RESEARCH METHODS

Things to be considered first before:

Research: Is a process of enquiry and investigation that is systematic, methodical and ethical

According to Orodho and Kombo (2002) research is a process of arriving at dependable solutions
to problems through planned systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data.

Research proposal: Is a plan, suggestion or request to conduct research which comprises of

introduction, literature review and research methodology. It consists of three chapters:-
 Chapter one: Introduction
 Chapter two: Literature review
 Chapter three: Research methodology
Research project or thesis: Is a written scientific report that deals with the concerns related to the
problem or series of problems in one’s area of research. It comprises of five chapters:-
 Chapter one: Introduction
 Chapter two: Literature review
 Chapter three: Research methodology
 Chapter four: Research findings
 Chapter five: Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations

Abstract: is a summary of the whole research project including the objectives, methodology
used, findings and recommendations. It should not exceed 500 words.

THE PURPOSE CONDUCTING RESEARCH is to:-

i. Review or synthesize existing knowledge
ii. Investigate existing situations or problems
iii. Provide solutions to problems
iv. Explore and analyze more general issues
v. Construct or create new procedures, or systems or technologies
vi. Explain a new phenomenon
vii. Generate new knowledge

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viii. Combination of any of the above

RESEARCH TOPIC: Refers to the subject, issue or area under discussion or investigation
e.g. seating accommodation at ETU-SL, Sierra Leone politic, Mobile phone usage.

A researcher should choose a topic which interests him/her as this will help sustain the
motivation to complete the research. This is because one will enjoy reading materials in the area,
collecting and analyzing data.

RESEARCH TITLE: is the heading, label or tag. It describes what the research is about. It
should be formulated after selecting the topic.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD TITLE

i. It should be brief i.e. not more than 15 words
ii. It should be specific i.e. it should be easy to identify independent and dependent variable from
the title.
iii. It should be in line with the objectives i.e. it should portray the aims and objectives of the
research.
iv. It should be clear and not ambiguous i.e. it should not be subject to different interpretations. It
should reflect a relationship between independent and dependent variables.
v. It should portray an issue that is researchable i.e. the aspects in question should be measurable.

REFERENCING OTHER PEOPLES’ WORK WHEN CONDUCTING

RESEARCH
A researcher should acknowledge all the sources of information used when conducting the
research by citing the author’s surname and year of publication in the text and writing its full
details in the reference list at the back of the document.

REASONS FOR CITING OTHER PEOPLES WORK

i. The body of knowledge is not built on vacuum but on accumulated knowledge over
generations and so the researcher should try to fit his/her research within already existing
knowledge.
ii. It is courteous to acknowledge use of other peoples’ work.
iii. It provides evidence of thorough examination of literature and shows that the researcher has
read.
iv. It gives support to the points that the researcher has stated in the research.
v. Helps to identify gaps that should be met by the researcher.

FOUR IMPORTANT POINTS WHEN REFERENCING

i. Credit must be given when quoting or citing other peoples.
ii. Adequate information must be provided to enable a reader to locate each reference.
iii. References must be complete and consistent.
iv. References must be recorded in precise format as per the requirement of the University of
Study.

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REFERENCING STYLES/SYSTEMS
All depends to your sources

CHOICE OF REFERENCING STYLE/SYSTEMS

The choice is influenced by the discipline of study and the university.

NB:
A researcher should familiarize his/herself with all the styles and thoroughly study the style that
he/she will adopt.
 It requires that the researcher identifies or acknowledges or writes the authors’
surname/names and date (year) of publication at the point where they are cited in the text
(proposal or project) and full details of the publication in the reference list at the end of
the publication.

Referencing in the text

 This can be done at the beginning or end of the sentence.
 When done at the end of the sentence the authors name and date are put into bracket and
full stop after the bracket e.g. teenage girls prefer wearing high heeled shoes (Ralph,
2023). If there are two authors write both authors surnames names separated by & and
then year e.g. (Ralph & Koroma, 2023).
 When used at the beginning of the sentence only the date is in bracket e.g. According to
Ralph (2023) teenage girls prefer wearing high heeled shoes.
 In case the author is not known cite a (short title, date). (The Journey of Mr. Ralph,
2023).
 If the date is not known cite (Author.). (Ralph,).
 Corporate authors like UN Cite in full first used and acronyms thereafter e.g. (United
Nations (UN), 2001) first time and (UN, 2001) thereafter.
 Page numbers are only written in citations for direct quotations but not paraphrased ones.

Referencing in the reference list

 This is placed immediately after chapter three for the proposal and chapter five for the
project.
 For text books, one starts with the authors surname/names initials (date). Then title of the
book (in Italics) (Italic is when a typeface is slanted to the right). The city of publication:
publisher. E.g. Kelly, J. M. & Allan, B. S. (2014). Introduction to Research Methods.
 For journal articles, start with surname/s (date). Title of the article, Journal name (in
Italics), Volume No. Part no. Pages. E.g. Koroma, A.B. & Ralph, Jr. (2023). ETU
dressing Code and Students seating Accommodations Journal, 43 (3), 72-90
 For journal published in the internet < URL: http:www. remainder of full internet
electronic conference/bulletin board >
e.g. URL: https://www.etusl.edu.sl/
For Journals article published in the internet start with the surname, Initials (date). ‘Title of the
article’, Journal Name (in Italics). Volume No. Part no. (online) (cited day, month, year)
Available from <URL: http://www. remainder of full internet address>e.g. Illingworth, N. (2001)

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NB:
i. All the authors cited in the text should be included in the reference list.
ii. Authors not cited in the text should not be in the reference list.
iii. Single space within a reference and double space between references.
iv. Use hanging indents in references
v. The publication in the reference list should be arranged in alphabetical order by the authors’
names i.e. authors whose surnames start with letter “A” should be listed before those whose
surnames start with “B” and so on.

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 CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
 Refers to the setting or position of the study. It is a brief overview of the problem the
researcher plans to investigate. It should tell the readers why the researcher feels that the
research is worth the effort. It should be a highlight of the key literature sources that the
researcher plans to draw from.

 It provides background to the problem from international, national and local point of
view based on existing literature. It is similar to literature review in that it cites some
literature but different in that it is much more brief (not more than ½ pages). It is a mini
literature.

ROLE OF BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY IN RESEARCH

i. It helps to clarify what brought about the need for the study.
ii. It points out the challenges faced due to the identified issue
iii. It indicates the opportunities for improvement
iv. It demonstrates the researcher’s view of the research problem.
v. It helps to convince the readers that a problem exists and need to be addressed.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

It should be:-
i. Brief and specific, although it is very similar to the literature review it is less detailed.
ii. Engages the interest of the reader. It should make the reader excited about the opportunity of
having the research problem addressed.
iii. It gives the reader a glimpse of the research problem
iv. It gives the reader an idea of how the proposal is structured
v. The language used is simple and straight forward
vi. Informative and persuasive since it attempts to enlighten the reader on the research problem
and the urgency of addressing it.

RESEARCH PROBLEM
 A research problem is an issue or concern that puzzles the researcher because of its
effects or consistence despite the measures taken e.g. use of indecent dressing among
fashion and design students despite continued training on importance of dressing
decently.

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  It can also be defined as situation where gap exists between the actual and desired ideal
situation or state e.g. the desired ideal situation may be zero defects in production but the
actual may be that there are a few defects.

 It is the heart or core of the research project and if a researcher does not understand the
problem he/she will not succeed in the research.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD OR EFFECTIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM

i. It is concise and clearly stated. It makes the reader aware that there is a definite issue that need
to be addressed or problem that needs to be solved. It should answer questions such as:-
a) What is the problem?
b) Why is it a problem?
c) Who is getting affected or will be affected if the situation is not addressed through research?
d) Where / location does the problem exist?

ii. The research problem has impact in the whole topic being investigated.
iii. It indicates clearly that there is urgent need of the research.
iv. It is researchable i.e. the problem can be investigated through collection and analysis of data.
v. Relevant literature is available i.e. the problem has supportive statements.
vi. Language used is simple and objective i.e. not emotional, comic or poetic.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Research objectives are the outcomes that you aim to achieve by conducting research. Many
research projects contain more than one research objective. Creating strong research objectives
can help you achieve your overall goals. E.g. implement descent dress code for students at ETU-
SL?

QUALITIES OF GOOD OR EFFECTIVE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

i. Specific: clearly state what the researcher will do in order to fulfill the purpose of the research.
ii. Measurable: the researcher should be able to measure or tell whether they have been achieved.
iii. Focused: Should narrow the study to essentials. They should cover the different aspects of the
problem and its contributing factors in a coherent and logical sequence.
iv. Operational: they should be clearly stated in operational terms, specifying exactly what the
researcher will do.
v. Realistic: Not too ambitious and therefore achievable (A variable in research simply refers to a
person, place, thing, or phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way).

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
These are issues that the researcher plans to answer and are related to the research objectives e.g.
what is effect of age on the height of shoes used by women in ETU-SL?

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RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Hypothesis: is an educated guess or assumption. It is a tentative explanation for certain behavior
pattern, phenomenon, or events that have occurred or will occur.
An experimental research hypothesis states the expected relationship between independent and
dependent variables.

FORMS OF STATING HYPOTHESIS

1. The null hypothesis: States that there is no difference between the variables studied. The
aim of testing it is to show that the hypothesis is false and accept the alternative
hypothesis. It symbolized as H0 e.g. H0 1: There is no significant difference in the
performance of students who have gone through a diploma course in Research and those
who have gone through a degree program.

2. The alternative hypothesis: is the opposite of the null hypothesis and states that a value
or relationship in the null is not true. It symbolized as H1 e.g. H1: there is a significant
difference in the performance of students who have gone through diploma and those who
have gone through a degree program.

SIGNIFICANCE/JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Outlines the importance of the issue under investigation. Explains who will benefit from the
research and how they will benefit from the findings of the research. This is important because
research is expensive in both money and time and therefore it is necessary to establish the need
or relevance of research.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Refer to the challenges anticipated or faced by the researcher e.g. time, finances inaccessibility
of data non-cooperative respondents etc.

ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY

What the researcher assumes to be true e.g. the information given by the respondents is true.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Significant terms which are used whose meanings are not obvious are defined. Start this section
in a new page.

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 CHAPTER TWO:
LITERATURE REVIEW
The term literature refers to the analysis of publications such as books, journals, magazines,
manuscripts etc. Literature means the work/publications that the research has consulted or
referred to when conducting research to gain better understanding of the research problem.
Literature review is therefore an account or a critical look at what has been published on a topic
by accredited scholars.

REASONS FOR CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW WHEN

CONDUCTING RESEARCH
i. It sharpens theoretical foundation of the research. It enables the researcher to study
different theories related to the identified topic. By studying them the researcher gains
clarity and better understanding of the theoretical foundations related to the research.

ii. It gives the researcher insight into what has already been researched in the selected field,
pinpointing strengths and weaknesses. This information guides the researcher in theory
formulation and identifying the gaps.

iii. It enables the researcher to avoid duplication of research already done.

iv. Helps the researcher to develop a significant problem of the study which will provide
further knowledge in the field of study.

v. It exposes the researcher to a variety of approaches or methods of conducting research.

This contributes to a well-designed methodology because the researcher can avoid
methods that have been reported in the literate to be weak or have failed.

vi. It helps in developing analytical framework or basis for analyzing and interpreting data.
The researcher will be able to compare and contrast their findings with the findings of the
other researchers.

vii. Helps to convince the reader that:-

a) The researcher is knowledgeable about the problem area and has done the preliminary home
work that is necessary to conduct research
b) Theoretical framework will be structured on work already done and will add to the solid
foundation of existing knowledge.

QUALITIES OF GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW

i. It should be critical, organized and analytical in orientation.
 It is used to analyze issues such as whether the title is descriptive, well worded and
reasonably short.

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  The researcher also analyzes whether the problem was well stated, objectives, questions
and hypotheses in the studies reviewed were logically formulated.
 The researcher also analyzes the methodology used was appropriate i.e. was the right
design, population, sample and sampling procedure, data collection methods and
instruments and data analysis techniques were used.
 The researcher also analyzes whether it provided the results are significant, applicable
and relevant to his/her research.

ii. It justifies the need for further study i.e.

 It identifies the gaps in the studies reviewed that should be filled with further research.
 It highlights controversies raised in the previous researches which need to be resolved by
further research.
 It points out how current research will positively contribute towards filling in the
identified gaps.

iii. It highlights the relationship between the past and the current study i.e.
 It links the current study with the past studies
 It evaluates and shows the relationship between the work already done by other scholars
and the researcher’s work.
 This brings consistency and continuity in relation to identified topic.

iv. It puts the research into perspective

 Citing and analyzing various related studies helps to define the research problem.
 It also acts as a guideline in assessment of the research questions.

THE STRUCTURE/COMPONENTS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction: It briefly (one paragraph) tells the reader what is discussed in the literature
review.

The body: this may be structured into subtopics based on either the:-
a) Objectives or
b) Variables

Summary and identified gaps: summarizes the key and relevant findings from the reviewed
literature and brings out what the previous studies have not covered on the topic and needs to be
researched.

NB:
 When writing the literature review, read the publication critically and analytically,
understand and then summarize the idea you find relevant in your own words. Then cite
the author.
 If there is need to use direct quotation put them into quotes and cite the authors name,
date and page number. If the quotation is from 40 words and above indent and single
space the whole block and do not put them in quotes, cite the author, date and page
number. Desist from using quotes after quotes and copy pasting.

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  Bring out some discussions on every idea you write about based on what different authors
have written i.e. explain where different authors agree or disagree, contradictions and
gaps of what they have not explained about the idea (missing gaps)
 Only include relevant literature. Not every material you will read is relevant to your
study.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK.
i. They both explain the relationship between dependent and independent variables.
ii. Both form the foundation on which the whole research is based.
iii. Help the researcher to hypothesize and test the relationship between dependent and
independent variables.
iv. Help to identify the existing networks of relationships among variables.
v. Both tend to focus the direction of research so that the researcher does not dwell on the trivial
matters that do not contribute to the body of knowledge or digress
vi. Help to provide a rational basis for explaining or interpreting results of the research.
vii. Enables the researcher to make predictions.
viii. Both may need to be tested or improved through research.

THE PURPOSE OF DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

WHEN CONDUCTING RESEARCH
i. Provides a clear link from literature review, to the research problem, questions and objectives.
ii. Gives broad scope of the research and enables the researcher to conceptualize the research
problem from a broad perspective.
ii. It is conceptually aligned with the research methodology and objective and therefore provides
an overall view of the research.
By highlighting the independent and dependent variables, it enables the researcher to focus on
the research problem.

PLACEMENT OF CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

 According to Creswell (2004) placement of theory depends on whether one is conducting
a quantitative or qualitative study. In quantitative research it may be placed at the end of
introduction i.e. chapter one or at the beginning or end of chapter two i.e. literature.
 In qualitative research a researcher does not begin with theory but it emerges during data
collection and analysis and so it can be placed at the end of the research.

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 CHAPTER THREE:

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(RESEARCH APPROACHES)

RESEARCH DESIGNS
Research design: can be thought of as a structure of the research. It is the glue that holds all the
elements of research project together.
There are different types of research designs e.g.

1. Descriptive Survey:
i. Describes the state of affairs as it exists.

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ii. May lead to formulation of important principles of knowledge and solutions to significant
problems.
iii. Involve collection, classification, analysis, comparison and interpretation of data.
iv. Can be used for collecting information about people’s attitudes, opinions, and habits.

2. Correlational design:
i. Enables the researcher to assess the degree of relationship that exists between two or more
variables.
ii. Tries to establish how given independent variables affect or cause changes to the dependent
variables.
iii. Tend to compare similarities and differences between groups of population.
iv. The researcher is required to control all other variables to be able to establish a causal
relationship.

3. Evaluative design:
i. Investigates the effects or impacts of a program or project.
ii. Involve collection and analysis of data to facilitate decision making.
iii. Assists in meeting accountability demands.
iv. Helps to determine the worth of a program or project or activity.

4. Experimental design:
i. Involve manipulation or treatment of some variables and then measuring the outcomes.
ii. Two groups of respondents are used i.e. the experimental group and control group.
iii. The experimental group receives the treatment but the control group does not and their
performance or behavior is tested after the experiment.
iv. The researcher assumes that the two groups were the same before the experiment.

5. Case study:
i. Seeks to study a unit in detail, in context and holistically.
ii. Enables the researcher to deep information and understanding on the unit being studied
iii. The findings may not be easily generalized.
iv. The researcher should give clear justification for using this design.

6. Naturalistic/ethnographical design:
i. Studies a phenomenon in its ordinary or natural environment
ii. Attempt to study ordinary happenings
iii. Uses common language in reporting
iv. Is mostly qualitative in nature

7. Historical /longitudinal design:

i. Involves integration and description of the true record of past events and their developmental
trends.
ii. It is a longitudinal, genetic or developmental approach attempting to get the actual meaning of
the primary and secondary sources pertinent to the problem under investigation by subjecting the
evidence to external and internal criticism.

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iii. Involves collection and analysis of primary sources such as manuscripts, memoirs, diaries,
autobiographies
iv. The major focus is construction of conceptual frameworks, collection, analysis and
organization and demonstration meaning of historical evidence

8. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES:
This is a study involving different organizations or groups of people to look at similarities or
differences between them at any one particular time, e.g. a survey of the IT skills of managers in
one or a number of organizations at any particular time. Cross-sectional studies are done when
time or resources for more extended research, e.g. longitudinal studies, are limited. It involves a
close analysis of a situation at one particular point in time to give a ‘snap-shot’ result.

THE LOCALE OR LOCATION OF THE STUDY

Describe the location where the research will be carried out giving justifications.

POPULATION/TARGET POPULATION
It is the group of people or objects or items with at least one thing in common from which the
sample will be taken for measurements and the results generalized to e.g. All the small scale
printing center at ETU Kenema.
The major question that motivates sampling in the first place is: "Who do you want to generalize
to?" Or should it be: "To whom do you want to generalize?" In most social research we are
interested in more than just the people who directly participate in our study. We would like to be
able to talk in general terms and not be confined only to the people who are in our study.
There are times when we aren't very concerned about generalizing. Maybe we're just evaluating a
program in a local agency and we don't care whether the program would work with other people
in other places and at other times. In that case, sampling and generalizing might not be of
interest.
In other cases, we would really like to be able to generalize almost universally. When
psychologists do research, they are often interested in developing theories that would hold for all
humans. But in most applied social research, we are interested in generalizing to specific groups.
The group you wish to generalize to be often called the population in your study. This is the
group you would like to sample from because this is the group you are interested in generalizing
to.
Let's imagine that you wish to generalize to girls who are into prostitution between the ages of 15
and 30 in Eastern Region. If that is the population of interest, you are likely to have a very hard
time developing a reasonable sampling plan. You are probably not going to find an accurate
listing of this population, and even if you did, you would almost certainly not be able to mount a
national sample across hundreds of urban areas. So we probably should make a distinction
between the population you would like to generalize to (theoretical population) and the
population that will be accessible to you (the accessible population). In this example, the
accessible population might be girls who are into prostitution between the ages of 15 and 30 in
the three districts in Eastern Region.

SAMPLING FRAME: is the list of all the members of the population under investigation. The
researcher can obtain one from the relevant bodies or develop one in case where such a list does
not exist.

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Once you've identified the theoretical and accessible populations, you have to do one more thing
before you can actually draw a sample -- you have to get a list of the members of the accessible
population. (Or, you have to spell out in detail how you will contact them to assure
representativeness). The listing of the accessible population from which you'll draw your sample
is called the sampling frame.

SAMPLE POPULATION:
Sample population: is a sub-set of population or a small part of the target population which is
thought to be a true representative of the whole population. It comprises of all the members
selected from the population from which data will be collected and then generalized to the whole
population.
You actually draw your sample (using one of the many sampling procedures). The sample is the
group of people who you select to be in your study.
Non-respondents or dropouts. The problem of nonresponse and its effects on a study will be
addressed when discussing "mortality" threats to internal validity.
People often confuse what is meant by random selection with the idea of random assignment.
You should make sure that you understand the distinction between random selection and
random assignment in details (Random selection refers to how sample members (study
participants) are selected from the population for inclusion in the study. Random assignment is
an aspect of experimental design in which study participants are assigned to the treatment or
control group using a random procedure).
At this point, you should appreciate that sampling is a difficult multi-step process and that there
are lots of places you can go wrong. In fact, as we move from each step to the next in identifying
a sample, there is the possibility of introducing systematic error or bias. For instance, even if you
are able to identify perfectly the population of interest, you may not have access to all of them.
And even if you do, you may not have a complete and accurate enumeration or sampling frame
from which to select. And, even if you do, you may not draw the sample correctly or accurately.
And, even if you do, they may not all come and they may not all stay.

SAMPLING/ SAMPLING TECHNIQUES/PROCEDURES /METHODS

Sampling refers to the process of selecting the individuals or objects from which to gather the
information from the population. It is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations)
from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results
back to the population from which they were chosen.

SAMPLING DESIGNS

ASSIGNMENT
A. What is sampling design
B. Types of sampling design
C. Methods involve in sampling design
D. Advantages and disadvantages

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DATA COLLECTION
It refers to the gathering of specific information to serve or prove some facts e.g. data may be
required to prove the need for changing the current price of given products.

THE PURPOSE OF DATA COLLECTION

They include to:-
i. Stimulate new ideas e.g. helping to identify areas related to the research that need improvement
or further evaluation.
ii. Highlight a situation and create awareness and recommend improvement.
iii. Influence legislative policies e.g. Minimum wages, taxation, import, export, education etc.
iv. Provide justification for an existing program or need for a new program e.g. need for training
v. Promote decision making e.g. decision to increase production level.

TYPES AND SOURCES OF DATA

1. PRIMARY DATA: Is gathered directly from primary sources or the respondents through
questionnaires, interviews, observation or Focus Group discussion. It involves creating new data.
2. SECONDARY DATA: Is gathered from secondary sources such as books, journals,
magazines etc. it is often referred to as desk research.

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OR

TECHNIQUES
Data collection methods include Questionnaires, Interviews, Observations and Focus Group
Discussions.

1. QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a data collection method that uses an instrument or tool called a questionnaire.
 This instrument comprises of a list of written down questions based on the research
problem, objectives and questions which if answered will help the researcher to answer
the research questions and meet the research objectives.
 The researcher gives the questionnaire to the respondents to fill on their own either in
print form or online and then analysis the data to make conclusions.
 To ensure effectiveness of the instrument a pre-test or pilot test should be carried out on a
small representative sample to enable the researcher find out if the questions are
measuring what they are supposed to measure and if the wording is clear i.e. All
questionnaires should be piloted, if possible, with a small group before the main research
to assess their value, validity and reliability.

The questions used may be:-

a) Closed questions: where a limited number of alternative responses to the set question are
provided. These can be in list, category, ranking, scale/rating, grid or other quantitative form.
They can be pre- coded on a questionnaire to facilitate analysis. E.g. Please tick the right answer
from the boxes shown in the questionnaire i.e. (specific choices of answers to choose from are
provided).

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There are five types of questionnaire approaches:
1. On-line (electronic)
2. Postal (printed)
3. Delivery & collection (printed)
4. Telephone (electronic)
5. Interview face to face/group (electronic or printed)

SOME GENERAL RULES FOR DESIGNING QUESTIONNAIRES

1. Explain the purpose of the questionnaire to all participants
2. Keep your questions as simple as possible
3. Do not use jargon or specialist language (unless the recipients really prefer and understand it)
4. Phrase each question so that only one meaning is possible
5. Avoid vague, descriptive words, such as ‘large’ and ‘small’
6. Avoid asking negative questions as these are easy to misinterpret
7. Only ask one question at a time
8. Include relevant questions only
9. Include, if possible, questions which serve as cross-checks on the answers to other questions
10. Avoid questions which require participants to perform calculations
11. Avoid leading or value-laden questions which imply what the required answer might be
12. Avoid offensive questions or insensitive questions which could cause embarrassment
13. Avoid asking ‘difficult’ questions, e.g. where the respondent may struggle to answer (people
hate to look stupid by not knowing the ‘answer’).
14. Keep your questionnaire as short as possible, but include all the questions you need to cover
your purposes

INCREASING RESPONSE RATES

 As a general rule, a response rate of 30 percent or greater for a postal/externally sent
questionnaire is generally regarded as reasonable.
 However, a goal of 50 percent or more responses should be attempted in any
questionnaire that involved face-to-face interviews.

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  There are techniques that can help improve response rates to postal or electronic
questionnaires:
i. Follow-up calls (especially telephone reminders and special delivery letters)
ii. Pre-contact with respondents (telling them about the questionnaire)
iii. Type of postage (special delivery is superior to ordinary mail; there is also some evidence
that hand-written white envelopes are more likely to be opened than brown/typed!)
iv. Rewards: prizes, or better still, cash incentives.
v. Personalizing the questionnaire: writing to the person by name, e.g. ‘Dear John’ etc.
vi. Emphasizing Confidentiality: ensuring that all views to be published remain anonymous, if
appropriate
vii. Appeals to the respondent: based on the social, personal or other benefits that might flow
from the participation of a respondent.
viii. Postal questionnaires should always include a stamped return envelope and have a covering
letter explaining the purpose of the questionnaire and the use intended for the findings in the
future.
ix. The researcher should include full contact details and the offer to discuss the questionnaire
with any respondent who has doubts or queries about it.
x. The researcher should always offer to share the research findings with any participant, if
requested, and this offer is best made in the covering letter.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

 It should be easy to understand. The language used is clear and straight forward. This
helps to reduce misconception.
 Instructions are clearly given. There are few words of explanation in each new section.
 The questions are focused and limited to a single idea. Sentences are short and precise.
 Each question included has a specific purpose, and contributes to the study.
 There are no leading questions.
 There is a balance of questions per topic.

BASIC PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED WHEN PREPARING A QUESTIONNAIRE

i. Begin by giving a short rationale explaining the objectives of the study.
ii. Explain the potential benefits to the target population in terms they can easily understand.
iii. Make it as brief and simple to fill as possible and avoid irrelevant questions.
iv. Begin with straightforward non-threatening questions which the respondents will find easy to
answer. Personal questions should be left until the end.
v. Make the questionnaire attractive and spacious as a crowded questionnaire will discourage
responses.

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2. INTERVIEW
An interview is a method of collecting data in which questions are asked orally and answers
recorded by the researcher or research assistant. This gives the interviewer an opportunity to
probe or ask for further clarification to get deeper understanding of the topic. The interviewer
can also clarify questions that may be misunderstood or misinterpreted.

FORMS OF INTERVIEWS
A. UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
It is a method of collecting data in which:-
The researcher has some idea and may be a list of the topics to be covered but no specific
questions to be asked to the respondents.
 They are informal and conversational with aim of encouraging the respondents to feel
free to open up and give information freely.
 It is suitable when studying sensitive topics such as sexuality, some cultural issues etc.
 Since no possible answers are suggested respondents give a wide variety of answers and
therefore data analysis can be difficult.

B. SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW

It is a method of collecting data in which:-

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  The interviewer is guided by an interview guide or schedule. This is a list of topics and
questions to be asked to the respondents.

STEPS IN CONDUCT OF THE INTERVIEW

The opening stages of an interview are particularly important.

Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2003) make the following suggestions on conducting a semi-
structured interview:
i. The interviewee is thanked for agreeing to the meeting.
ii. The purpose of the research, its funding (if relevant) and progress to date are briefly outlined.
iii. The interviewee is given an assurance regarding confidentiality.
iv. The interviewee’s right not to answer questions is emphasized and the interview could be
terminated at any time by the interviewee.
v. The interviewee is told about the use intended to be made of the data collected during and
after the project.
vi. The offer of any written documentation to the interviewee promised in advance of the
meeting should be emphasized.
vii. The interviewer describes the process of the interview, e.g. approximate number and range of
questions to be asked and the time it is likely to take.

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viii. The researcher would want to intervene in the following situations:
a) If one group member was dominating the discussion.
b) If the group strayed from discussing the topic in question.
c) To encourage quieter members of the group to contribute to the discussion.
d) To resolve any conflicts that arose between group members.

PROBLEM AREAS ASSOCIATED WITH INTERVIEWS

There are a number of potential problem areas associated with interviews:
1. Bias
2. Demeanour (character, appearance, behaviour) of interviewer
3. Suspicion of the interviewer
4. Conduct of interview
5. Confidentiality

BIAS
 Bias is one of the most significant issues in interviewing, as it can affect the responses of
the interviewee to the interviewer, and vice versa.
 Interviews are human encounters and a range of issues can influence and colour the
perceptions of the people we encounter – including interviewers.
 We like or dislike someone, often without quite knowing why, and this can affect our
responses to them.
 A range of factors can come into play: gender, race, age, speech, appearance and attitude.
 Sexual bias is a particular significant factor. Rosenthal (1966) has suggested that there is
the possibility of sexual bias in interviewers and that both male and female researchers
behave more warmly towards female subjects than they do towards male subjects.

DEMEANOUR OF INTERVIEWER
 Generally speaking, we often like people who appear to like us!
 The interviewer should then, appear to be interested in the interviewee, but in a neutral
and detached way: ‘neutrally interested’ is perhaps the best way of describing the best
interviewer-interviewee relationship.
 The tone of voice of the interviewer is important, as it should project an impression of
quiet confidence and quiet enthusiasm in the topic under discussion.
 Torrington (1991) suggests that an open posture is best, where the interviewer sits
slightly forward toward the interviewee, keeps regular eye contact, and avoids folded
arms.
 The interviewer must avoid appearing shocked, disbelieving or astonished by comments
made by interviewees.
 The interviewers wear clothes similar to those of the interviewees: too scruffy or too
over-dressed can affect the credibility of the interviewer.

SUSPICION OF THE INTERVIEWER

 People are increasingly suspicious of interviewers and their motives.
 Most people have experience of being stopped in the street by an interviewer who
appears to be asking questions in a neutral way but is really seeking to make a marketing
contact for a commercial organization.

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  The true purpose of the interview should be carefully explained to the interviewee and
how the data collected will be used.
 Wherever possible, the student researcher should have a letter from a University tutor
explaining the research initiative, e.g. it is part of a legitimate first or post-graduate
course.
 Wherever possible, the interviewer should send details of the interview process and
agenda to interviewees in advance, for example explaining the estimated length of time it
will take, the aim and purpose of the questions to be asked and the range of questions
likely to be asked.

CONFIDENTIALITY
 Part of the suspicion shown towards interviewers concerns the issue of confidentiality,
and interviewees may be worried about disclosing sensitive information in case it has
negative repercussions in some way against them.
 Interviewees may also be concerned that their personal details would be passed on to
commercial organisations and that they would be subsequently pestered to buy things.
 Interviewees must be given a complete reassurance about confidentiality and told who
will see the data obtained – and don’t forget this is likely to include at least two
university tutors and possibly one external examiner
 The interviewee should be assured that his or her views will be generalized in the final
report or that any direct quotes used would remain anonymous unless the interviewee
wishes otherwise.
 The interviewer needs subsequently to take pains to avoid revealing the identity of
respondents by using false names and not giving any clues to the identity of any
interviewee.

3. OBSERVATION
It a method or technique of collecting data that uses tool or instrument called observation
schedule or guide. It provides information about the actual behavior of the respondents.

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FORMS OF OBSERVATION
a) Participant observation: is a qualitative data collection method in which the researcher
becomes an active functioning member of the population being investigated e.g. a
designer wishing to study university students dressing behavior enrolls as a student. Its
emphasis is on discovering meanings that people attach to their actions.

4. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS

It a method or technique of collecting data in which data is collected through focus group
discussions.
According to Sekaran (2003) Focus Group Discussions:-
 Comprise of 8-10 members with homogeneous (same or a similar kind or nature)
characteristics relevant to the study, a moderator and recorder. The moderator leads the
discussions on a specific and given topic for about two hours and recorder records all the
proceedings.
 Members are chosen on the basis of their expertise on the topic being discussed.
 The unstructured and spontaneous responses are expected to reflect genuine opinions
ideas and feelings of the members about the topic being discussed

STEPS TO FOLLOW WHEN COLLECTING DATA

i. Acquire an introduction letter from the body or institution commissioning him/her to go and do
research. This letter introduces the researcher to the people from whom assistance may be
needed.
ii. Acquire a permit (permission to collect the data in the given area e.g. from the local
authorities to avoid conflicts with them.
iii. Arrange with the respondents when to meet (book appointment) i.e. do not ambush them as
this could make them fail to cooperate.
iv. Administer the instruments e.g. questionnaires
v. Follow up non-respondents to increase responses e.g. by visiting them or making phone calls.

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ETHICAL ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
They include:-
i. The researcher must justify the research through balance of costs and benefits. Benefits should
outweigh the costs.
ii. The researcher must maintain confidentiality at all times. Only those who must know the
respondents should know them. Unless it is inevitable to avoid knowing the identity of the
respondents the research should avoid knowing them.
iii. The researchers should be responsible of their own work and their contribution to the whole
study. Accept individual responsibility and bear the consequences of the research.
iv. The researcher must obtain informed consent from the subjects used in the study and must
ensure that all the subjects participate voluntarily.
v. The researcher must be open and honest in dealing with other researchers and research
subjects i.e. must not exploit them by changing the agreements made with them.
vi. The researcher must take all reasonable measures to protect the respondents physically and
psychologically.
vii. The researcher must fully explain the research in advance and debrief the subjects
afterwards.
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill summarise the main issues to consider, although the ethical issues
surrounding these items are not always clear-cut:
i. The rights of privacy of individuals
ii. Voluntary nature of participation – and the rights of individuals to withdraw partially or
completely from the process
iii. Consent and possible deception of participants
iv. Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by individuals or identifiable participants
and their anonymity
v. Reactions of participants to the ways in which researchers seek to collect data
vi. Effects on participants of the way in which data is analyzed and reported
vii. Behaviour and objectivity of the researcher

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Raw data means nothing to the researcher without it being analyzed and interpreted using proper
tools. Data analyses refer to examining the data that has been collected and making deductions or
inferences or judgments or conclusions. It involves uncovering underlying structures, extracting
important variables, detecting any anomalies and testing any underlying assumptions. It involves
scrutinizing the acquired information and making inferences.
Data analysis involves examining data in ways that reveal the relationships, patterns, trends, etc.
that can be found within it. That may mean subjecting it to statistical operations that can tell you
not only what kinds of relationships seem to exist among variables, but also to what level you
can trust the answers you’re getting. It may mean comparing your information to that from other
groups (a control or comparison group, statewide figures, etc.), to help draw some conclusions
from the data. The point, in terms of your evaluation, is to get an accurate assessment in order to
better understand your work and its effects on those you’re concerned with, or in order to better
understand the overall situation.

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There are two kinds of data the researcher may be working with, although not all evaluations will
necessarily include both:-

i. Quantitative data
This refers to the information that is collected as, or can be translated into, numbers, which can
then be displayed and analyzed mathematically.
Quantitative data is data that can be counted or measured in numerical values. The two main
types of quantitative data are discrete data and continuous data. Height in feet, age in years, and
weight in pounds are examples of quantitative data. Qualitative data is descriptive data that is not
expressed numerically.

ii. Qualitative data

Qualitative data is non-numeric information, such as in-depth interview transcripts, diaries,
anthropological field notes, answers to open-ended survey questions, audio-visual recordings and
images.

Qualitative data can sometimes tell you things that quantitative data can’t. It may reveal why
certain methods are working or not working, whether part of what you’re doing conflicts with
participants’ culture, what participants see as important, etc. It may also show you patterns – in
behavior, physical or social environment, or other factors – that the numbers in your quantitative
data don’t, and occasionally even identify variables that researchers weren’t aware of.

NB:
It is often helpful to collect both quantitative and qualitative information.
Quantitative analysis is considered to be objective – without any human bias attached to it –
because it depends on the comparison of numbers according to mathematical computations.
Analysis of qualitative data is generally accomplished by methods more subjective – dependent
on people’s opinions, knowledge, assumptions, and inferences (and therefore biases) – than that
of quantitative data. The identification of patterns, the interpretation of people’s statements or
other communication, the spotting of trends – all of these can be influenced by the way the
researcher sees the world. Be aware, however, that quantitative analysis is influenced by a
number of subjective factors as well. What the researcher chooses to measure, the accuracy of
the observations, and the way the research is structured to ask only particular questions can all
influence the results, as can the researcher’s understanding and interpretation of the subsequent
analyses.

STEPS OF DATA ANALYSIS

These days there are several user-friendly and interactive software programs that are used to
analyze data such as Excel, SPSS, SAS, STATPAK, SYSTAT etc. They have an ability to
interface with different databases and generate graphs and charts.

In most social research the data analysis involves three major steps, done in roughly this order:
i. Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (Data Preparation)
ii. Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics)
iii. Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential Statistics)

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i. Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis/Preparing Data
 Data Preparation involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for
accuracy; entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and developing and
documenting a database structure that integrates the various measures.
 Once all of the participants have completed the study measures and all of the data has
been collected, the researcher must prepare the data to be analyzed.
 It involves:-
i. Editing data: This involves checking data for accuracy and consistency.
As soon as data is received you should screen it for accuracy. In some circumstances doing this
right away will allow you to go back to the sample to clarify any problems or errors. There are
several questions you should ask as part of this initial data screening:
 Are the responses legible/readable?
 Are all important questions answered? Sometimes a respondent may fail to answer a
question like do you have any children? But answers the following related question “If
yes how many? By writing five children. The researcher has to get back to the respondent
to find out why the first question was left out or assume that the answer is yes.
 Are the responses complete?
 Is all relevant contextual information included (e.g., data, time, place, researcher)?
In most social research, quality of measurement is a major issue. Assuring that the data
collection process does not contribute inaccuracies will help assure the overall quality of
subsequent analyses.

ii. Handling blank responses: If many questions e.g. 25% of the questions are not answered you
may decide to discard the questionnaire and not include it in data set for analysis and report or
account for them in your report. If there are only a few blank responses then decide how to
handle them.
iii. Coding data: involves allocating codes to possible answers e.g. in a question where possible
answers are yes or no, you may assign number one (1) to “yes” and (2) to “No”. Where there are
five possible answers you can have codes 1-5.
iv. Categorizing data: This involve grouping questions addressing the same variable together.

v. Creating data file/ entering the Data into the Computer

Key in or enter the data in the computer using a program of your choice e.g. spreadsheet, SPSS
There are a wide variety of ways to enter the data into the computer for analysis. Probably the
easiest is to just type the data in directly. In order to assure a high level of data accuracy, the
analyst should use a procedure called double entry. In this procedure you enter the data once.
Then, you use a special program that allows you to enter the data a second time and checks each
second entry against the first. If there is a discrepancy, the program notifies the user and allows
the user to determine the correct entry. This double entry procedure significantly reduces entry
errors. However, these double entry programs are not widely available and require some training.
An alternative is to enter the data once and set up a procedure for checking the data for accuracy.
For instance, you might spot check records on a random basis. Once the data have been entered,
you will use various programs to summarize the data that allow you to check that all the data are
within acceptable limits and boundaries.

25
NB:
 Organizing the data correctly can save a lot of time and prevent mistakes.
 Most researchers choose to use a database or statistical analysis program (Microsoft
Excel, SPSS) that they can format to fit their needs in order to organize their data
effectively.
 A good researcher enters all of the data in the same format and in the same database, as
doing otherwise might lead to confusion and difficulty with the statistical analysis later
on.
 Once the data has been entered, it is crucial that the researcher check the data for
accuracy.
 This can be accomplished by spot-checking a random assortment of participant data
groups, but this method is not as effective as re-entering the data a second time and
searching for discrepancies.
 This method is particularly easy to do when using numerical data because the researcher
can simply use the database program to sum the columns of the spreadsheet and then look
for differences in the totals.
 Perhaps the best method of accuracy checking is to use a specialized computer program
that cross-checks double-entered data for discrepancies (as this method is free from
error), though these programs can be hard to come by and may require extra training to
use correctly.

Developing a Database Structure

The database structure is the manner in which you intend to store the data for the study so that it
can be accessed in subsequent data analyses. You might use the same structure you used for
logging in the data or, in large complex studies; you might have one structure for logging data
and another for storing it. As mentioned above, there are generally two options for storing data
on computer:-
i. Database programs
ii. Statistical programs.
Usually database programs are the more complex of the two to learn and operate, but they allow
the analyst greater flexibility in manipulating the data.
In every research project, you should generate a printed codebook that describes the data and
indicates where and how it can be accessed.

Minimally the codebook should include the following items for each variable:
 variable name
 variable description
 variable format (number, data, text)
 instrument/method of collection
 date collected
 respondent or group
 variable location (in database)
 notes

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The codebook is an indispensable tool for the analysis team. Together with the database, it
should provide comprehensive documentation that enables other researchers who might
subsequently want to analyze the data to do so without any additional information.

Data Transformations
Once the data have been entered it is almost always necessary to transform the raw data into
variables that are usable in the analyses. There are a wide variety of transformations that you
might perform. Some of the more common are:
 Missing values
Many analysis programs automatically treat blank values as missing. In others, you need to
designate specific values to represent missing values. For instance, you might use a value of -99
to indicate that the item is missing. You need to check the specific program you are using to
determine how to handle missing values.
 Item reversals
On scales and surveys, we sometimes use reversal items to help reduce the possibility of a
response set. When you analyze the data, you want all scores for scale items to be in the same
direction where high scores mean the same thing and low scores mean the same thing. In these
cases, you have to reverse the ratings for some of the scale items.
 Scale totals
Once you've transformed any individual scale items you will often want to add or average across
individual items to get a total score for the scale.
 Categories
For many variables you will want to collapse them into categories. For instance, you may want to
collapse income estimates (in dollar amounts) into income ranges.

ii. Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics): Descriptive Statistics are used to describe the
basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the
measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every
quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is, what
the data shows.

iii. Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential Statistics): Inferential Statistics investigate
questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the conclusions from inferential statistics
extend beyond the immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer
from the sample data what the population thinks. Or, we use inferential statistics to make
judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or
one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make
inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to
describe what's going on in our data.
In most research studies, the analysis section follows these three phases of analysis. Descriptions
of how the data were prepared tend to be brief and to focus on only the more unique aspects to
your study, such as specific data transformations that are performed. The descriptive statistics
that you actually look at can be voluminous. In most write-ups, these are carefully selected and
organized into summary tables and graphs that only show the most relevant or important
information. Usually, the researcher links each of the inferential analyses to specific research
questions or hypotheses that were raised in the introduction, or notes any models that were tested

27
that emerged as part of the analysis. In most analysis write-ups it's especially critical to not "miss
the forest for the trees." If you present too much detail, the reader may not be able to follow the
central line of the results.
Often extensive analysis details are appropriately relegated to appendices, reserving only the
most critical analysis summaries for the body of the report itself.

TYPES OF STATISTICS USED IN DATA ANALYSIS

1. Descriptive Statistics
 They are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple
summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis,
they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive
statistics you are simply describing what is, what the data shows.
 Descriptive statistics describe the data but do not draw conclusions about the data.
 Descriptive statistics are normally applied to a single variable at a time.
 They can tell the researcher the central tendency of the variable, meaning the average
score of a participant on a given study measure.
 The researcher can also determine the distribution of scores on a given study measure, or
the range in which scores appear.
 Finally, descriptive statistics can be used to tell the researcher the frequency with which
certain responses or scores arise on a given study measure. For example, in our imaginary
study about the effectiveness of corrective lenses on economic productivity, the
researcher might observe that the average dollars-per-week of a person with corrected
vision is $500, whereas the average DPW for a person without corrected vision is $450.
A good researcher will know that this is not enough information to conclude that vision
correction has an effect on economic productivity.
 Inferential statistics are necessary to draw conclusions of this kind.
Examples of descriptive statistics
i. Frequency distribution is a simple data analysis technique which allows you to get a
big picture of the data. From frequency distribution, you can see how frequently the
specific values are observed and what their percentages are for the same variable.
Histogram is a great tool in Excel to recognize frequency distribution in data. From
the frequency distribution we can figure out the frequency of the values observed.
ii. Measures of central tendency
We can use the measures of central tendency and dispersion to learn more about the
data for “age.” E.g. Mean, median and mode. Mean, median and mode are the three
measures of central tendency.
a. “Mean” is the average value. It equals to the sum of all the values divided by the
numbers of observations. It is the most popular measure of central tendency,
especially when the data set does not have an outlier.
b. “Median” is the value in the middle when all the values are lined in order
(assuming there is an odd number of values). If there are even numbers of values,
the median is the average of the two numbers in the middle. It is useful when the
data set has an outlier and values distribute very unevenly.
c. “Mode” is the value which is observed most often. It is useful when the data is
non-numeric or when asked to find the most popular item.

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 iii. Measures of dispersion
Range and standard deviation are the basics measures of dispersion. The bigger the
range and bigger the standard deviation, the more dispersed the values are.
.
2. Inferential Statistics
 Investigate questions, models and hypotheses.
 In many cases, the conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond the immediate
data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data
what the population thinks.
 Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an observed
difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened by
chance in this study.
 Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to more general
conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what's going on in our data.
 Inferential statistics allow the researcher to begin making inferences about the hypothesis
on the basis of the data collected. This means that, while applying inferential statistics to
data, the researcher is coming to conclusions about the population at large. Inferential
statistics seek to generalize beyond the data in the study to find patterns that ostensibly
exist in the target population. This course will not address the specific types of inferential
statistics available to the researcher, but a succinct and very useful summary of them,
complete with step-by-step examples and helpful descriptions, is available

NB: Understanding of the data analysis procedures/techniques helps the researcher to:-
 Appreciate the meaning of the scientific method, hypotheses testing and statistical
significance in relation to research questions
 Realize the importance of good research design when investigating research questions
 Have knowledge of a range of inferential statistics and their applicability and limitations
in the context of your research
 Be able to devise, implement and report accurately a small quantitative research project
 Be capable of identifying the data analysis procedures relevant to your research project
 Show an understanding of the strengths and limitations of the selected quantitative and/or
qualitative research project
 Demonstrate the ability to use word processing, project planning and statistical computer
packages in the context of a quantitative research project and report
 Be adept of working effectively alone or with others to solve a research question/
problem quantitatively.

STATISTICAL DATA ANALYSIS

Statistical data analysis divides data analysis methods into two categories:-
I. Exploratory methods: used to discover what data seems to be saying by using simple
arithmetic and easy-to-draw pictures to summarize data. This is mainly used in
qualitative research.
II. Confirmatory methods: Use ideas from probability theory in an attempt to answer
specific questions. These methods are mainly applicable in quantitative research.

29
NB:
The methods used to analyze data are influenced by whether the research is qualitative or
quantitative.
DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 Qualitative research involves intensive data collection (of several variables) over an
extended period of time in a natural setting i.e. variables are studied when and where they
occur e.g. investigating use of traditional jewelry by a traditional rural community in a
remote area.
 The responses can be categorized into various classes which are called categorical
variables.
 The analysis varies of qualitative data varies from simple descriptive analysis to more
elaborate deduction and multivariate associate techniques.
 The analysis varies with the purpose of research, complexity of the research design and
extent to which conclusions can be reached easily.
 In qualitative research designs the researcher should decide before going to the field, how
data will be analyzed.
 The analytical techniques will determine the recording style that will be used during the
data collection.

ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

1) Quick Impressionistic Summary: This is a rapid data analysis technique mainly used in
situations that require urgent information to make decisions for a program e.g. in
situations that need urgent or immediate action. It can also be used when results already
generalized are obvious making further analysis unwarranted e.g. where 80% of the
respondents give similar responses. It does not require data transcription. The researcher
records key issues of the discussion with the respondents and the makes a narrative
report.
It involves:-
i. Summarizing key findings e.g. in Focus Group discussions the researcher notes down the
frequency of responses of participants on various issues.
ii. Explanation
iii. Interpretation and conclusions
2) Thematic Analysis: Analyzing data using themes. Themes refer to topics or major
subjects that come up in discussions. In this method the researcher categorizes related
topics and identifies major concepts or themes and then does the following:-
i. Peruses the data collected and identifies the information that is relevant to the research
questions and objectives.
ii. Develops a coding system based on the samples of the collected data
iii. Classifies majors issues or topics covered
iv. Rereads the text and highlights key quotations/insights and interpretations.
v. Indicates major themes in the margins
vi. Places coded materials under major themes or topics identified
vii. Develops a summary report identifying major themes and associations between them
viii. Uses graphics and direct quotations to present the findings.
viii. Reports the intensity, which refers to the number of times certain words or phrases or
descriptions are used in the discussion.

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NB:
The frequency with which an idea, or a word, or description appears is used to interpret its
importance, attention or emphasis.

DATA ANALYSIS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quantitative data analysis consists of measuring numerical values from which descriptions such
as mean, mode, and standard deviation are made. This data can be put in order and then grouped
into two:-
i. Discrete data: are countable data e.g. the number of defective items produced during a day’s
production.
ii. Continuous data: are parameters (variables) that are measured and expressed on a continuous
scale e.g. the height of a person.

NB:
The analysis of quantitative data varies from simple to more elaborate analysis techniques. The
analysis varies with the objectives of the research, its complexity and extent to which
conclusions can be easily reached. Data analysis in quantitative research depends on the type of
study for example in:-

I. Correlation studies
 Data is mainly analyzed using correlation coefficient.
 By using this tool the researcher indicates the degree of relationship between to variables.
i.e. The researcher is looking for degree of relationship not the effect of one variable on
another.
 The correlation coefficient is a number ranging from 1(a perfect positive correlation)
through 0(zero) (no relationship between variables) to -1(a perfect relationship between
variables).
 In this method the researcher attempts to indicate the proportion of sameness between
variables.

ii. Causal comparative studies

 Seek to identify the relationship between an independent and dependent variable.
 However the relationship is more suggestive than proven because the researcher has no
complete control over independent variable.
 On carrying out causal comparative research the researcher compares two selected groups
on dependent variable e.g. in a fashion production firm the researcher allows some
designers to use Computer Aided Design (CAD) and others hand design to find out the
effects of CAD on quality of designs produced.
 The inferential statistics used is t-test.
 Independent t-Test is used to test the significance of a difference between the means of
experimental and control group in the study.

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  In research designs where the influence of an extraneous variable has been controlled or
in designs utilizing pre-test – post- test procedure the appropriate t-test to use to compare
the two groups would be the dependent t-test.
 When the researcher has three or more groups to compare, the appropriate inferential
statistic to use would be one way analysis of variance. This statistic shows the
significance of differences in the means of three or more groups.

iii. Experimental research

 The major difference in data analysis between causal comparative and experimental
research is that the researcher has control over the independent variable in experimental
research and can manipulate this variable at will.
 In the case of causal-comparative research the independent variable is established by the
identity of the groups chosen and not under experimental control.
 In experimental designs the observer should decide before carrying out the experiment
the analytical process.
 The analytical process in experimental studies mainly involves the calculation of effect
size.
 Effect size is the mean of experimental group minus the control group.
The idea is to calculate the effect size across a number of studies to determine the relevance of
the test, treatment, or method.

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 CHAPTER FOUR:

FINDINGS/RESULTS
INTERPRETING THE RESULTS
Once you’ve organized your results and run them through whatever statistical or other analysis
you’ve planned for, it’s time to figure out what they mean for your research. In research terms,
that often translates to “What were the effects of the independent variable on the dependent
variable(s) (the behavior, conditions, or other factors it was meant to change)?”

There are a number of possible answers to this question:

 Independent variables had exactly the effects on the dependent variable(s) you expected
and hoped it would. Statistics or other analysis showed clear positive effects at a high
level of significance
 Your program had no effect. The independent variables produced no significant results
on the dependent variable.
 Independent variable had a negative effect.
 Independent variable had the effects you hoped for and other effects as well.

DATA PRESENTATION
Data may be presented using frequency tables, graphs or charts to make it easier for the readers
to understand what has been found out by the research.
All the tables, graphs should be clearly labeled to make the readers understand them at a glance.
Data can be presented under in line with the objectives or research questions.

Frequency Distribution
Frequency distribution is a simple data analysis technique which allows you to get a big picture
of the data. From frequency distribution, you can see how frequently the specific values are
observed and what their percentages are for the same variable. For example: for variable of
“age,” you can use frequency distribution to figure out how many people in the survey are aged
18 to 30, and how many are aged 31 to 41, etc.

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 CHAPTER FIVE:

SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Should start by considering the findings especially with the results of statistical tests. Be as
precise as possible in terms of what the findings show and do not show. Comment on the results
that were not consistent with the rest of the participants’ data.

Discussions
Explain how the results of your research relate with the results of other studies in the literature.
Explain whether they support or refute or contradict the previous theories.
Identify any weaknesses or limitations in your study and indicate how they could be eliminated
in future studies e.g. an ethical issue that became apparent after you had already stated the
research, or a weakness in the research design etc.

Conclusions
Make inferences on based on the findings.

Recommendations
Make recommendations or suggestions on what can be done to make the situation you
investigated better. Also make recommendations or suggestions on areas or topics that need
further research.

Ethical Issues
There are a number of key phrases that describe the system of ethical protections that the
contemporary social and medical research establishments have created to try to protect better the
rights of their research participants.
The principle of voluntary participation requires that people not be coerced (an unwilling person)
into participating in research. This is especially relevant where researchers had previously relied
on 'captive audiences' (Listeners or onlookers who have no choice but to attend) for their subjects
-- prisons, universities, and places like that. Closely related to the notion of voluntary
participation is the requirement of informed consent. Essentially, this means that prospective
research participants must be fully informed about the procedures and risks involved in research
and must give their consent to participate. Ethical standards also require that researchers not put
participants in a situation where they might be at risk of harm as a result of their participation.
Harm can be defined as both physical and psychological.

There are two standards that are applied in order to help protect the privacy of research
participants. Almost all research guarantees the participants confidentiality -- they are assured
that identifying information will not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in

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the study. The stricter standard is the principle of anonymity which essentially means that the
participant will remain anonymous throughout the study -- even to the researchers themselves.
Clearly, the anonymity standard is a stronger guarantee of privacy, but it is sometimes difficult to
accomplish, especially in situations where participants have to be measured at multiple time
points (e.g., a pre-post study). Increasingly, researchers have had to deal with the ethical issue of
a person's right to service. Good research practice often requires the use of a no-treatment control
group -- a group of participants who do not get the treatment or program that is being studied.
But when that treatment or program may have beneficial effects, persons assigned to the no-
treatment control may feel their rights to equal access to services are being curtailed.

TIME/WORK PLAN: outlines the main activities of the research and when each will be carried
out. It should be on its own page.

BUDGET
Shows the approximated cost of the research project from the time one starts wring the proposal
to the time the project is completed. It should be as detailed and realistic as possible i.e. Show all
the items you will require to complete the project, quantities, cost per item and total cost. You
can also include 10% to cater for inflation. It should be on its own page.

(Le) (Le)

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APPENDICES
Includes all the materials that do not fit well within the project or proposal e.g. Instruments

REFERENCES
It refers to materials that have been cited in the project. Lists all the Publications cited in the
research proposal or project. It should be arranged in alphabetical order. There are several
referencing styles. It should start on a fresh page.

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