (core 1), it
increases the inductance of the left hand coil, that is, coil 1 and decreases the inductance of coil
2. These two coils produce the impedance Z1 and Z2 in the bridge circuit. This produces an
output voltage E, which is proportional to the input displacement and hence proportional to the
strain. This type of strain gauge is more accurate and sensitive than a resistive strain gauge. But,
it is difficult to install the device as it is bulky and complex in construction.
Errors in Strain Gauge

1. Some of the main causes for errors and inaccuracy in the device reading are given below.
2. Temperature Variation – This can be one of the major causes of error in a strain gauge. It can
easily change the gauge resistance and cause differential expansion between the gauge and
the test piece, causing variation in the measurable strain.
3. Humidity – Humidity can affect the accuracy by the breakdown of insulation between the
gauge and the ground point. It also causes electro-chemical corrosion of gauge wire due to
electrolysis.
4. Small errors could be caused due to thermoelectric effect.
5. The gauge will be erroneous even due to small factors like zero drift, hysteresis effect and so
on.
6. Magnetostrictive effect can also cause errors in strain gauges of ferromagnetic materials. It
produces a small voltage fluctuation of almost 2 mill volts.

Smart Sensor

Smart Sensor
A smart sensor is a sensor that contain an embedded Digital Motion Processor (DMP). The
advantage of this is that it can take input from the physical environment and uses built-in
compute resources to perform predefined functions upon detection of specific input and then
process data before passing it on. As you may already guess, processing of the data captured by
the sensor is done on the sensor’s IC with the embedded DMP. The processed data is then shared
to the rest of the device through a serial interface. At a minimum, a smart sensor is made of a
sensor, a microprocessor and communication technology of some kind. Computation resources
are provided by the low-power mobile microprocessor. The compute resources must be an
integral part of the physical design a sensor that just sends its data along for remote processing is
not considered a smart sensor.
A smart sensor may also include a number of other components besides the primary sensor.
These components can include transducers, amplifiers, excitation control, analog filters and
compensation. A smart sensor also incorporates software-defined elements that provide functions
such as data conversion, digital processing and communication to external devices.
Smart sensors are built as IoT components that convert the real-world variable that they’re
measuring into a digital data stream for transmission to a gateway. Figure 1 shows how they do
this. The application algorithms are performed by a built-in microprocessor unit (MPU). These
can run filtering, compensation, and any other process-specific signal conditioning tasks.

Figure1: Architecture of Smart sensor

The MPU’s intelligence can be used for many other functions as well to reduce the load on the
IoT’s more central resources; for example, calibration data can be sent to the MPU so the sensor
is automatically set up for any production changes. The MPU can also spot any production
parameters that start to drift beyond acceptable norms and generate warnings accordingly;
operators can then take preventative action before a catastrophic failure occurs.
If appropriate, the sensor could work in “report by exception” mode, where it only transmits data
if the measured variable value changes significantly from previous sample values. This reduces
both the load on the central computing resource and the smart sensor’s power requirements —
usually a critical benefit, as the sensor must rely on a battery or energy harvesting in the absence
of connected power.
If the smart sensor includes two elements in the probe, sensor self-diagnostics can be built in.
Any developing drift in one of the sensor element outputs can be detected immediately.
Additionally, if a sensor fails entirely — for example, due to a short-circuit — the process can
continue with the second measuring element. Alternatively, a probe can contain two sensors that
work together for improved monitoring feedback.

Physical Biosensor
In conditions of classification, physical biosensors are the most fundamental as well as broadly
used sensors. The main ideas behind this categorization also happen from inspecting the human
minds. As the general working method behind the intelligence of hearing, sight, touch is to react
on the exterior physical stimuli, therefore any detecting device that offers reaction to the physical
possessions of the medium was named as a physical biosensor.
The physical biosensors are classified into two types namely piezoelectric biosensor and
thermometric biosensor.
Piezoelectric Biosensors
These sensors are a collection of analytical devices which works on a law of “affinity interaction
recording”. The platform of a piezoelectric is a sensor element works on the law of oscillations
transform due to a collection jump on the surface of a piezoelectric crystal. In this analysis,
biosensors having their modified surface with an antigen or antibody, a molecularly stamped
polymer, and heritable information. The declared detection parts are normally united by using
nanoparticles.
Thermometric Biosensor
There are various types of biological reactions which are connected with the invention of heat,
and this makes the base of thermometric biosensors. These sensors are usually named as thermal
biosensors

Thermometric-biosensor is used to measure or estimate the serum cholesterol. As cholesterol

obtains oxidized through the enzyme cholesterol oxidize, then the heat will be produced which
can be calculated. Similarly, assessments of glucose, urea, uric acid, and penicillin G can be done
with these biosensors.
Optical Biosensor
The Optical biosensor is a device that uses an optical measurement principle. They use the fiber
optics as well as optoelectronic transducers. The term optrode represents a compression of the
two terms optical & electrode. These sensors mainly involve antibodies and enzymes like the
transducing elements.

Optical biosensors permit a secure non-electrical inaccessible sensing of equipment. An extra

benefit is that these frequently do not need reference sensors, because the comparative signal can
be produced by using the similar light source like the sampling sensor. The optical biosensors are
classified into two type’s namely direct optical detection biosensor and labeled optical detection
biosensor.
Wearable Biosensors
The wearable biosensor is a digital device, used to wear on the human body in different wearable
systems like smart watches, smart shirts, tattoos which allows the levels of blood glucose, BP,
the rate of heartbeat, etc.
Nowadays, we can notice that these sensors are carrying out a signal of improvement to the
world. Their better use and ease can give an original level of experience into a patient’s real-time
fitness status. This data accessibility will let superior clinical choice and will effect in enhanced
health results and extra capable use of health systems.
For the human beings, these sensors may assist in premature recognition of health actions and
prevention of hospitalization. The possibility of these sensors to reduce hospital stays and
readmissions will definitely attract positive awareness in the upcoming future. As well,
investigate information says that WBS will definitely carry a cost-effective wearable health
equipment to the world.

Biosensor
A Biosensor is an analytical device that detects changes in Biological processes and converts
them into an electrical signal. The term Biological process can be any biological element or
material like enzymes, tissues, microorganisms, cells, acids, etc.
So, a Biosensor is a combination of a Biological sensing element and a transducer, which
converts the data into electrical signals. Additionally, there will be an electronic circuit which
consists of a Signal Conditioning Unit, a Processor or Microcontroller and a Display Unit.
The applications of these Biosensors mainly include checking ecological pollution control, in
agriculture field as well as food industries.
A biosensor contains an immobilized biological material (enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid,
hormone, organelle or whole cell) which can specifically interact with an analyte and produce
physical, chemical or electrical signals that can be measured. An analyte is a compound (e.g.
glucose, urea, drug, pesticide) whose concentration has to be measured.
Biosensors basically involve the quantitative analysis of various substances by converting their
biological actions into measurable signals. A great majority of biosensors have immobilized
enzymes. The performance of the biosensors is mostly dependent on the specificity and
sensitivity of the biological reaction, besides the stability of the enzyme.

Principle of a Biosensor
The desired biological material is usually in the form of an enzyme. By a process known as
Electroenzymatic approach, which is a chemical process of converting the enzymes into
corresponding electrical signals (usually current) with the help of a transducer. One of the
commonly used Biological response is the oxidation of the enzyme. Oxidation acts as a catalyst
and alters the pH of the biological material. The change in pH will directly affect the current
carrying capacity of the enzyme, which is once again, in direct relation to the enzyme being
measured.
Output of the transducer i.e. the current, is a direct representation of the enzyme being measured.
The current is generally converted into voltage so that it can be properly analyzed and
represented.
Working of Biosensors
The combination of biological sensitive element and a transducer will convert the biological
material into a corresponding electrical signal. Depending on the type of enzyme, the output of
the transducer will be either current or voltage. If the output is voltage, then well and good. But
if the output is current, then this current should be converted into equivalent voltage (using an
Op-Amp based current to voltage converter) before proceeding further.
The output voltage signal is usually very low in amplitude and superimposed on a high
frequency noise signal. So, the signal is amplified (using an Op-Amp based Amplifier) and then
passed through a Low Pass RC Filter. This process of amplifying and filtering the signal is the
job of a Signal Processing Unit or a Signal Conditioning Unit. The output of the signal
processing unit is an analog signal that is equivalent to the biological quantity being measured.
The analog signal can be displayed directly on an LCD display but usually, this analog signal is
passed to a Microcontroller, where the analog signal is converted into digital signal, since it is
easy to analyze, process or store a digital signal.
Example of Biosensor
Before proceeding further with different types of Biosensors and applications of Biosensor, let us
quickly take a look at a simple example of a Biosensor: The Glucometer, which is one of the
most common applications (unfortunately). Diabetes is a disease characterized by the levels of
glucose in the blood. Regularly checking the blood glucose levels is very important for diabetes
patients. Glucometers are a type Biosensors, which measure the concentration of glucose in
blood.
Usually, they consists of a test strip, which collect a small sample of blood to analyze the glucose
levels. This particular sensor implements the Electroenzymatic approach i.e. oxidation of
glucose.

The test strip consists of a trigger electrode and a reference electrode. When blood is placed on
the test strip, a simple chemical reaction takes place and an electrical current is generated, which
is directly proportional to the concentration of glucose.
Internally, the Glucometer consists of a powerful processor along with current to voltage
converter, amplifier, filter and a display unit.

Types of Biosensors
The different types of biosensors are classified based on the sensor device as well as the
biological material that is discussed below.

1. Electrochemical Biosensor
Generally, the electrochemical biosensor is based on the reaction of enzymatic catalysis that
consumes or generates electrons. Such types of enzymes are named as Redox Enzymes. The
substrate of this biosensor generally includes three electrodes such as a counter, reference, and
working type.

The object analyte is engaged in the response that happens on the surface of an active electrode,
and this reaction may source also electron-transfer across the dual layer potential. The current
can be calculated at a set potential.

Electrochemical biosensors are classified into four types

 Amperometric Biosensors
 Potentiometric Biosensors
 Impedimetric Biosensors
 Voltammetric Biosensors

2. Amperometric Biosensor
An amperometric biosensor is a self-contained incorporated device based on the amount of the
current ensuing from the oxidation offering exact quantitative analytical information.
Generally, these Biosensors have reaction times, energetic ranges & sensitivities comparable to
the Potentiometric-biosensors. The simple amperometric biosensor in frequent usage includes the
“Clark oxygen” electrode.
The rule of this biosensor is based on the amount of the flow of current between Counter
Electrode and the working which is encouraged by a redox response at the operational electrode.
Choosing analyte centers is essential for a wide selection of uses, comprising high-throughput
medicine screening, quality control, problem finding and handling, and biological checking.

3. Potentiometric Biosensors
In these biosensors, changes in ionic concentrations are determined by use of ion- selective
electrodes (Fig. 21.15). pH electrode is the most commonly used ion-selective electrode, since
many enzymatic reactions involve the release or absorption of hydrogen ions. The other
important electrodes are ammonia-selective and CO2 selective electrodes.
The potential difference obtained between the potentiometric electrode and the reference
electrode can be measured. It is proportional to the concentration of the substrate. The major
limitation of potentiometric biosensors is the sensitivity of enzymes to ionic concentrations such
as H+ and NH+4.

4. Impedimetric Biosensors
The EIS (Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy) is a responsive indicator for a broad range of
physical as well as chemical properties. A rising trend towards the expansion of Impedimetric-
biosensors is being presently observed. The techniques of Impedimetric have been executed to
differentiate the invention of the biosensors as well as to examine the catalyzed responses of
enzymes lectins, nucleic acids, receptors, whole cells, and antibodies.
5. Voltammetric Biosensor
This communication is the base of a new voltammetric biosensor to notice acrylamide. This
biosensor was built with a carbon glue electrode customized with Hb (hemoglobin), which
includes four prostatic groups of the hem (Fe). This type of electrode shows a reversible
oxidation or reduction procedure of Hb (Fe).

Advantages of Biosensors
 Rapid and continuous measurement
 High specificity
 Very less usage of reagents required for calibration
 Fast response time
 Ability to measure non-polar molecules that cannot be estimated by other conventional
devices.
Applications of Biosensors
 Monitoring glucose level in diabetes patients
 Food analysis
 Environmental applications
 Protein engineering and drug discovery applications
 Wastewater treatment.

Micro Electronic Sensor

The term MEMS stands for micro-electro-mechanical systems. These are a set of devices, and
the characterization of these devices can be done by their tiny size & the designing mode. The
designing of these sensors can be done with the 1- 100-micrometer components. These devices
can differ from small structures to very difficult electromechanical systems with numerous
moving elements beneath the control of incorporated micro-electronics. Usually, these sensors
include mechanical micro-actuators, micro-structures, micro-electronics, and micro-sensors in
one package.
MEMS are low-cost, and high accuracy inertial sensors and these are used to serve an extensive
range of industrial applications. This sensor uses a chip-based technology namely micro-electro-
mechanical-system. These sensors are used to detect as well as measure the external stimulus
like pressure, after that it responds to the pressure which is measured pressure with the help of
some mechanical actions. The best examples of this mainly include revolving of a motor for
compensating the pressure change.
The MEMS IC fabrication can be done with silicon, whereby slight material layers are placed
otherwise fixed onto a Si substrate. After that selectively fixed away to leave microscopic 3D
structures like diaphragms, beams, levers, springs, and gears. The MEMS fabrication needs
many techniques which are used to construct other semiconductor circuits like oxidation process,
diffusion process, ion implantation process, low-pressure chemical vapor deposition process,
sputtering, etc. Additionally, these sensors use a particular process like micromachining.
Working Principle:
It is a chip-based technology, known as a Micro Electro-Mechanical System, that is composed of
a suspended mass between a pair of capacitive plates as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
When tilt is applied to the sensor, the suspended mass creates a difference in electric potential
which is measured as a change in capacitance as shown in Figure 2.
 Figure 2
That signal is then amplified to produce a stable output signal in digital, 4-20mA or VDC.
MEMS Accelerometer
An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that is used to measure acceleration and
the force producing it. Many types of accelerometers are available in the market today. They can
be divided according to the force (static or dynamic) that is to be measured. Even today, one of
the most commonly used one is the piezoelectric accelerometer. But, since they are bulky and
cannot be used for all operations, a smaller and highly functional device like the MEMS
accelerometer was developed.

Working
One of the most commonly used MEMS accelerometer is the capacitive type. The capacitive
MEMS accelerometer is famous for its high sensitivity and its accuracy at high temperatures.
The device does not change values depending on the base materials used and depends only on
the capacitive value that occurs due to the change in distance between the plates.
If two plates are kept parallel to each other and are separated by a distance‘d’, and if ‘E’ is the
permitivity of the separating material, then capacitance produced can be written as:

Where,
A – overlapping area of plates in m2
d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space
Accelerometer values mainly depend on the change of values of d or A.

A typical MEMS accelerometer is shown in the figure below. It can also be called a simple one-
axis accelerometer. If more sets of capacitors are kept in 90 degrees to each other you can design
2 or 3-axis accelerometer. A simple MEMS transducer mainly consists of a movable
microstructure or a proof mass that is connected to a mechanical suspension system and thus on
to a reference frame.

Figure 3: MEMS Accelerometer

The movable plates and the fixed outer plates act as the capacitor plates. When acceleration is
applied, the proof mass moves accordingly. This produces a capacitance between the movable
and the fixed outer plates.
When acceleration is applied, the distance between the two plates displace as X1 and X2, and
they turn out to be a function of the capacitance produced.
From the image above it is clear that all sensors have multiple capacitor sets. All upper
capacitors are wired parallel to produce an overall capacitance C1 and the lower ones produce an
overall capacitance of C2.
If Vx is the output voltage of the proof mass, and V 0 is the output voltage produced between the
plates, then
(Vx +V0) C1 + (Vx -V0) C2 = 0
We can also write
Vx =V0 [(C2-C1)/(C2+C1)] = (x/d) V0

MEMS Advantages
The advantages of MEMS sensor include the following.
 The manufacturing of MEMS is semiconductor IC manufacturing like low-cost mass
invention, consistency is also essential to MEMS devices.
 The size of sensor sub-components will be within 1 to 100 micrometers range as well as
the MEMS device size will determine 20 micro-meter to a millimeter range.
 Power consumption is very low.
 Simple to incorporate into systems or change
 The thermal constant is small
 These can be highly opposed to shock, radiation, and vibration.
Applications of MEMS
MEMS sensors are used in different domains which include automotive, consumer, industrial,
military, biotechnology, space exploration, and commercial purposes which include inkjet
printers, accelerometers within modern cars, consumer electronics, in personal computers, etc.