Approaches and perspectives

in psychology
There are five approaches and two perspectives in Strengths Weaknesses
psychology that you need to know for the Cambridge
The approach tends to A lot of evidence from
International Examinations syllabus.
look at the individual this approach is from
"as a whole" to try to studies that have used
Cognitive psychology explain behaviour across questionnaires and
situations. Therefore, it ls Interviews. Therefore, the
• Cognitive psychologists are interested in how we a more holistic approach validity may be reduced as
process information. than using laboratory what people say they will
• They look into how we input information, then how experiments. do and what they actually
we process that information and finally how we This approach is useful do can be different.
retrieve and/or use that information. in terms of being able to It can be very difficult
help improve everyday life sometimes to distinguish
• They believe that the brain works like a computer
in humans by, for example, between what is influenced
following the procedure of input-process/storage-
reducing prej udice or by the individual and
output. explaining atrocities. what is influenced by
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge the situation people find
syllabus under this section are: Mann, Vrij & Bull themselves in.
(2002), Loftus & Pickrell (1995), Baron-Cohen
et al (2001), Held & Hein (1963). Developmental psychology
The main research method used in this approach is
• Developmental psychologists are interested in
laboratory experiments.
how we "develop" as a person from birth to death.
Strengths Weaknesses
• Many developmental psychologists focus on "child
Many findings are based As researchers are development" and what sorts of things affect
on research conducted in a Investigating processed how a chi ld develops psychologically and socially.
laboratory. As variables are information that cannot be They also look at how physical development might
controlled it means that seen directly, there is still
affect psychological development.
findings are more likely to an elen1ent of guesswork
be reliable. and inference. • There are other psychologists who will examine
The approach is useful in Comparing the human development over a lifespan. Therefore, they may
terms of being able to help Information-processing exan1ine development from adolescence through
Improve everyday life in system to that of a early adulthood into late adulthood.
humans by, for example, computer is reductionist. The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge
improving memory or It ignores the role of syllabus under this section are: Bandura, Ross &
Improving eyewitness emotional and socia l Ross (1961), Freud (1909), Langlois et al (1991),
testimony. factors.
Nelson (1980).
The main research methods used in this approach
Social psychology are observations and longitudinal studies.
• Social psychologists are interested in how we Strengths Weaknesses
"work" in the social world.
Longitudinal studies are Longitudinal studies can be
• They look at how individuals interact with each used In this approach very time consuming and
other and how we interact in "groups" . and they are an costly and participants will
excellent way to assess drop out (participant attrition
• They also examine how the role of culture and
development over time can be high). As a result,
society affects our behavlou r.
with participant variables findings may be difficult to
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge being controlled for. generalise to outside of the
syllabus under this section are: Milgram (1963), Also, as we are following participants who are left as
Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973), Piliavin, Rodin & the same people over a there may only be a few and
Piliavin (1969), Tajfel (1970). period of time, we can they could be unique.
The main research methods used in this approach examine what is down There may be ethical issues
are questionnaires and interviews. to nature and what is with studying children
down to nurture in terms overtime. This is because
of how these influence before they are 16 years old
part.i cipants. their parents have to give
informed consent.

v
 Approaches and perspectives in psychology

Physiological psychology The behaviourist

• Physiological psychologists are interested ih how perspective
our biology affects our psychology.
• Behaviourist psychologists are interested in ways
• They look at the role things such as genetics,
in which both humans and animals learn .
brain function, hormones and neurotransmitters
have on our behaviour. • They look into general laws that can apply to all
species and how the experiences we have mould
• Many physiological psychologists believe that
our behaviour over time.
our behaviour can be explained via biological
mechanisms more so than psychological • There are three main areas within this
mechanisms. However, others believe that perspective:
there may be an interaction between the two. o learning by the consequences of our behaviour
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge (operant conditioning)
syllabus under this section are: Schachter & Singer o learning through association (classical
(1962), Dement & Kleitman (1957), Maguire,
.. conditioning)
Frackowiak & Frith (1997}, Dematte, Osterbauer & o learning through observation , imitation and
Spence (2007). modelling (social learning).
The main research method used in this approach is
• Strict behaviourism follows the idea that we
laboratory experiments. should "observe the observable" and not
Strengths Weaknesses examine mental processes as they cannot be
The approach is very The approach can be seen directly seen.
scientific as it uses as being reductionist as it There are no named studies for this perspective
methods such as laboratory ignores the roles of social but Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) can be used as
experiments, blood tests, and emotlonal factors in an example of social learning. The main research
brain scanning, etc. These our development. methods used in this perspective are laboratory
are highly controlled As many studies take place experin1ents and observations.
methods that ca n easily be under controlled laboratory
tested for reliability. conditions, many studies Strengths Weaknesses
As we are dealing with lack ecological validity The perspective is very Parts of thi.s perspective
biological mechanisms, it is and mundane realism . objective as it "observes ignore the ro le of social,
an excellent way to assess Therefore, some biological the observable " - cognitive and emotional
which of our behaviours are reactions may be triggered this means that aspects of behaviour.
due to nature and which because of beJng in a data is scientific a.nd Therefore it can be seen
are due to nurture. controlled environment. quantitative and likely as being reductionist in
not to be biased. just focusing on observable
The psychology of The approach is useful aspects.
in terms of being able to Some psychologists disagree
individual differences help improve everyday that there are general laws
• This approach looks at how, as individuals, we life in humans by, for that govern anin1al and human
differ from one another. example, reducing behaviour - humans are more
phobias or modifying complex than animals.
• Instead of looking for explanations that could
a child's behaviour for
explain how lots of people may behave,
the better.
psychologists who research into this area look
at what makes the individual unique.
• Rather than looking for general laws, psychologists The psychodynamic
who research into this area may focus more on
what makes the individual different from the
perspective
others around him or her. • Psychodynamic psychologists are interested in
how our early lives and our unconscious mind
The AS studies that are listed in the Cambridge
syllabus under this section are: Rosenhan (1973), affect our behaviour.
Thigpen & Cleckley (1954), Billington, Baron-Cohen & • They look at the role of early childhood
Wheelwright (2007), Veale & Riley (2001}. development and how traumas that occur at
various stages may affect adult personallty.
Strengths Weaknesses
• They also look at how our unconscious mind (the
This approach can be useful Findings from studies may
part of the mi nd that we are unaware of) affects
In explaining differences have limited generalisability
between individuals in the as they are focusing on our everyday behaviour.
cause of behaviours. These the individual rather than a There are no named studies for this perspective
can be useful during, for group of people. but Freud and Thigpen and Cleckley (1909) are
example, therapy so the Th is approach can be seen psychodynamic case studies. The main research
treatment can be tailored as being reductionist as methods used in this perspective are case studies
to the individual. it ignores the way we do and interviews.
•
VI This approach is holistic behave in groups .
in nature as it takes into
account a variety of aspects
that can affect the individual.
Strengths Weaknesses 4 . Physiological
The approach is useful An idea such as the
in terms of being able to unconscious mind cannot
help improve everyday be directly tested and is
life in humans such as therefore unscientific . How
helping to understand why can you assess something
we have a mental health that cannot be directly
disorder and then helping seen or manipulated?
to overcome it. Many findings from this
Evidence comes from case perspective are based on
studies that gather rich case studies. These niay
in-depth information. be difficult to generalise to
a larger group.

Here is a reminder of the five approaches and two

perspectives.
1. Cognitive

5. Individual differences

2. Social

6. Behaviourist

7 . Psychodynamic
3. Developmental

••
Vll
 How psychologists
research
The main methods of research that psychologists Strengths Weaknesses
can choose from include:
Laboratory experiments As laboratory experiments
• experiments (laboratory and field) have high levels of control take place in an artificial
• self-reports (questionnaires and interviews) and so can be replicated to setting, it is said that they
test for reliability. can lack ecological validity.
• case studies
As laboratory experiments Many laboratory
• observations (naturalistic, controlled, experiments can make
have high levels of control ,
participant). researchers can be more participants take part in
As well as choosing the most appropriate research confident it is the IV tasks that are nothing like
method, psyct1ologists have to also decide: directly affecting the DV. real-life ones so they lack
mundane realism .
• who the participants are (the sample) and how
they are going to recruit {the sampling technique) Participants may work out
the aim of the study and
• if they are using an experiment, which design act according to that rather
of study to use (e.g. repeated measures, than how they truly feel.
independent groups or matched pairs) This Is called "demand
• what the procedure of the study will be for the characteristics".
participants including what apparatus is needed
Field experiments
• the type of data they want to collect
(e.g. quantitative or qualitative). • These are experiments that take place in the
participants' own natural environment rather than
in an artificial laboratory.
Research methods • The researcher still tries to manipulate or change
Laboratory experiments an IV whi le measuring the DV in an attempt to
• These take place in a situation or environment see how the IV affects the DV.
that is artificial to participants in the study. • There is an attempt to control other variables that
• There are two main types of variable that need to could affect the DV.
be considered when running any experiment: Strengths Weaknesses
o The independent variable (IV) is the variable As field experiments take Situational variables can
that the psychologist chooses to manipulate place in a realistic setting, be difficult to control so
or change. This represents the different it is said that they have sometimes it is difficult to
conditions that are being compared in ecological validity. know whether it is the IV
a11y study. As the participants wi ll affecting the DV.
o The dependent variable (DV) is the variable not know they are taking As the participants will not
that the psychologist chooses to measure. It part in a study, there will know they are taking part
is always hoped that the IV is directly affecting be little or no evidence of in a study, there are issues
demand characteristics. with breaking ethical
the DV i11 an experiment.
guidelines.
• The psychologist will attempt to control as many
other variables as possible to try to ensure Questlonnal res
that it is the IV directly affecting tl1e DV. There • When a study uses a questionnaire, it is asking
are different types of variable that ca11 also participants to answer a series of questions in
affect the DV and that have to be controlled if the written form.
possible.
• There are various types of question that a
psychologist can use within a questionnaire-
based study:
o Likert scales: statements that participants
read and then state whether they Strongly
agree 1 Disagree, etc. witl1 the statement.
o Rating scales: questions or statements where
th e participant gives an answer fn the form of
a number.

1.
 1 How psychologists research

o Open-ended questions: questions that allow Strengths Weaknesses

participants to develop an answer and write
As psychologists using As psychologists using
it in their own words. They write sentences to
case studies are focusing case studies are focusing
answer the question. on one indivldual (or unit on one individual (or unit
o Closed questions : questions where there are of individuals) they can of individuals), the case
a set amount of answers and participants collect rich, In-depth data may be unique. Th is makes
choose which answer best fits how they want that has details. generalisations quite
to respond. Participants are usually difficult.
studied as part of their As participants are studied
Strengths Weaknesses
everyday life which means in depth, an attachment
Participants may be more Participants may give that the whole process could form between them
likely to reveal truthful socially desirable answers tends to have some and the psychologist wh ich
answers in a questionnaire as they want to look good ecological validity. could reduce the objectivity
as it does not involve talking rather than giving truthful of the study.
face to face with someone. answers.
A large sample of participants If the questionnaire has Observations
can answer the questionnaire a lot of closed questions • This research method is about watching and
In a short time span participants might be observing people or animals and their behaviours.
which should increase the forced into choosing an
representativeness and answer that does not
• Prior to observing, the psychologist must create
generaJlsability of the findings. reflect their true opinion. a behavioural checklist (called an ethogram if
observing non-humans).
Interviews • This checklist must name each behaviour that
• These are similar to questionnaires but instead of the psychologist is expecting see. In addition, a
being in the written form they are in the spoken form . picture of the behaviour happening and a brief
• An interviewer asks a series of questions using description of that behaviour are useful.
the types highlighted above. Interviewers may • The behavioural checklist or ethogram must be
record the interview so they can go back and "tested " before the main observation to ensure
transcribe exactly what participants said . that all potential behaviours are covered and the
• Structured: this ls when a set order of questions observers can use the checklist or ethogram
is used. Each participant will be asked them in successfully. This is called a pilot observation.
that order. • Naturalistic observations are observations that
• Semi-structured: there are certain questions take place in a person's or animal's own natural
that must be asked of participants. However, environment.
the interviewer can ask them in a different order • Controlled observations are observations that
and/or ask other questions to help clarify a take place in a controlled setting such as a
participant's response. laboratory.
• Unstructured: this is when the interviewer has a • Participant observations are observations
theme or topic that needs to be discussed. The whereby psychologists become a part of the
interviewer may have an initial question to begin group they wish to observe. This can be overt
the interview but each subsequent question is (the group knows who the psychologist is and
based on the response given by the participaht. that they are being o.b served) or covert (the group
does not know that a psychologist is In the group
Strength Weakness
observing them).
If the interview has a lot Participants might be
of open questions then less likely to give truthful Strengths Weaknesses
participants wi ll reveal answers (maybe due to If the participants are If the participants are
more of the reasons why social desirability) as they unaware that they are aware that they are being
they behave in such a way are actually face to face being observed then they observed then they may
or have a certain opinion. with the interviewer and should behave "naturally". not act "naturally" and
might not want to be judged. instead show socially
As behaviours are
"counted " and are hence desirable behaviours.
Case studies quantitative, the process .i s It may be difficult to replicate
• A case study is not a '' true " research method as objective. the study if it is natutalistic
it uses other methods to collect the data. as many variables cannot be
controlled.
• It examines a single person or a unit of people
(e.g. a family) in depth.
• There may be something unusual about the
"case ti (e.g. a trauma or a mental health issue).
• The psychologist will use questionnaires,
interviews and observations to collect the data.

2
Participants and sampling Strengths of independent
groups
Weaknesses of
independent groups
• Participants are the people who choose t o take
part in a study. As participants only take There may be a problem
part in one condition they with participant variables
• The researcher must decide on a target population are less likely to guess the affecting the DV rather
(TP). This is the group of people that the psychologist aim of the study, reducing than the IV.
wants to take the same from in the hope that the the potential effects of More participants are
findings can generalise to and be representative of demand characteristics. required for th is type
that TP. The main ones are highlighted below: As participants only take of design compared to
o Opportunity sampling involves researchers part in one condition repeated measures.
recruit ing participants who happen to be there are no order effects
around at the time they need participants. (see the table below for
examples) that can reduce
o Self-selected or volunteer sampling involves the validity of the findings.
the researcher advertising for participants.
Therefore, participants choose whether they o Repeated measures : when a participant takes
want to participate. part in all of the levels of the IV. You must use
o Random sampling involves every participant in counterbalancing, which is sometimes called
the TP having an equal chance of being chosen. an ABBA design. For example, 50 per cent of
o Stratified sampling involves recruiting a participants do level A then level 8 of the JV
sample that is a mini version of the TP. and the other 50 per cent do level B then A.
Therefore, researchers recruit participants Strengths of repeated Weaknesses of repeated
from each major stratum in their TP (e.g. age measures measures
groups, gender and ethnicity). This eliminates any effect As all partici.pants take
Strengths of Weaknesses of of participant variables as part in all conditions, there
representative sampling representative sampling all participants take part is a chance of demand
(random and stratified) (random and stratified) in al I conditions therefore characteristics affecting
they are controlled. the study.
The researcher can Obtaining details of the
generalise to the TP with TP to use to draw the Fewer participants are Order effects can affect
more confidence. This sample may be difficult. needed for this type the findings of the study.
is because the sample Researchers cannot of design compared to Examples of these effects
Is more likely to be guarantee a representative independent groups. are: practice effect
representative of the TP. sample (as with random (participants getting
sampllng) - for example all better at a task when they
chosen participants cou ld complete a similar one for
be of one gender. the second time) r fatigue
effect {the more tasks
Strengths of non- Weaknesses of no~ participants do the more
representative sampling representative sampling tired they might become)
(opportunity and (opportunity and and boredom effect
volunteer) volunteer) (repeating slmllar tasks
can bore participants).
Large numbers of Researchers are unlikely
participants can be obtained to gain a wide variety of
relatively quickly and easily. participants to allow for
o Matched pairs: when participant s are mat ched
generalisation . on the variab le researchers wish to control for
People are more likely to
in the study. Once participants are matched,
participate if they have
already volunteered so the
each member of the pair takes part in one
drop-out rate should be lower level of the IV.
than with non-volunteers. Strength of matched pairs Weaknesses of matched
pal rs

Design of study Participant variables

are controlled for and
It can be a study In itself
to find participants who
(experimental or eliminated as the pairs
of participants have been
are matched on all of the
variables the psychologist
participant design) matched on them. has chosen. This is very
time consuming.
• This refers to how psychologist s allocate
There may be one or two
participants to the varying co nditions of their
participant variables that
experiment . There are three different designs:
are ~ove rlooked'' with the
o Independent groups: when a participant only initial matching and these
takes part in one leve l of the IV. If the IV could affect the DV rather
is naturally occurring (e.g. gender) then an than the IV.
experimenter must use thls type of design. In
a true independent groups design, participants
are randomly allocated to one level of t he IV.
3
 Issues and debates
in psychology
The application of • Debriefing. Psychologists must explain the full
aim of the study {especially if they had to deceive
psychology to everyday participants) at the end of the study.
• Right to withdraw. Psychologists should tell
life {its usefulness) participants that they can leave the study at any
• Some people argue that if studies and ideas from time and that their data will then not be used in
psychology cannot be used in everyday life then it the published study.
is not useful.
• Confidentiality. Psychologists must tell all
• 011ce a study has been published, then other participants that their responses will not be
psychologists may evaluate it in terms of identifiable as their own.
usefulness. This can be positive or negative.
• Protectio11. Psychologists must ensure that
• The extent to which something is useful is participants leave the study in the same physical
debating how the findings can be used (or not and psychological state in which they entered
used) in everyday life. the study.
Strength of conducting Problems of conducting • Observations. People can only be observed in
useful research useful research public places wt1ere any member of the public
The main advanta,ge is Studies might be unethical can see the behaviour.
that it is can be used to Jn order to gain more valid
improve human behaviour
in some way. For example,
results .
Studies need to be high
Ethnocentric bias
If we find a better way to This is when psychologists view the results,
in ecological validity to be
treat a mental Illness then of more use to society but behaviours or responses of a study that used
it is useful to society as a this can be quite difficult participants not from their own ethnic group through
whole. if they are conducted in a the eyes of their own ethnic experiences. As a result
laboratory, for instance. the psychologists may feel that their own ethnic
group is superior compared to the one(s) they are
studying and therefore misinterpret behaviours and
Ecological validity draw the wrong conclusions about the behaviour
• This refers to the extent that the setting a being studied.
study has been conducted in can be relevant to
everyday life. Reliability and validity
• Therefore, a study conducted in a laboratory using • Reliability refers to whether researchers can
human participants may be low in ecological test something again to see if they gain similar
validity as it is not a setting that humans are results. A laboratory experiment, with all of
used to. its controls, is said to be reliable as it can be
• Sometimes in a study tl1e task given to replicated quite easy to see if similar results
participants might also not be something that are obtained.
happens in everyday life - psychologists use • Validity refers to how accurate the findings are
the term "mundane realism " to describe tasks from a study.
involving things that happen in everyday life.

Ethics Individual versus

The British Psychological Society has strict guidelines
on wl1at ca11 and cannot be done on l1uman
participants in tl1e name of psycl1ological research:
• Informed consent. Tl1Ts is when participants are
fully aware of what the study is about and they
then give their permission to be used in the study.
• Deception. Psychologists should avoid deceiving
participants about aspects of tJ1e study unless
this makes the study useless.
situational explanations
• Individual explanations are to do with accounting
for bel1aviours from factors from within the
person (called "dispositional factors") such
as personality.
• Situational explanations are to do with accounting
for behaviours from factors from tl1e external
environment (the situation tl1at people find
themselves in).

4
 Strengths of
this debate
Findings can be very
useful to society as a
whole. If we find out which
behaviours are down to
lndividuals and which are
down to the situations we
find ourselves in, then we
can help explain human
behaviour more clearly.
If psychologists find that
there is an interaction
between both sides of
the debate then this is
useful too.
Nature and nurture
• Nature refers to behaviours that are thought to
be hard-wired into people pre-birth (innate or
genetic) - we are born with certain behaviours
and traits.
• Nurture refers to behaviours that are thought to
develop through the lifetime of the person.
Strengths of this debate
If we find out which
behaviours are down to
nature and which are down
to nurture, then we can
help to explain human
behaviour more clearly.
If psychologists find that
there is an interaction
between both sides of the
debate then this is useful.
Psychometrics
• These are usually paper-and-pen tasks that mean
"measurement of the mind" .
• They are standardised tests that people take
such as an intelligence quotient (IQ) test, an
aptitude test to gain a job or a test to help with
educational needs.
Strengths of psychometrics
As they are standardised on a
large sample of people, they
can be seen as being more
objective and scientific.
Comparisons can be useful
as people's resu lts are being
compared on the san1e,
standardised scale.
As they are standardised,
they are reliable measures
because we can use them
again and again to see if we
get similar results.
Problems of researching
this debate
It can be very difficult to
separate out what is an
individual factor and what
is a situation·al factor.
Studies might be unethical
in order to gain more valid
results.
Studies need to be high
in ecological validity to
be of more use to this
debate but this can be
quite difficult if studies are
conducted fn a laboratory.
Problems of researching
this debate
It can be very difficult to
separate out what is nature
and what is nurture.
If behaviour is seen to
be purely down to nature
{genetics) then this can
be very socially sensitive.
Certain sections of society
could use this to undertake
a ueugenic" movement
to get rid of people with
"inferior genes" . This is
clearly unacceptable.
Problems of using
psychometric tests
There may be issues
with validity. Is the test
;;ictually measuring the
behaviour it is supposed
to be measuring?
Some tests might be
seen as ethnocentric
as they might test
very specific cultural
knowledge rather than
the behaviour they
are supposed to be
measuring.
Quantitative and
qualitative data
• Quantitative data is in the numerical form and you
can perform statistical analyses on it.
• Qualitative data takes the form of descriptions via
words, sentences and paragraphs.
Strengths of quantitative Problems with quantitative
data data
As the data are numerical, As the data are numerical,
this allows easier they miss out on valuable
comparison and statistical information. If the answer
analysis to take place. is simply yes/ no or on
a rating scale we do not
As the data are numerical,
know why participants
they are objective and
scientific - there is chose the answer that
only minimal chance they did.
of psychologists Using these data can
miscalculating the data. be seen as reductionist
as psychologists are
reducing complex ideas
and behaviours down to a
number or percentage.
Strengths of qualitative Problems with qualitative
data data
The data collected is The interpretation of the
in-depth and in the words data could be subjective as
of the participants so we are dealing with words
it is rich and in detail rather than numbers -
and represents what psychologists could
participants believe. misinterpret participants'
As the data is directly meaning.
from participants we can There may be researcher
understand why they think, bias. Psychologists might
feel or act in that way. only select data that fits
into their hypothesis or aim
of the study.
Generalisations
• This term refers to how tnuch the findings from
a study can be applied to the people who never
directly took part in the study.
• This is not always directly linked to sample size
(e.g. a small sample size does not automatically
mean we cannot generalise).
• If behaviour is biological in nature (e.g. sleep and
daily rhythms) and all humans have the same
biological mechanisms then finding something
out using less than 10 participants may be
generalisable to a lot of other humans.
Snapshot and
longitudinal data
• Snapshot - this is when data are collected at
one point in time using a group of participants
performing a task, being interviewed, etc.
• Longitudinal - this Is when the same set of
participants is followed over a longer period of
time to examine things such as developmental
5
changes.
 2 Issues and debates in psychology

Strengths of
snapshot stud.ies
These studies can be
a time-efficient way of
collecting a lot of data.
These can be really useful
for conducting " pilot
research " and exploring
an area to see whether a
study is feasible.
Strengths of
longitudinal studies
These studies allow an
analysis of how behaviour
develops over time.
Individual differences
between peo pie in the
study are controlled for as
it Is the same people being
tracked over a set amount
of time .
Problems with
snapshot studies
As they do not follow
people over a period of
time, they are not useful
In tracking how behaviour
does develop or what
the long-term effects of
something are.
As they only cover one point
in time they only represent
those participants showing
that behaviour or opinion at
that point in tln1e.
Problems with
longitudinaJ studies
Not all participants will
want to be fol lowed for
the length of the study
and will drop out (called
" participant attrition "}.
This can reduce the
sample size and then the
generalisability of the study.
Psychologists could
become attached to the
participants in the study
wh ich means they could
be more subjective in their
analyses.
The use of animals in
psychological research
There are ethical guidelines and rules for using
animals in psychological research. The main ones
are as fol lows:
• The law - psychologists must work within the law
about protecting animals.
• Number of animals - this should be a kept to the
minimum amount to make statistical analysis
meaningful.
• Social environment- social species should be
kept together and non-social species should be
kept apart.
• Caging - housing in cages should not lead to
overcrowding and increased stress levels.
Reductionism
• This is when a psychologist believes that a complex
behaviour can be explained by reducing it to one
single cause or a series of component parts.
Determinism
• This is when a psychologist believes that a behavior
may be caused by factors such as our biology,
genetics and upbringing. Therefore, any individual
has no Free Will and does not choose how to
behave; It is already determined by something else.

The use of children in

psychological research
• Children aged under 16 cannot give their own
informed consent to take part in a study.
• Children aged under 16 must get parental
permission to pa.rticipate in studies or loco
parentis permission (e.g. from someone who
looks after them in a nursery).
• Some other issues to consider when working with
children Include their language capabilities and
whether the study involves children concentrating
more than they would usually do.

6
Core study 3.3 There were more f emale
pairs of eyes used in the
An equal amount of male
and female pairs of eyes
Baron.Cohen et al (2001) original test. was used.
The choice of two "Semantic opposites"
responses were always were removed and the " foil
Context "semantic opposites" choices '' (those that were
In 1997 a "Reading the mind in the eyes" test was (e.g. happy/ sad) which incorrect) were to be more
developed to assess a concept called theory of made it too easy. similar to the correct answer.
mind. This test appeared to discriminate between There may have been A glossary of all terms used
adults with Asperger syndrome (AS) and high comprehension problems as the choices on the eyes
functioning autistic (HFA) adults from control adults. with the choice of words test was available to all
The AS and HFA groups scored significantly worse used as the forced choice participants at all times .
on the test, which asked participants to look at a responses.
pair of eyes on a screen and choose which emotion A Table 3.2 Problems and attempts to solve them
they best showed. However, the research team were
not happy with elements of the original version and • Initially,. the "correct" word and the "foils" were
wanted to "upgrade" their measure to improve it. chosen by the first two authors of this study.
• They were then piloted on eight judges (equal
Aim sex).
1 . To test a group of adults with AS or HFA on the • For the correct word and its foils to be used in the
revised scale of the eyes test. This was to check new eyes test, five out of the eight judges had to
whether the same deficits seen in the original agree with the original choice.
study could be replicated. • There had to be no more than two judges picking
2. To test a sample of normal adults to see whether a foil over the correct word.
there was a negative correlation between • At least 50 per cent of this group had to get the
the scores on the eyes test and their autism correct word and no more than 25 per cent had
spectrum quotient (AQ). to seJect a foil for it to be included in the final
3 . To test whether females scored better on the version of the eyes test.
eyes test than males. • From the original 40 pairs of eyes, 36 passed
these tests and were used.
Method Participants
Design There were four groups of participants:

Original problems New design element 1. One group consisted of 15 males with either AS
(if applicable) or HFA. They were recruited via a UK National
Autistic Society magazine or support group. They
Forced choice between Forced cholce remained
two response options but there were four had all been formally diagnosed.
meant just a narrow response options. There 2. In this group there were 122 normal adults
range of 17- 25 correct were 36 pairs of eyes recruited throughout adult community and
responses (out of 25) used rather than 25 - this education classes in Exeter or in a public library
to be statistically above gives a range of 13- 36 in Cambridge. There appeared to be a broad
chance. The range of correct responses (out range of people in this group.
scores for parents of of 36 ) to be statistically
those with AS were lower above chance. This means 3. This group consisted of 103 normal adults (53 male
than normal but again individual differences can and 50 female) who were all undergraduates at
there was a narrow range be examined better in terms Cambridge University (71 in sciences and 32 in
of scores to detect any of statistics. other subjects). They were all assumed to have a
rea I differences. high IQ.
There were basic and Only complex mental states 4. This group was formed from 14 randomly selected
complex mental states were used. adults who were matched for IQ with group 1.
so some of the pairs of
eyes were "too easy" Procedure
(e.g. happy, sad) and All participants, irrespective of group, completed
others "too hard" making the revised version of the eyes test. Each
comparisons difficult. participant completed it individually in a quiet roorn.
There were some pairs These were deleted. Participants in group 1 were asked to judge the
of eyes that could be gender of each image. Groups 1, 3 and 4 completed
"solved" easily because a questionnaire to measure their AQ. All participants
of eye direction (e.g.
were asked to read through a gl·o ssary of all words
noticing or ignoring).
and indicate any they were unsure of - they were
also reassured that they could revisit the glossary at
any time during the test.
 3 Cognitive psychology

Evaluation
Evaluation Related to Baron..Cohen et al
Strength The revised eyes test was used with
all participants - this means that all
comparisons between the groups have
some validity as we are comparing on
the same set scale using the same
questions, etc.
A Figure 3.5 Example of male pair of eyes used in Strength The revised eyes test can be used .by
the test other research teams to see if they can
replicate findings and test for reliability.
Even though it was the older version of
Results the eyes test in the original study, this
study did find reliable results in terms
Group Eyes test means AQ means
(SD) of performance of AS/ HFA (low scores
(SD)
in both studies).
AS/ HFA adults 21.9 (6.6) 34.4 (6.0)
Weakness Some psychologists could question
General 26.2 (3.6) N/ A whether the revised eyes test is still
population actually measuring theory of mind
Students 28.0 (3.5) 18.3 (6.6) traits or j ust the ability to complete the
eyes test.
Matched 30.9 (3.0) 18..9 (2 .9)

A Table 3.3 Mean and standard deviation (in parentheses)

scores for the new eyes test and AQ by group
• The AS/ HFA group performed significantly worse
than the other three groups on the eyes test.
• In general, females scored better on the eyes test
than males.
• The AS/ HFA group scored significantly higher on
AQ than the other groups.
• The distribution of scores for the eyes test (all
groups merged) formed a normal bell curve.
Other points to consider include the following:
• The main advantage of this research is that it can
be used to improve human behaviour in some
way. Psychologists could now create therapies (or
training) to help people with AS or HFA improve
their social commu.n ication and social emotional
skills to help them integrate better into society.
• The eyes test does not take into account the "full
picture" of understanding emotions - in reality
there are cues such as body language and other
facial cues that can help people to understand
the emotions of others.

Conclusion
The revised version of the eyes test could still
discriminate between AS/ HFA adults and controls
from different sections of society as it replicated
previous findings. The new eyes test appeared to
overcome the initial problems of the original version.

12