Ch. 12
10
Leadership-Influencing, motivating, and enabling others to contribute toward the effectiveness and
success of the organizations- Motivate others using persuasion/influence tactics and are enablers
Shared Leadership-A role, not a position; people within lead each other When successful? - Leaders
delegate power, encourage employees without fear of failure, have collaborative culture. Employees
influence others through their enthusiasm, logical analysis, and involvement of co-workers
Transformational Leadership- Leaders are change agents by creating, communicating, and modelling
a vision for the org or team and inspiring employees to strive for that vision-
-Towards new direction to provide better opportunities and external alignment
-Steps= Develop vision (value-based, distant, unifying). Communicate vision (Generate
meaning+motivate using symbols, stories, etc.) (construct mental models) (Humility, sincerity, and
passion). Model vision (legitimizes and builds trust). Encourage experimentation (learning
orientation). Build Commitment (rewards and recognition)(stronger from earlier elements)
-Charisma vs transformational- T focuses on vision and motivates through behaviours that
persuade and earn trust. C focuses on referent power + dependent followers + power>goal
-Benefits: Satisfaction, OCB, better performance, committed, more creative.
-Challenges: Models engage in circular logic (Define based on its effects not behaviours). Traits
predict transformational behavior, not always inherent to it. Not universal.
Managerial Leadership- Effective leaders help employees improve their performance and well-being
towards current objectives and practices- engaging in daily activities---- do things right.
-Managerial vs transformational- M assumes objectives are stable and externally aligned. T wants
to change direction. M=Micro + T=Macro. Both are still interdependent.
-Task oriented- Behaviours that define and structure work roles. Assigning employees to tasks.
Setting goals and deadlines. Evaluating and providing feedback. Plan future activities.
-People oriented- Listening to employees. Creating a pleasant work environment. Showing interest.
Complimenting and recognizing. Showing consideration of employee needs.
-Rely on both but use in different circumstances. Servant is a variation of people-oriented
-Servant leadership- Leaders serve followers. 3 key features- Natural desire to help, Humble,
egalitarian, accepting relationship with followers, ethical decisions and behaviours
Path-goal leadership- Effective leaders choose the most appropriate leadership style(s), depending on
employee/situation, to influence employee expectations about desired results and their positive
outcomes. Lot of research support but dynamic takes considerable effort – A contingency approach
-4 leadership styles: Directive (task), supportive (people), participative (behaviours that
encourage/facilitate involvement), Achievement-oriented (behaviours to reach peak perf.)
-4 contingencies: Skills and experience (directive supportive for unskilled), locus of control
(internal=participative+achievement) (external=directive+supportive), task structure
(directive+participative for nonroutine) (Supportive for routine). Team dynamic (High team
cohesion substitutes for supportive) (Performance-oriented team norms substitute for directive
and achievement) (Supportive=low team cohesion) (Directive to counteract norms)
Leadership Substitute- Conditions limiting ability to influence subordinates or make style
unnecessary. - Task oriented: Performance rewards, skilled employee, guidance from co-workers,
team norms reinforce objectives, intrinsically motivating work, employee applies self-leadership.
-People oriented: Supportive coworkers, skilled, enjoyable work, effective stress-coping
Implicit Leadership- People evaluate a leader’s effectiveness in terms of how well that person fits
leadership prototypes, and that people tend to inflate the influence of leaders
-Prototypes- Preconceived beliefs about features and behaviours of effective leader-through
socialization. Occurs as people want to trust leader before s+ way to estimate leader success
-Inflate leader’s influence- Way to simplify events and people want to believe that life events are
generated more from people than uncontrollable sources
Personal attributes perspective- Personality, self-concept, leadership motivation, drive, integrity,
knowledge, cognitive and practical intelligence, EI
-Authentic leadership- The view that effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with,
and act consistently with values, personality, and self-concept. Know and be yourself
oRething leadership image, increase self-awareness, assess values and (dis)likes, take action
but get support, and work on effective communication
-Faults: Relational, not personal. Alternative combinations can work. Leadership is too complex
Followership- The sheep, the yes people, the star, the alienated, and the pragmatic. Engaged with
leader and critical independent though. Challenge and support: Implementers(lc,hs), partners (hs,hc),
resources (lc,ls), and individualists (hc,ls). Effective followership= proactive, speak up, enhance their
competencies, listen, research and implement best practices. Most effective when no leader
Conflict- One party perceives that its interests are being opposed/negatively affected by another
party
-Negatives: Can reduce performance (consumes energy and distracting), threatens personal needs
and self-concept (produces employee stress, reduces satisfaction, and increases turnover),
undermines information sharing, fuels organizational politics, and power struggles in work unit
-Benefits: Optimal conflict levels most effectiveness, improves decision-making (tests argument
logic, questions assumptions, generates creative thinking), more responsive to changing
environment (active thinking and questioning about how org can be more closely aligned with
stakeholders), better team cohesion (when conflict is against external party)
Task conflict- Focus discussion on the issue and different viewpoints- showing respect for people
involved. Keeps spotlight on ideas presented and logical questioning. Benefits above.
Relationship conflict- people focus their discussion on qualities of the people in the dispute, not on
idea. Questions competence and argues presenter lacks intelligence. Also when relying on status
Minimizing relationship conflict in task conflict- Tough to do so as when our self-esteem and public
image is threatened, we feel a need to defend.3 conditions minimizing level of relationship conflict:
-Higher EI (regulate emotions and view other emotions as valuable, team development (stronger
team cohesion and understand each other more, and norms to support psychological safety
Conflict process model- Conflict sources-conflict perception-manifest conflict-positive/negative result
Sources of conflict- Incompatible goals (divisions have different goals), differentiation (beliefs, values,
and preferences-same goal but different ways-socialization + ethnicity-generational), interdependence
(lowest when working with pooled resource- highest in sequential such as assembly line), scarce
resources (everyone needs but not enough ex. pay), ambiguous rules (ambiguous, inconsistently
enforced, or missing), communication (aggressive- or even lack of comm, relying on stereotypes)
Interpersonal conflict handling styles and contingencies- cooperation and assertiveness model
-Problem solving- Beneficial for both-win win situation. Requires info sharing and collaboration
oPreferred: Interests not perfectly opposing. Both have trust, openness, and time- complexity
oProblem: Other party might use information sharing to their advantage
-Forcing- Winning conflict at expense of other- win loss situation. Relies on hard-influence tactics
oPreferred: Quick solutions, position is logically stronger, or other party would take advantage
oProblem: Risks relationship conflict and can damage long-term relationship
-Avoiding- Smooth or evade conflict altogether- Common strat is to avoid those associated
oPreferred: Conflict too emotionally charged, want to maintain relationship, costly to solve
oProblem: Does not resolve the conflict and could cause uncertainty
-Yielding- Giving in to the other side and cooperating with no self-interest
oPreferred: Not as important to u, your position isn’t clear, other party more power, maintain
oProblem: Increases other party’s expectations for future
Ch.
Power- Capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others. Not changing behaviour, but potential. Also
based on target’s perception you contain valuable resource, not your own feeling of power.
-Involves asymmetric dependence and less powerful party has countervailing power. Requires trust too.
Sources of Power-Legitimate power= A position and right to request certain behaviours of others.
oMost important source in orgs- managers have it but so do employees through legal rights.
oRestriction=Zone of indifference- a line can be drawn by subordinates
oNorm of reciprocity is a subtle form of legitimate power- informal rule of conduct we follow
oInformation control (2 ways)- Info is a resource people need and gatekeepers can selectively distribute
information so that those receiving the information perceive situations in specific way
-Reward power=Ability to control the allocation of rewards and remove negative sanctions
oManagers have it- provide bonuses/promotions and Employees have it through OCB and feedback
-Coercive power= Ability to punish- Coworkers can show disapproval/pressure and managers have it too
-Expert power= Capacity to influence others by possessing valued knowledge and skills. Can help cope with
uncertainty in 3 ways: Prevention, forecasting, Absorption (Absorbing or neutralizing the impact of env. shifts)
-Referent power= Capacity to influence others on the basis of an identification with and respect for the holder.
Associated with charisma- self-presentation characteristics and nonverbal communication behaviours generate
interpersonal attraction
-Deference to power- Mindlessly follow charismatic people who claim to have legitimacy or expertise
Contingencies of Power. Non-substitutability- More power when resource is unique. Refers not only to other
sources that offer the resource; also refers to substitutions for the resource. To increase- control access or
differentiate Centrality- Pertains to the degree and nature of interdependence between powerholder and others.
Increases as more people depend on you. Visibility- Increase by taking on people-oriented jobs, being visible, and
using public symbols. Discretion- Freedom to exercise judgement and making decisions without referring to rule.
Social Networks- Social structures of individuals or social units that are connected to each other through one or
more forms of interdependence- common interests, expertise, kinship, etc. Exist everywhere
-Gain power through social capital- Knowledge, opportunities, and resources available to a social network,
along with mutual support, trust, reciprocity, and coordination facilitating sharing of resources
-Enhance and maintain power of their members through 3 resources. Information (from other members),
visibility (other members would recommend you), and referent power Increased
-Gaining power- Strong ties (similar people, few, offer quickly) and weak ties (unique opportunities)
-Dark side: Women often not included
Social network centrality- The more centrally one is located in the network, the more social capital and, therefore,
more power they acquire. 3 factors that affect it are betweenness, # of connections, closeness
-Structural holes exist as well- A gap that lacks network ties- A person connecting them has more power.
Influence- Power allows influence- Any behaviour that attempts to alter someone’s attitudes or behaviour.
-Silent authority- Influencing behaviour through legitimate power without explicitly referring to it
-Assertiveness- Actively applying legitimate and coercive power by applying pressure or threats
-Information control- Altering information for the purpose of changing attitudes and/or behaviour
-Coalition formation- Influential in 3 ways- pools resources, symbolizes legitimacy, increases confidence
-Upward appeal- Relying on people with higher authority or expertise to support one’s position
-Persuasion- Using logical arguments, factual evidence, and emotional appeals to convince people
oPersuader characteristics= Expertise, credibility, no apparent profit motive, and neutral.
oMessage content= Multiple viewpoints, few strong and repeated arguments, emotional appeals.
oCommunication channel= High social presence and media-richness (face-to-face)
oAudience characteristics: Less effective when the audience has higher self-esteem, competence and a self-
concept tied to an opposing position
-Impression management (including ingratiation)- Actively shaping, through self-presentation and other means,
the perceptions, and attitudes that others have of us, which includes ingratiation (refers to the influencer’s
attempt to be more liked by the targeted person or group)
-Exchange- Promising benefits or resources in exchange for the target person’s compliance
Response of influence tactics- Resistance (When individuals or work units oppose the behaviour desired by the
influencer), compliance (extrinsically motivated), and commitment (identify and highly motivated)
-People react more favourably to soft tactics (the last 3)
-Appropriate influence tactic depends on: Influencer’s power base, org position, cultural values/expectations
-Contingencies- Influencer’s strongest source of power (ex. Expertise can persuade and legitimate can use silent
authority) and person’s job level (employee cannot be assertive with boss)
Organizational Politics- use of influence tactics for personal gain at the perceived expense of others and the
organization. Dark triad.
-Occurs due to org factors (scarce resources for example), ambiguous rules, and tolerated by organization
-Minimize through sufficient resources, clarify resource allocation rules, apply effective organizational change
practices, purge political behaviour norms, and role models
Communication- The process by which information is transmitted and understood between two or more people
-Effective communication- vital to orgs (interdependence), vital to decision-making (brings info/opportunities),
can change behaviour, supports employee well-being (reduces work/emotional stress), facilitates learning
A model of communication- Communication flows through channels (media) between sender and receiver
-Sending and receiving- Forms message and encodes into words, symbols, etc. Transmitted through voice, text,
or other channels. The receiver senses the incoming message and decodes it into something meaningful
-Sending feedback- similar to sending- Sender needs evidence that receiver understood original message
-Hampered by noise- Psychological, social, and structural barriers that distort and obscure the original message
Influences on Effective Encoding and Decoding Message: Depends on MARS: Can improve communication
-Similar codebooks- dictionaries of symbols, language, gestures, and other tools- reduces confirmation need
-Sender’s encoding experience- enhanced clarity and persuasion through frequent transmission
-Communication channel motivation and ability and Shared mental models of communication context-
Communication Channels- Two main types: verbal (spoken or written- words) and nonverbal (no words)
Digital written- Text messaging, online chat, virtual whiteboards, and other digital text-based. (Email popular.)
-Benefits: Written, edited, appended, and transmitted quickly to many, asynchronous forms do not require time
coordination, many platforms have search engines, can communicate further up the hierarchy, reduce status
differences between sender and receiver, reduce stereotypes and prejudice, diplomatic message
-Negatives: Faulty communication of emotions (attempts to rectify this: emojis and exclamation marks but still
does not replace), less politeness and respectfulness sent and interpreted (less diplomatic than written letters
and paper messages take longer to prepare, allowing senders to reflect more calmly), inefficient for ambiguous,
complex, and novel Situations, and contributes to information overload (similar messages)
Social media- Digital comm channels that enable people to collaborate in the creation and exchange of user-
generated content- Traditionally relied on pushing info but then implemented enterprise collaborative platforms
-Many types and each channel emphasize specific functions- enabling convo, sharing info, supporting, etc.
-Benefits- improves knowledge sharing and socializing under some conditions, enables feedback, gives a voice
Nonverbal- Includes facial gestures, voice intonation, physical distance, and even silence- Needed when effective
verbal exchanges are difficult (ex. noise) and requires immediate feedback- Most info is shared like this- subtle info
-vs. verbal: Less rule-bound (no training), more ambiguous (misinterpretation), universal, nonconscious
-Emotional contagion- The nonconscious process of “catching” or sharing another person’s emotions by
mimicking that person’s facial expressions and other nonverbal behaviour. Influences comm and social
relationships in 3 ways: Provides continuous feedback, stronger emotional meaning, fulfills drive to bond
Choosing the best communication channel- 4 important factors
-Synchronicity- Sender and receiver connect and involved in convo same time (sync) or different (async)
oSync: high-urgency and complex issues. Async: simple and low time urgency tasks
 -Compromising- Seeking middle ground. Preferred: single-issue conflict with opposing interests,
lack time or trust for problem solving, want to maintain a harmonious relationship, equal power
oProblem: Suboptimal solution where mutual gains are possible
Structural approaches to conflict management- Emphasize subordinate goals (Goals all parties value
and requires joint resources and effort), reduce differentiation (temporary assignments, rotate staff,
strong org culture), improve comm and mutual understanding (awareness and respect) (2 warnings:
some cultures do not resolve with open dialogue, should be applied only where differentiation is not
high or they will try to reinforce views), reduce interdependence (create buffers, use integrators,
combine tasks), increase resources, and clarify rules and procedures
Third-party conflict resolution- Attempt by a relatively neutral person to help resolve differences.
-Arbitration- High control over decision, low over process. Following previously agreed rules of due
process, listening to arguments, and making a binding decision. Preferred where org goals>ind goal
-Inquisition- Control all discussion. Used by managers but least effective in organizational settings
as collecting limited info can result in ineffective solutions + violates procedural justice rules
-Mediation- Control process not decision. Preferred in everyday disagreements, offers satisfact.
Negotiation- Interdependent parties with divergent beliefs/goals attempt to reach agreement
-Distributive approach- one party loses – adopted when there is one item to be resolved (salary ex)
-Integrative approach- win win- resources at stake are expandable rather than fixed if the parties
work creatively together to find a solution- more common when multiple issues to be resolved
-Most negotiations begin with integrative but switch to distributive once parties realize differences
Preparing to negotiate- Develop goals and understand needs- What you want to achieve and what
needs can be fulfilled from these- Effective negotiators understand needs-anticipating for other party
as well-Bargaining zone model of negotiations: Initial offering, target point, resistance point. Know
your Best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) and power-How we determine resistance
point-High BATNA = others available and can walk away: Actively investigate multiple alternatives
The negotiation process- Gather info- Discover the other party’s needs hidden behind offers and goal.
Can transform distributive to integrative. Share info slowly. Manage concessions- offer in installments.
Manage time and build the relationship (EI and discovering common backgrounds/interests)
Negotiation Setting- Location (home turf), physical setting (seating), audience characteristics
Lewin’s Force Field Analysis-System-wide change that helps change agents diagnose the forces that
drive and restrain proposed organizational change. Driving and restraining forces- Stable=equilibrium
-Effective change by unfreezing (disequilibrium between driving and restraining) and refreezing
Understanding resistance- We assume that it is others—not us—who need to do the changing
-Resistance is conflict- Should see it as task conflict not relationship (not prepared or change bad)
-Why employees resist change- Dispositional factors= personality and values. 6 other factors below
oAn employee’s readiness for change depends on MARS: Negative valence of change, fear of
the unknown (assuming worst and lack of personal control), not-invented-here syndrome
(oppose change if initiated by outsider and will inflate problems to protect self-worth),
breaking routines, incongruent team dynamics, and incongruent org systems and structures
Unfreezing- Driving forces>resisting forces- Making driving forces stronger (barely works since it
brings equal resistance), weakening restraining (clears road but does not motivate), or both (works)
-Creating urgency for change. Leaders buffer employees from external forces but results in not
understanding or ineffective change. Therefore, employees should be exposed to external- push
them out of their comfort zone, remind them of competitors. Customer-driven change as well
oWithout external factors: Begin change process before problems arise- tough doing so if org
is alr stable. Also requires persuasive influence: visualize future competitive threats and
environmental shifts. Comes off as manipulative. Can also develop through a leader's vision
-Reducing resistance- Increasing driving increases resistance: 6 strategies (First 4 are priorities)
oCommunication- generates urgency of change and reduces unknown- timely and costly
oLearning- Develop stronger change self-efficacy- timely, costly, unable to learn new skills
oEmployee involvement- minimizes not-invented-here syndrome- timely, conflicting interests
oStress management- Minimize resistance by reducing negative valence. Can increase their
motivation to support change- timely, costly, methods may not work
oNegotiation- gains support from those who otherwise lose out- no commitment, short-term
oCoercion- Assertive influence- ex. Replacing staff- less trust and engage in org politics
Refreezing- Realigning organizational systems and team dynamics with the desired change
-Org rewards can help. Employees focus on new priorities when receiving continuous feedback
Leadership, Coalitions, and Pilot Projects- 4 other ingredients in effective change processes
-Transformational leadership- Build strategic vision (Provides sense of direction and establishes
critical success, provides emotional foundation, minimizes fear of the unknown)
-Coalitions- A guiding coalition supporting change agents- committed- influential leaders
-Social networks- Strengthens change process. Viral change process (word of mouth and trust each
other more). Opportunities to observe, motivating them to change their own behaviour to adapt
-Pilot Projects- Change one work unit or section of the org, testing effectiveness and support. Gets
diffused using MARS. M (communicate and celebrate success, reward, reinforce desired
behaviours, address resistance) A (Pilot employees’ interaction, coach, and train) R (Show
relevancy to all functions, not specific or general) S (Give staff sufficient time and resources)
Action research- problem-focused process that combines action orientation research orientation
-Action orientation= Changing attitudes and behaviors. Required since ultimate goal is to change
workplace practices. Diagnosing current problems and applying intervention
-Research orientation= Testing theory through data collection and analysis. Required because
change agents apply conceptual frameworks to real situations. Open systems view
-Phases: Form client-consultant relationship (determine readiness), diagnose need for change
(gather+analyze data, decide objectives), introduce intervention (incremental or rapid), evaluate
and stabilize change (determine effectiveness and refreeze), disengage consultant services
Appreciative Inquiry- Directs the group’s attention away from its own problems and focuses
participants on the group’s potential and positive elements. Deeply grounded in the emerging
philosophy of positive organizational behavior- building positive qualities- not focusing on negatives
-Useful for groups already aware of their problems or suffering from negativity- optimistic view
-Principles (5): Positive (focus), Constructionist (how we perceive and understand change depends
on questions and language we use throughout process), Simultaneity (inquiry and change), poetic
(orgs are open books- we have choices in how orgs may be perceived, framed, and described),
anticipatory (motivated and guided by a vision seen and believed in)
-4D Model: Discovery (positive elements of events/org), dreaming (envisioning and revealing),
designing (discussing what should be + collective mental model), delivering (developing objectives)
-Concern: Not always successful, must let go of problem approach and stop blaming, leader must
appreciate approach, and little research about contingencies
Large group intervention- a “whole systems” perspective of the change process. Believes change is
more effective with more people. Future-oriented and positive. Identifying trends and developing
strategies Meaning making process. Concerns: Limits indv. contribution, finding common ground
prevents discovery of differences interfering with future progress, high expectations-difficult reality.
Parallel learning structures- Highly participative arrangements composed of people from most levels
of the organization who follow the action research model to produce meaningful organizational
change. Social structures developed alongside formal hierarchy to increase org learning
2 types of change- Operational (process) and social (people).
HBR 4 tips to manage- Start with a small group, identify keystone change, network movement,
surviving victory. Kotter’s 8 steps- Increase urgency, build guiding team, get the right vision,
communicate for buy-in, empower action, create short-term wins, don’t let up, make it stick
-Social presence- The extent to which a channel creates psychological closeness to others, awareness of their
humanness, and appreciation of the interpersonal relationship- message content also plays a role
oHigh social presence is better when there is need to influence or empathize- Face-to-face has highest.
-Social acceptance- Channel is approved and supported by others (norms, preferences, and symbolic meaning
-Media richness- A medium’s data-carrying capacity, that is, the volume and variety of information that can be
transmitted during a specific time: Rich media: Nonroutine, synchronous. Lean media: routine, shared models.
oExceptions: Digital channels could be richer; multi communicate, proficiency, social presence effects
-Persuasive effect: Face-to-face is more persuasive due to 3 reasons: Spoken comes with nonverbal cues, offers
feedback to sender about whether listener is persuaded, high social presence means people more persuade
Communication Barriers- Perceptions (receivers don’t listen as well + senders overestimate), language (ambiguous,
different codebooks and meanings) (sometimes purposefully by managers), jargon (can improve but noise if
different codebook), filtering (deleting, delaying, or using less harsh words) (unseen in a culture of candor), info
overload (volume exceeds capacity) (Solution: increase capacity, decrease info load (buffer omit summarize), both)
Cross-cultural and gender communication- Cultures (language, accents, voice intonation, nonverbal, and other
noise) and Genders (Women engage in more rapport talk, indirect request, and more sensitive to nonverbal cues)
Improving interpersonal communication- 2 essential features
-Getting your message across- empathize (being sensitive to words that are ambiguous or trigger the wrong
emotional response), repeat, find time when receiver isn’t distracted by noise, focus on problem not person
-Active listening- Sensing (Postpone evaluation, avoid interrupting, remain motivated to listen to the speaker),
evaluating (emphasize and organize info), responding (show interest and clarify message)
Improving Communication throughout the Hierarchy- 3 strategies-
-Workplace design: Open workplace helps flow of info- challenges=pandemic and lower productivity. Another
strat is cloister employees into team spaces + encourage sufficient interaction with people from other team.
-Digitally based communication- Web pages and PDFs to share info, social media, and wikis (less involvement)
-Direct communication with top management- Ex. Town hall. MBWA- (less info filtered, acquire deeper meaning
and quicker understanding of internal problems, employees develop better empathy for executive decisions)
Communicating through the Grapevine- Def: Unstructured and informal communication network founded on
social relationships- relied upon for news- everyone uses but not preferred: Cluster chain, works through informal
social networks, rumours, digital media. Benefits: Needed when formal info isn’t available, org stories and symbols,
relieves anxiety, drive to bond. Negatives: False info creates anxiety and employees develop negative attitudes
towards org when it is slower than the grapevine in communicating info. Orgs should listen to the grapevine as a
signal of employee anxiety and correct the cause of this anxiety, step in to correct errors, provide info faster.
Org culture- Values and assumptions shared within an organization. Defines what is/isn’t important. Directs
everyone towards doing the right thing.- we refer to the dominant culture, usually followed by senior management
-Shared values- evaluative beliefs guiding us- shared in common or placed near top in hierarchy
-Assumptions- Nonconscious, taken-for-granted perceptions or ideal prototypes of behaviour that are
considered the correct way to think and act toward problems and opportunities. Cannot be discovered by
surveying employees, only by observing employees, analyzing decisions, and debriefing them on their actions.
-Espoused vs enacted- Espoused are values leaders hope will eventually become the organization’s culture- the
ones they want others to believe guides the org. Org culture is defined by enacted, the ones actually in practice
-Problems with models- Oversimplify diversity of cultural values, they ignore the shared assumptions aspect of
culture and assume orgs have a fairly clear, unified, and easily decipherable culture
Org subculture- Subcultures throughout divisions, locations, and groups. Some enhance dominant culture by
espousing parallel values and assumptions. Some differ from dominant culture but don’t have conflicting values
and assumptions. Some are countercultures. Some orgs only consist of subcultures.
-2 functions: Maintain org standards of performance and ethical behaviour (Counter Cultural enhance task-
conflict). The second is that they change and evolve values, aligning with changing external demands
Artifacts decipher org culture- Observable symbols and signs of an org culture- obsv manifestations (4 categories)
-Org stories/legends- Add human realism to corporate expectations, indv performance standards, and criteria
for getting fired. Produce emotions- better lesson learned. Greatest effect when real, known, and clear message
-Org language- Verbal symbols- ex. How employees talk to each other, greet customers, etc. Stands out when
employees habitually use customized phrases and labels. Captures less complimentary cultural values as well.
-Rituals and Ceremonies- Rituals are programmed routines of daily org life that dramatize the organization’s
culture. Ceremonies are formal planned displays of org culture, specifically for the benefit of an audience
-Physical structures/symbols- Structure’s size, shape, location, and age reinforce or alter org culture- ex. Layout
Effective org culture- Culture strength refers to how widely and deeply employees understand and embrace the
org’s dominant values and assumptions. Strong culture= shared values, well-established artifacts. Weak culture=
dominant values held only at top, unstable values and assumptions, and artifacts don’t represent it well.
-Companies are more effective with stronger cultures because of 3 important functions of a culture
oControl system (guides and unconsciously directs), social glue (bonds, fulfills social identity, feel part of org
experience, and attracts and retains), sense-making (what goes on and why, what is expected of them)
-Contingencies- culture content is externally aligned (motivated to engage in aligned behaviors), culture
strength is not the level of a cult (lock-in mental models and suppress subcultures), adaptive culture
-Influences ethical conduct as well- could also result in unethical behaviour
Merging culture- Fail financially if they have incompatible cultures
-Bicultural audit- Diagnosing compatibility- determining extent to which clashes will occur
o3 Stages= Identifying differences, determining which will result in conflict and which values provide
common ground to build foundation, identifying strategies and preparing action plans to bridge the 2
-Strategies for merging- Assimilation (Willingly embrace the cultural values of the acquiring org. Works best if 1
is really weak or strong), Deculturation (Imposing culture and business practices on the acquired org. Leads to
resistance but works if acquired culture is dysfunctional), Integration (preserves best features, symbolizing that
both firms have meaningful values for the combined org. Works best if both are weak or have overlapping
values. Slow and risky), Separation (remain distinct entities. Works best with different businesses requiring this)
Changing and strengthening- Changing culture is a challenge but there are 5 strategies that can help
-Model desired culture through actions of founders and leaders (Transformational and authentic leadership)
-Align artifacts with desired cultures (An open layout, even for executives, to implement servant leadership)
-Introduce culturally consistent rewards and recognition (Ex. reward system that encourages cooperation)
-Support workforce stability and communication (give time for employees to understand, ongoing interactions)
-Use attraction, selection, and socialization for cultural fit- ASA theory-Orgs have a natural tendency to attract,
select, and retain people with values and personality characteristics that are consistent with the org’s character.
oAttraction (Job applicants avoid prospective employers who have value incongruence), selection (orgs
looking for the best cultural fit), attrition (Motivating employees to leave value incongruent workplaces)
Org socialization- The process by which individuals learn the values, expected behaviours, and social knowledge
necessary to assume their roles in the org. Can strengthen org culture and help newcomers adjust.
-Effective org socialization offers newcomers better understanding about company’s values wand gives them
guidelines to engage in value-consistent behaviours more accurately and motivates incongruence to leave
-Learning process (try to make sense of the company’s physical workplace, supporting organizational
comprehension) and adjustment process (adapting to a new environment with new roles, norms, etc.)
-Psychological contract- Individual’s beliefs about the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement
between that person and another party (typically employer). Transactional (short term exchange) and relational
-Stages: Stage 1- Preemployment (learn about org, job, form expectations, and rely on indirect info that arises
due to conflict). Stage 2- Encounter (testing expectation vs realities, often resulting in reality shock (stress)).
Stage 3- Role management (Strengthen relationships, practice new behaviours, and resolve conflicts). Outcomes
(Higher motivation, higher loyalty, higher satisfaction, lower stress, and lower turnover)
Improving the socialization process- Realistic job preview- applicants are given balanced positive and negative
information about the job and work context. Helps them decide whether they are compatible. Socialization agents
also play a role by providing technical info, performance feedback, and aiding in the formation of social ties.