ECE 522 ‐ Power Systems Analysis II

Spring 2021

Generator Modeling
Spring 2021
Instructor: Kai Sun

1
 Outline

Modeling of synchronous generators for Stability Studies

• Synchronous Machine Modeling
• Simplified Models for Stability Studies
• Materials:
– Kundur’s Chapters 3‐5
– Saadat’s Chapter 8

© 2021 Kai Sun 2

Synchronous Generators
d (direct) axis d (direct) axis
Stator
  Round (cylindrical) rotor
Salient-pole rotor
Field winding

q (quadrature) axis q (quadrature) axis

Armature (stator) winding

Field current
P n
f   (n: synchronous speed in rpm; P: the number of poles)
2 60
© 2021 Kai Sun 3
 Types of Rotors
• Salient pole rotors
– Have concentrated windings on poles and non-uniform air gap
– Short axial length and large diameter to extract the maximum
power from a waterfall
– On hydraulic turbines operated at low speeds at 50-300 r/min
(having a large number of poles)
– Have a squirrel-cage windings (damper windings) embedded
12 poles salient-pole rotor (12 MW)
in the pole-faces to help damp out speed oscillations

• Cylindrical/round rotors
– Distributed winding and uniform air gap
– Large axial length and small diameter to limit the centrifugal
forces
– Steam and gas turbines, operated at high speeds, typically
1800-3600r/min (4 or 2-pole)
– Eddy in the solid steal rotor gives damping effects
– 70% of large synchronous generators (150-1500MVA)
Round rotor generator under construction
(Source: http://emadrlc.blogspot.com)
© 2021 Kai Sun 4
 Stator and Rotor Windings Rotor position
•  is the displacement of d-axis from the axis of a-a’
Armature windings: • Consider a reference frame rotating synchronously
• a‐a’, b‐b’ and c‐c’ windings with d and q-axes at speed r (assumed to be
Rotor windings: along with the axis of a-a’ at t=0 in the figure)
• Field windings •  is the displacement of q-axis from the rotating
– Field winding F‐F’ produces a flux on the reference axis
d‐axis. Reference axis
• Damper windings
– Two amortisseur/damper windings D‐D’ r
d (direct)
and Q‐Q’ respectively on d‐ and q‐axes, axis
which could be actual windings or
effective parts of the solid steal rotor.
– For a round‐rotor machine, for symmetry, G’
consider two windings on each axis by
adding a second damper winding G‐G’ to G
the q‐axis
Total number of windings: 
    r t  
• Salient pole: 3+3 (a, b, c, F, D, Q) 2
• Round‐rotor: 3+4 (a, b, c, F, D, Q, G)
q (quadrature) ANSI/IEEE standard 100-1977
axis defines q-axis leading d-axis by 900
© 2021 Kai Sun 5
 Voltage and Flux Equations (Salient‐pole machine)
• The main objective of synchronous machine modeling is to find the minimum set of constant parameters
by which voltage and flux equations are in the simplest form for desired accuracy.
• All windings are modeled as magnetically coupled circuits with inductances depending on .

 a 
RF
ea • Each rotor winding (F, D, Q)  ea   Ra 0 0 0 0 0  ia 
e    i   
eF Rc ec is considered a load in its  b  0 Rb 0 0 0 0   b  b
circuit having  and i in the  ec  0 0 Rc 0 0 0  ic  d  c 
F a
Ra same direction.       
RD c  F
e  0 0 0 RF 0 0 iF  dt  F 
• Each stator winding (a, b, c) e  0  0 0 0 0 RD 0 i   
eD=0 is considered a source in its  D    D   D
D b
circuit having  and i in  Q
e  0   0 0 0 0 0 RQ  iQ   Q 
Q opposite directions. e abc   R abc 0   i abc  d  ψ abc 
e    0 
Rb

RQ eb  FDQ   R FDQ  i FDQ  dt  ψ FDQ 

eQ=0

 a   l a a lab lac laF laD laQ    ia 

d F d a    i 
e F  RF i F  ea   Ra ia   b   lb a lb b lb c lb F lb D l b Q   b
dt dt  c   l ca   ic 
l cb l cc l cF l cD l cQ 
     
F    lFk ik   lFj i j a    lak ik   laj i j   F   lFa lFb lFc lFF lFD lFQ   i F 
k  a ,b , c j  F , D ,Q k  a ,b , c j  F , D ,Q    l lDb lDc lDF lDD lDQ  i 
 D   Da   D 
 Q   l Q a lQ b lQ c lQ F lQ D l Q Q   iQ 
Rotor self‐inductances (lFF , lDD , lQQ) Stator self‐inductances (laa, lbb, lcc)
Rotor mutual inductances (lFD , lDQ , lFQ) Stator mutual inductances (lab, lbc, lac)  ψ abc   L SS L SR   i abc 
ψ     
Stator‐to‐rotor mutual inductances (laF , lbD , laQ)  FDQ  L RS L RR  i FDQ 
© 2021 Kai Sun 6
 Variations of Self‐ and Mutual Inductances What is each lxy?
 a   l a a l a b lac laF laD laQ    ia 
   i 
 b   l b a LlSS lb c lb F lb D l b Q   b
Each winding is either stationary bb
LSR
(on stator) or rotating (on rotor)  c   l ca l cb l cc l cF l cD l cQ    ic 
together with the magnet:      
  F   l F a Ll F b lFc lFF lFD
LRR
lFQ   F 
i
x, y  { a, b, c, F, D, Q }    l i 
lDQ 
RS
Nx Ny lDb lDc lDF lDD
 D
  Da
  D 
 Q   l Q a l Q b lQ c lQ F lQ D l Q Q   iQ 
lxy =NxNy Pxy = lyx (Symmetric)
NxNy : effective coupling
Pxy : permeance of the mutual flux path (mainly influenced by air gap)

• Stator self/mutual inductances (e.g. laa and lab): NxNy is constant; Pxy is a periodic
function (assumed to be cosine) of  with a period 180o due to periodic air gap changes
Pxy  P0+P (+)  lxy =l0+l2cos2(+)

• Stator to Rotor Mutual Inductances (e.g. laF): Pxy between stator and rotor windings is
almost constant; however, their effective coupling is a periodic function of  with period 360o; the
flux leakage can be ignored (l0=0).
NxNy  N0cos(+)  lxy =l1cos(+)

• Rotor Inductances are all constant using a reference revolving with the rotor

© 2021 Kai Sun 7

 Stator self‐inductances (laa, lbb, lcc) and Mutual Inductances (lab, lbc, lac)
• laa is equal to the ratio of flux linking phase a winding to current ia, with zero currents in all other circuits
(maximum Paa at =0o or 180o)
= 0o
b
a
laa=Ls + Lm cos2
lbb=Ls + Lm cos2(-120o)
lcc=Ls + Lm cos2(+120o )

Ls >Lm 0 c

• lab <0 since windings a and b have 120o (>90o) displacement (maximum Pab at  = ‐300 or 1500)

lab = -Ms - Lmcos2(+30o) = lba b q a b a

lbc = -Ms - Lmcos2(-90o) = lbc =150o

= -30o d
lca = -Ms - Lmcos2(+150o) = lac S N d N S

Ms  Ls/2 c
c
q

© 2021 Kai Sun 8

 Stator to Rotor Mutual Inductances
(LSR: laF lbF lcF laD lbD lcD laQ lbQ lcQ) d (F, D)
b
q (Q) a
• The rotor sees a constant permeance if neglecting variations in the air
gap due to stator slots


• When the flux linking a stator winding and a rotor winding reaches the
maximum when they aligns with each other and is 0 when they are
displaced by 90o
(maximum NaNF at =0o) c

laF = lFa = MF cos laD = lDa = MD cos

• d‐axis
lbF = lFb = MF cos(-120o) lbD = lDb = MD cos(-120o)
lcF = lFc = MF cos(+120o) lcD = lDc = MD cos(+120o)

laQ = lQa = -MQ sin

What if we define q-axis
• q‐axis lbQ = lQb = -MQ sin(-120o) lagging d-axis by 90o?
lcQ = lQc = -MQ sin(+120o) (no negative signs)

© 2021 Kai Sun 9

 For Salient‐pole Rotors

For round rotors, which of the curves will be different?

© 2021 Kai Sun 10
 Rotor Inductances (LRR: lFF, lDD, lQQ, lFD, lFQ, lDQ)

•They are all constant

– Rotor self inductances
lFF ≜ LF
lDD ≜ LD
lQQ ≜ LQ

– Rotor mutual inductances

lFD = lDF ≜ MR
lFQ = lQF = 0
lDQ = lQD = 0

© 2021 Kai Sun 11

 Summary
 ψ abc   L SS L SR   i abc 
ψ     
 FDQ  L RS L RR  i FDQ 

𝐿F 𝑀R 0
LRS = LTSR 𝑳𝑹𝑹 𝑀R 𝐿D 0
0 0 𝐿Q

Further thinking:
• LRR is constant because it is in a reference frame rotating with the rotor
• LSS and LSR are (t) dependent due to variations of NxNy or Pxy caused by the
rotation of the rotor relative to the stator
FDQ = - LRS()  iabc + LRR  iFDQ Only LSR () is explicitly dependent of 

 LRS()  iabc = -FDQ + LRR  iFDQ RHS is in the rotor reference and independent of .

LHS = [LRS () P -1()][P () iabc] ≝ L’RS  i’

© 2021 Kai Sun 12
  2 2 
 2 2   M F cos  M F cos(  ) M F cos(  )
 cos cos(  ) cos(  )  3 3 
M F  3 3  
 ia  2 2 
  2 2    L RS   M D cos  M D cos(  ) M D cos(  )
L RS ( )  i abc  MD   cos cos(  ) cos(  ) ib   3 3 
3 3   
 M Q    i  2 2 

 sin  2 2   c    M Q sin   M Q sin(  )  M Q sin(  )
 sin(  )  sin(  )  3 3 
 3 3 
 2 2 
 ai cos  ib cos(  )  ic cos(  ) 
id
MF  3 3  2
sin  cos   sin( 
2 2
)cos(  )  sin(  )cos(  )
2
  2 2  3 3 3 3
 MD   ia cos  ib cos(  3 )  ic cos(  3 )  1 4 4 
 sin(   )  sin(   )  sin(    )  sin(   )   sin(    )  sin(   )
 MQ    2 3 3 
 
 i sin  i sin(  )  i sin(  )
2 2 iq 3
 sin(   )
  a b
3
c
3  2

• For balanced steady-state conditions:

ia= Im sinst, ib= Im sin(st - 2/3), ic= Im sin(st + 2/3), =rt+-/2, rs
2 2 2 2 2 2
ia cos   ib cos( )  ic cos(  )  I m sin s t cos   I m sin(s t  ) cos(  )  I m sin(s t  ) cos(  )
3 3 3 3 3 3
 m sin(s t   )  m sin(s t  r t    )  m cos   id
3I 3I  3I
2 2 2 2
2 2  2 2  2 2 
ia sin  ib sin( 
)  ic sin(  )  Im sin st cos(  )  Im sin(st  )cos(   )  Im sin(st  )cos(   )
3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2
3I  3I 3I
 m sin(st   )  m sin(st rt    )  m sin 
2 2 2 2
 iq

ia  ib  ic =0  i0 13
© 2021 Kai Sun
 Park’s (dq0) Transformation
i0  k0  1 1 1  ia   k0 k0 k0  ia 
i 0dq  Pi abc      i    k cos k cos(  2 /3) k cos(  2 /3)  i 
i
  
d  kd  cos  cos(  2 /3) cos(  2 /3)   b  d d d   b
iq   
kq  sin sin(  2 /3) sin(  2 /3) ic  kq sin kq sin(  2 /3) kq sin(  2 /3) ic 
  

For balanced steady-state conditions: id= kd Im sin(st-)×3/2 = kd Im cos×3/2

ia= Im sinst iq= -kq Im cos(st-)×3/2= -kq Im sin×3/2
ib= Im sin(st - 2/3)
ic= Im sin(st + 2/3) i0=0
All constant currents!
=rt+-/2, rs

• If we expect the transformation to be power invariant:

P3  eaia  ebib  ecic eTabciabc  (P 1e0 dq )T P 1i 0 dq  e0 dq P P i 0 dq =e0i0+edid+eqiq
T T 1

P-TP-1=I P-1= PT or PTP=I (orthogonal matrix) kd=kq= and k0=

 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2  1/ 2 cos   sin  

2  2 
P
1
 cos cos(  2 / 3) cos(  2 / 3)  P  3 1/ 2 cos(  2 / 3)  sin(  2 / 3) 
3   
  sin   sin(  2 / 3)  sin(  2 / 3)  1/ 2 cos(  2 / 3)  sin(  2 / 3) 

© 2021 Kai Sun What if we define q-axis lagging d-axis by 90o? 14

 Flux Equations  
P1 0 i0dq 
   
i 0 dq  Pi abc i 0 dq   P 0   i abc   0 I  i 
     FDQ 
i FDQ   0 I   i FDQ 

=
ψ 0 dq  Pψ abc ψ0dq  P 0 ψabc   P 1 0   ψ 0 dq   ψ abc   L SS L SR   i abc 
       
    L RR  i FDQ 
I  ψFDQ 
ψ ψ
 0 I   FDQ   FDQ  L RS
ψFDQ   0

   
 ψ 0 dq   P 0   L SS L SR   P 1 0   i 0 dq   ψ 0 dq   LSS LSR   i 0 dq 
   

 FDQ   0 I  L RS
ψ
 
L RR   0 I   
 ψ FDQ  LRS LRR   
i FDQ  i
 FDQ 

 0  L0 0 0 0 0 0  i0   0   L0 0 0 0 0 0  i0 

    i      i 
   0 L kM kM 0 0    0 L 0 kM kM 0   d
d d F D   d d d F D
 F   0 kMF LF MR 0 0  iF   q   0 0 Lq 0 0 kMQ  iq 
         
 D   0 kMD MR LD 0 0  iD   F   0 kM F 0 LF M R 0  iF 
   0 0 0 0 Lq kMQ  iq     0 kM 0 MR LD 0  iD 
  
q
     
D D
  
 Q   0 0 0 0 kMQ LQ  iQ   Q   0 0 kMQ 0 0 LQ  iQ 
 
 
3 3 3
L0  Ls  2M s , Ld  Ls  M s  Lm , Lq  Ls  M s  Lm , k 
2 2 2
© 2021 Kai Sun 15
 Voltage Equations
e abc   P 1 0  e0 dq 
e0 dq  Pe abc e     
e

 FDQ   0 I   FDQ 
e abc   R abc 0   i abc  d  ψ abc 
e    0 R  i   ψ 
 FDQ   FDQ   FDQ  dt  FDQ 
  P 0 ψ  0 dq 
 abc   ψ
 P 1 0  e0 dq   R abc 0   P 1 0   i 0 dq  d  ψ abc   
  0 I  ψ
  
R FDQ   0 I    dt  ψ    ψ
  FDQ   FDQ 
 0 I   FDQ   0
e  
i FDQ 
FDQ

e0 dq   P 0   R abc 0   P 1 0   i 0 dq   P 0  d   P 1 0   ψ 0 dq  
             
e FDQ   0 I   0 R FDQ   0 I   i FDQ   0 I  dt   0 I   ψ FDQ  
 
 ψ 0 dq   P 
d 1
 e 0 dq   R 0 dq 0    i 0 dq  d P ψ
     dt 
0
 
dp
 0 R FDQ   
e
 FDQ   i
dt  ψ FDQ   0 
 FDQ   
   
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2  0  sin   cos   0 0 0 
d d 1  
 0 0 r 
Note: P is d d   2 2 
P P1  P P  r P P1  2r  cos  cos( 
2
) cos( 
2  
)  0  sin(  )  cos(  )
NOT constant dt dt d d 3  3 3  

3 3 
  2  0 r
  sin   sin( 
2
)  sin( 
2 2
)  0  sin(  )  cos(  ) 0 
 3 3   3 3 

 0   0 
P P  0 dq   r q    
d 1
(r Lq )  (iq )  r kM Q iQ 
dt
 r d  r Ld  (id )  r kM F iF  r kM D iD  16
© 2021 Kai Sun
 Voltage Equations (cont’d)
Assume Rabc=RaI
 e0   Ra 0 0 0 0 0    i0   L 0 0 0 0 0 0    i0  0  L0 0 0 0 0 0  i0 
e    i         i 
 d  0 Ra   r Lq 0 0  r kM Q   d 0 Ld 0 kM F kM D 0    id    
d 0 Ld 0 kM F kM D 0   d
 eq  0  r Ld Ra  r kM F  r kM D 0    iq   0 0 Lq 0 0 kM Q  d   iq  q   0 0 Lq 0 0 kMQ iq 
            
 eF  0 0 0 RF 0 0   iF   0 kM F 0 LF MR 0  dt  iF  F   0 kMF 0 LF MR 0  iF 
e  0   0 0 0 0 RD 0  i   0 kM D 0 MR LD 0   iD     0 kM 0 MR LD 0  iD 
 D    D       D  D
 
 eQ  0   0 0 0 0 0 RQ   iQ  
0 0 kM Q 0 0 LQ   iQ 
  Q   0 0 kMQ 0 0 LQ  iQ 
 

e0   Ra 0 0 0 0 0   i0   L0 0 0 0 0 0   i0 

e    i    
 d 0 Ra 0 0 r Lq r kM Q   d 0 Ld kM F kM D 0 0   id 
eF   0 0 RF 0 0 0  iF   0 kM F LF MR 0 0  d iF 
       
0   0 0 0 RD 0 0  iD   0 kM D MR LD 0 0  dt iD 
e   0 r Ld r kM F r kM D Ra 0   i   0 0 0 0 Lq kM Q   iq 
 q    q    
0   0 0 0 0 0 RQ  iQ   0 0 0 0 kM Q LQ  iQ 
 
(   r Lq )  (  iq )   r kM Q iQ =   r q  r Ld  (  id )   r kM F iF   r kM D iD   r d

 e0   R a 0 0 0 0 0    i0   L0 0 0 0 0 0   i0   0 
e    i  0  i     
 d  0 Ra 0 0 0 0   d  Ld kM F kM D 0 0  d  r q 
 eF   0 0 RF 0 0 0   iF  0 kM F LF MR 0 0 d  iF   0 
          
0   0 0 0 RD 0 0   iD  0 kM D MR LD 0 0  dt  i D   0 
e   0 0 0 0 Ra 0   i  0 0 0 0 Lq kM Q  i    r d 
 q    q    q  
© 2021 Kai Sun  0   0 0 0 0 0 R Q   iQ   0 0 0 0 kM Q LQ   iQ   0  17
 If the neutral line‐to‐ground voltage is not zero
   d 
e0 dq   R 0 dq 0   i 0 dq   P P 1  ψ 0 dp  d  ψ 0 dq   P  en 
   dt  
 dt  ψ FDQ  0
e FDQ   0 R FDQ    
 


i FDQ   ψ FDQ 
en  1  Rn Rn Rn  ia   Ln Ln Ln  ia 

en  en  = ( Rnin  Ln n ) 1    Rn Rn  ib    Ln Ln  ib 
di d
Rn Ln
dt dt
en  1  Rn Rn Rn  ic   Ln Ln Ln  ic 
d
 Rniabc  Ln iabc
dt
3Rn 0 0
P en= P ( Rn iabc  Ln diabc /dt ) PRn P1   0 0 0 ,
 0 0 0
=  P Rn P-1 P iabc  P Ln P-1 P diabc/dt
3Ln 0 0
PLn P1   0 0 0
=  P Rn P-1 i0dq  P Ln P-1 (di0dq/dt – dP/dt iabc)  0 0 0

3Rni0  3Ln di0 dt   d 

 3  3
   0    0   R i
n 0 L n i0 
  dt
 e 0 dq   R 0 dq 0    i 0 dq  d  ψ 0 dq   
 0   0         
R FDQ    dt  ψ FDQ  
r q
 FDQ   0
e    r d 
 i FD Q   
Note: P Ln P-1  dP/dt iabc0  0 31 
© 2021 Kai Sun 18
 Summary: Flux and Voltage Equations
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 
i 0 dq  Pi abc  
P 2 / 3  cos  cos(  2 / 3) cos(  2 / 3) 
  sin   sin(  2 / 3)  sin(  2 / 3) 

0  L0 0 0 0 0 0  i0  L0  Ls  2 M s
    
ψ abc   LSS LSR  i abc   d   0 Ld kMF kMD 0 0  id  3
ψ    i  ψ0dq  Pψabc Ld  Ls  M s  Lm
LRR 
F   0 kMF LF MR 0 0  iF  2
 FDQ  L RS  FDQ      
D   0 kMD MR LD 0 0  iD  3
Lq  Ls  M s  Lm
   0 0 0 0 Lq kMQ  iq  2
 q    
Q   0 0 0 0 kM Q L  iQ 
Q  k  3/ 2

eabc  Rabc 0  iabc  d ψabc  en 

e    0 R  i   ψ     e0 dq  Peabc Rabc=RaI
 FDQ   FDQ   FDQ  dt  FDQ  0 
 e0   Ra 0 0 0 0 0   i0   L0 0 0 0 0 0   i0   0 
e     i    i  
 d 0 Ra 0 0 0 0   d 0 Ld kM F kM D 0 0  
 d    r q 
 eF   0 0 RF 0 0 0   iF   0 kM F LF MR 0 0 d  iF   0 
        
0   0 0 0 RD 0 0   iD   0 kM D MR LD 0 0  dt  iD   0 
e   0 0 0 0 Ra 0   i   0 0 0 0 Lq kM Q   i     
 q    q    q  r d 
 0   0 0 0 0 0 RQ  iQ   0 0 0 0 kM Q LQ  iQ   0 

© 2021 Kai Sun 19

 Winding Circuits (Equivalent Transformers) after Park’s Transformation
 e0   R a 0 0 0 0 0    i0   L0 0 0 0 0 0    i0   0 
e         i   
 d 0 Ra 0 0 0 0    id   0 Ld kM F kM D 0 0   d    r q 
 eF   0 0 RF 0 0 0   iF   0 kM F LF MR 0 0  d  iF   0 
        
0   0 0 0 RD 0 0   iD   0 kM D MR LD 0 0  dt  iD   0 
e   0 0 0 0 Ra 0   i   0 0 0 0 Lq kM Q    iq    r d 
 q    q      
 0   0 0 0 0 0 RQ   iQ   0 0 0 0 kM Q LQ   iQ   0 
 

r
Ra
i0
rd is a speed voltage caused by d‐axis flux in the q‐axis winding
RF
‐rq is a speed voltage caused by q‐axis flux in the d‐axis winding
L0 e0

eF
Rr id Voltage equations follow Faraday’s law
a
kMF
d
RD MR
Ld ed
kMD
eD=0
rq
Rra
iq

kMQ q
Lq eq
eQ=0 RQ

rd

© 2021 Kai Sun 20

 Naming Convention
My Notes Kundur’s book
iF ifd
iD ikd
iQ ikq
Ls Laa0
Ms Lab0
Lm Laa2
MF Lafd
MD Lakd
MQ Lakq
MR Lfkd
LF Lffd
LD Lkkd
LQ Lkkq
© 2021 Kai Sun 21
 Alternative Park’s Transformation
• If kd=kq=2/3 and k0=1/3, ia, ib, ic, id, iq all have the same amplitude Im, or in other words, a unit-to-unit relationship holds

ia= Im sinst 
 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2



1 cos   sin  
 id= kd Im sin(st-)×3/2 =Im sin(st-)
   
2 2 2 2 2
ib= Im sin(st - 2/3) P   cos cos(  ) cos(  ) 
3 3 3 
P 1  1 cos(  )  sin(  ) 
 3 3  iq= kq Im cos(st-)×3/2= Im cos(st-)
  2 
2 2  2
ic= Im sin(st + 2/3) sin sin(  ) sin(  )
 3 3 
1 cos(  )  sin(  ) 
 3 3  i0= k0(ia + ib + ic)

• However, 𝐏 is not isometric. An isometric P that preserves distances or inner products is orthogonal: PTP=I.
3 3
P3  eaia  ebib  ecic  eTabciabc  eT0dq P T P 1i0dq  3e0i0  ed id  eqiq  e0i0+edid+eqiq
2 2
• Lad-Laq based per unit system:
all per unit mutual inductances L0 0 0 0 0 0
 MF MD 0   0  LL00 0 0 0 0 0 00 00   i0 
between the stator and rotor circuits 0   0 Ld 0 i0 
    
are equal to 𝐿 in d-axis or 𝐿 in
   0
 d 
0 Lq 0 0 MQ  i 
 d  d  00 Ll L dLad 0 0 M FLad MLDad 00  id 

q   3 iq   q  00 Llq  Laq 0 0 0 0 LaqQ  iq 
q-axis, where 𝐿 =𝐿 -𝐿 and    0 MF 0 LF MR 0   
0 M
2        
F  
𝐿 =𝐿 -𝐿  F  00 M
 iF  LadF 0 0 LF LF MM 00   iF 
   0 3 i  RR
0 MR LD 0   D  00 M 00   iD 
MD
• This reduces the number of constant  D  2  D  LadD 0 0 M RMR LDLD
Q    iQ       
parameters in model without losing 3
 Q  00 0 M QLaq 0 0 0 0 LLQQ   iQ 
0 0 MQ 0 0 LQ 
its accuracy.  2 
© 2021 Kai Sun 22
 Per Unit Representation
• Each of stator/rotor winding circuit involves quantities, e.g. e, i, S, Z and f, but only three of them are independent.
• Using the machine ratings (stator-side) as the base values
es base (V) peak value of rated line-to-neutral voltage
is base (A) peak value of rated line current 𝑋 2𝑓 𝐿
𝑋 𝑝. 𝑢.
𝑍 2𝑓 𝐿
fbase (Hz) rated frequency
If f=fbase 𝑋 𝐿
e i 𝟑
S3 base (VA) =3 s base × s base = es base×is base
𝟐

base (elec. rad/s)=2fbase =mbase  e.g. 377(rad/s) for 60Hz

tbase(s) =1/ base =1/(2fbase) 0.0027 sec. Bases d q 0 F D Q

Zs base ( ) =es base/is base 1 fbase

Ls base (H) =Zs base/base 2 es base S3 base
s base (Wbturns)=Ls base×is base = es base/base
3 is base iF base iD base iQ base
S3 base 𝟑 𝒑
Tbase (Nm) =

=
𝟐 𝟐
s base×is base
iFbase, iDbase and iQbase should enable a symmetric
per-unit inductance matrix.
© 2021 Kai Sun 23
 Lad‐Laq based Per Unit System
 Ld 0 0 MF MD 0 
 M Q    id   d   Ld 0 0 MF MD 0    id 
 d   0 Lq 0 0 0
    
   0 0 L0 0 0 0    iq   q  0 Lq 0 0 0 M Q    iq 
 q   
 0   3 M    i  Step 1:  0   0 0 L0 0 0 0    i0 
0 0 LF MR 0  0
   2 F  i  Symmetrizing    
 F  
 D   3 M
 F   F   M F 0 0 LF MR 0   iF 
0 0 0   iD   D   M D 0   iD 
MR LD
  2 D  i  0 0 MR LD
 Q   3   Q      
 0
 2
MQ 0 0 0 LQ 

 Q   0 M Q 0 0 0 LQ   iQ 

1. Divide both sides of equation of d by s base =Ls base×is base 3. Equate two per unit values: 𝑀 𝑀′

 𝐿 𝑖 𝑀 𝑖 𝑀 𝑖 =
 𝐿 𝑖 𝐿 𝑖 𝐿 𝑖
LF base i2F base= LS base i2S base

baseLF base i2F base= base LS base i2S base

 𝐿 𝑖 𝑀 𝑖 𝑀 𝑖
2. Divide both sides of equation of F by F base =LF base×iF base eF base iF base = eS base iS base = S3 base
 3 𝑀 𝑖 𝐿 𝑖 𝑀 𝑖 Similarly,
 2𝐿 𝑖 𝐿 𝑖 𝐿 𝑖 eD base iD base = S3 base eQ base iQ base = S3 base

All rotor circuits have the same VAbase

 𝑀′ 𝑖 𝐿 𝑖 𝑀 𝑖 that equals the stator 3-phase VAbase
© 2021 Kai Sun 24
Lad‐Laq based Per Unit System (cont’d)
0  L0 0 0 0 0 0  i0 
 d   Ld 0 0 0    id      
  id 
MF MD 0 L L 0 L L 0
       
d l ad ad ad

 q  0 Lq 0 0 0 M Q    iq  q   0 0 Ll  Laq 0 0 Laq  iq 

 0   0 Step 2: Finding    
0 L0 0 0 0    i0  
   0 L 0 L M 0   iF 
    base values F ad F R
 D   0 MR LD 0   iD 
 F   M F 0 0 LF MR 0   iF 
  
Lad 0
 
 D   M D 0 0 0   iD  
 Q   0 0 0 0 Q
  
MR LD
 
Laq L   iQ 
 Q   0 MQ 0 0 0 LQ   iQ  Ld  Ll  Lad Lq  Ll  Laq

Lad=Ld - Ll 𝐿 𝑀 𝑀 Laq=Lq - Ll 𝐿 𝑀
𝐿 𝑀 𝑖 𝑀 𝑖 𝐿 𝑀 𝑖
𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿 𝑖 𝐿 𝑖 𝐿 𝐿 𝑖

𝑳𝒂𝒒
𝑖 ≜ 𝑖 ,A 𝑖 ≜ 𝑖 ,A 𝒊𝑸 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 ≜
𝑴𝑸
𝒊𝑺 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 , A

eF base≜S3 base / iF base, V eD base≜ S3 base / iD base, V eQ base≜ S3 base / iQ base, V
ZF base≜ eF base / iF base ZD base ≜ eD base / iD base ZQ base= eQ base / iQ base
=S3 base/ i2F base,  S3 base / i2D base,  S3 base / i2Q base, 
LF base≜ ZF base / base , H LD base≜ ZD base / base , H LQ base≜ ZQ base / base , H
F base ≜ LF base×iF base, Wbturns D base ≜ LD base×iD base, Wbturns Q base ≜ LQ base×iQ base, Wbturns
MQ base = LS base  iS base / iQ base
MF base = LS base  iS base / iF base MD base = LS base  iS base / iD base
© 2021 Kai Sun 25
 Formal Simplification of the Model
 ea   R a 0 0 0 0 0    ia   laa lab lac laF laD laQ    ia 
21 inductances e   0 Ra 0 0 0 0 
 i  
lbQ 
 i 
 b   b   lba lbb lbc lbF lbD  b
(many are -dependent)  ec   0 0 Ra 0 0 0    ic   lca lcb lcc lcF lcD lcQ  d   ic 
       
 eF   0 0 0 RF 0 0   iF   l Fa l Fb l Fc l FF l FD l FQ  dt  iF 
0   0 0 0 0 RD 0  i  l l Db l Dc l DF l DD l DQ  i 
     D   Da  D 
P  0   0 0 0 0 0 RQ   iQ   lQa lQb lQc lQF lQD lQ Q   iQ 

 e0   Ra 0 0 0 0 0  i0   L0 0 0 0 0 0   i0   0 
e       i  
14 constant inductances  d 0 Ra 0 0 0 0   id   0 Ld kM F kM D 0 0  
 d    r q 
 eF   0 0 RF 0 0 0  iF   0 kM F LF MR 0 0 d  iF   0 
        
0   0 0 0 RD 0 0  iD   0 kM D MR LD 0 0  dt  iD   0 
Lad‐Laq based e   0 0 0 0 Ra 0  i   0 0 0 0 Lq kM Q   i     
 q    q    q  r d 
P. U.  0   0 0 0 0 0 RQ  iQ   0 0 0 0 kM Q LQ  iQ   0 

8 constant inductances   i0   L0   i0   0 
 e0   R a 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 
e    i    i  
LdLl, MF, MD, …  Lad  d 0 Ra 0 0 0 0   d 0 Ll  Lad Lad Lad 0 0  
 d    r q 
Lq Ll, MR, …  Laq  eF   0 0 RF 0 0 0   iF   0 Lad LF MR 0 0  d  iF   0 
        
0   0 0 0 RD 0 0   iD   0 Lad MR LD 0 0  dt  iD   0 
All mutual inductances in p.u. are equal e   0 0 0 0 Ra 0   i   0 0 0 0 Ll  Laq La q   i     
 q    q    q  r d 
to Lad or Laq, linked to the same element  0   0 0 0 0 0 RQ 
 iQ  
0 0 0 0 Laq LQ 
 iQ   0 
in an equivalent circuit.
© 2021 Kai Sun 26
 Equivalent Circuits
Define differential operator p=d/dt
e0   Ra 0 0 0 0 0 i0   L0 0 0 0 0 0  i0   0   0   L0 0 0 0 0 0  i0 
    
e  
0 
i    
0  id   
 d   0 Ll  Lad 0 0  id 
  0 Ra 0 0 0  d   0 Ll  Lad 0
Lad Lad Lad Lad
d  r q
eF   0 0 RF 0 0 0 iF   0 Lad LF M R 0 0  iF   0   F   0 Lad LF MR 0 0  iF 
      p   p     p 
eD  0  0 0 0 RD 0 0 iD   0 Lad M R LD 0 0  iD   0   D   0 Lad MR LD 0 0  iD 
e  0 0 0 0 Ra 0 i   0 0 0 0 Ll  Laq Laq  iq      q   0 0 0 0 Ll  Laq Laq  iq 
q     q      r d       
eQ  0  0 0 0 0 0 RQ  iQ   0 0 0 0 Laq LQ  iQ   0 
   Q   0 0 0 0 Laq LQ  iQ 
 
ed = (Ll+Lad)×(pid) +Lad×piF +Lad×piD  rq  Raid
=Lad×p( id+iF+iD)  Ll×pid   r  q  R a id
pd= (Ll+Lad)×(pid) +Lad×piF +Lad×piD = ed + rq + Raid iD+iF

eF = Lad×(pid) +LF×piF +MR×piD +RFiF

= Lad×p( id+iF+iD)  Lad×p(iD+iF) +MR×piD +LF ×piF + RFiF ed
= Lad×p( id+iF+iD) +(MR Lad)×p(iD+iF) +(LF - MR)×piF + RFiF
eD = 0= Lad×(pid) +MR×piF +LD×piD +RDiD
= Lad×p( id+iF+iD) +(MR Lad)×p(iD+iF) +(LD- MR)×piD+ RDiD

eq = (Ll+Laq)×(piq) +Laq×piQ +rd  Raiq

= Laq×p( iq+iQ)  Ll×piq +rd  Raiq
pq= (Ll+Laq)×(piq) +Laq×piQ = eq  rd + Raiq

eQ= 0= Laq×(piq) +LQ×piQ +RQiQ

= Laq×p( iq+iQ) +(LQ Laq)×piQ +RQiQ
© 2021 Kai Sun 27
 Equivalent Circuits with Multiple Damper Windings (e.g. Round‐rotor Machines)

• d-axis: Subscript Notations:

( )fd ~ field winding quantities
Lfd ≜LF - MR Rfd ≜RF
( )kd ~ k-th d-axis damper winding quantities
fd ≜ F efd ≜eF ( )kq ~ k-th q-axis damper winding quantities
L1d ≜LD - MR R1d ≜RD MR-Lad 0
1d ≜ D
Lfd=LF -MR
MR-Lad 0 is named Lfkd1 in some literature to L1d =LD - MR
model rotor mutual flux leakage, i.e. the flux Rfd=RF
linking the rotor’s field and damper windings but R1d =RD
not stator windings) efd=eF

• q-axis:
L1q≜LQ – Laq R1q≜RQ
1q ≜ Q
L2q≜LG – Laq R2q≜RG L1q=LQ – Laq L2q=LG – Laq
2q ≜ G
R1q=RQ R2q=RG

© 2021 Kai Sun 28

 Example: a model with 3 rotor windings in each of d‐ and q‐axis equivalent circuits
• EPRI Report EL‐1424‐V2, “Determination of Synchronous Machine Stability Study Constants, Volume 2”, 1980
– The proposed equivalent circuits are expected to contain sufficient details to model all machines
– Parameters are estimated by frequency response tests

© 2021 Kai Sun 29

 Example 3.1 (Kundur’s book)
A 555 MVA, 24kV, 0.9p.f., 60Hz, 3 phase, 2 pole synchronous generator has the following
inductances an resistances associated with the stator and field windings:
laa=3.2758+0.0458 cos(2) mH lab=-1.6379-0.0458 cos(2+/3) mH
laF=40.0 cos mH LF=576.92 mH
Ra=0.0031  RF=0.0715 
a. Determine Ld and Lq in H
b. If the stator leakage inductance Ll is 0.4129mH, determine Lad and Laq in H
c. Using the machine rated values as the base values for the stator quantities, determine
the per unit values of the following in the Lad base reciprocal per unit system (assuming
Lad=MF=MR in per unit): Ll, Lad, Laq, Ld, Lq, MF, LF, Lfd, Ra and RF

Solution:
a. laa =Ls + Lm cos2 =3.2758+0.0458 cos2 mH
lab = -Ms - Lmcos(2+/3) = -1.6379-0.0458 cos(2+/3) mH
laF = MF cos =40.0 cos mH
Ld = Ls + Ms + 3Lm/2 =3.2758+1.6379+ 0.0458 =4.9825 mH

Lq = Ls + Ms - 3Lm/2 =3.2758- 1.6379+ 0.0458 =4.8451 mH

b. Lad = Ld – Ll =4.9825 – 0.4129 =4.5696 mH
Laq = Lq – Ll =4. 4851 – 0.4129 =4.432 mH

© 2021 Kai Sun 30

 c. 3-phase VAbase = 555 MVA
ERMS base =24/ 3 =13.856 kV
es base (peak) = 2× ERMS base = 2× 13.856 =19.596 kV
IRMS base =3-phaseVAbase / (3× ERMS base)=555×106/(3×13.856×103)=13.3512×103A
is base (peak) = 2× IRMS base = 2×13.3512×103 =18.8815×103A
Zs base =es base/is base =19.596×103/(18.8815×103) =1.03784 
base =2×60 =377 elec. rad/s
Ls base =Zs base/base =1.03784/377×103 =2.753 mH
iF base =Lad/MF× is base =4.5696/40×18.8815×103 =2158.0 A
eF base =3-phaseVAbase/iFbase = 555×106/2158 =257.183 kV
ZF base = eF base / iF base =257.183×103/2158 =119.18 
LF base = ZF base / base =119.18×103/377 =316.12 mH
MF base = LS base  iS base / iF base =2.753188815/2158 =241 mH
Then per unit values are:
Ll = Ll/Ls base =0.4129/2.753 =0.15 pu RF=RF/ZF base=0.0715/119.18 =0.0006 pu
Lad=4.5696/2.753 =1.66 pu MF=MF/MF base=400/241 =1.66 pu
Laq=4.432/2.753 =1.61pu LF=LF/LF base=576.92/316.12 =1.825 pu
Ld= Ll + Lad=0.15+1.66 =1.81 pu Lfd = LF-MR =LF - Lad=1.825 - 1.66 =0.165 pu
Lq= Ll + Laq=0.15+1.61 =1.76 pu
Ra=0.0031/1.03784 =0.003 pu
© 2021 Kai Sun 31
 Steady‐state Analysis
• All derivatives (pX) are zero:
pr=0  r=1 and L=X in p.u.
pfd=0 efd= Rfdifd
p1d=0 i1d=0 d= -Ldid+Ladifd
p1q=0 i1q=0 q= -Lqiq
pd=0  ed = -q -Raid ed =Lqiq -Raid
Under a steady-state
pq=0 eq = d -Raiq eq = -Ldid+Ladifd -Raiq condition, damper winding
currents are all zero.
Voltage and flux equations: 6+6  3+3
efd= Rfdifd fd=(Lad+Lfd)ifd – Ladid
ed=Xqiq –Raid 1d=Lad (ifd – id)
eq= -Xdid +Xadifd –Raiq 1q=2q= – Laqiq

• Single equivalent circuit for both d and q axes:

𝐼 = id + jiq 𝐼
𝐸 = ed + jeq= Xqiq –Raid – jXdid +jXadifd –jRaiq If saliency is neglected:
= –Ra(id +jiq) – jXq  jiq – jXdid +jXadifd
Eq=Xadifd
𝑬𝒕 =𝑬𝒒 – (Ra+ jXq 𝑰𝒕 where 𝐸 =j[Xadifd-(Xd-Xq)id]
Xd=Xq=Xs (synchronous reactance)
© 2021 Kai Sun 32
 Computing per‐unit steady‐state values

r  1p.u. 𝐼

• Active and Reactive Powers

S  Et It* 𝑬𝒕 =𝑬𝒒 – (Ra+ jXq 𝑰𝒕

 (ed  j eq )(id  j iq )
 (ed id  eqiq )  j(eqid  ed iq )
• Rotor angle 
where ed  r q  Ra id
eq  r d  Ra iq
   i  E t
Pt  ed id  eqiq
 r ( d iq  qid )  Ra (id2  iq2 )
 Pe  Ra (id2  iq2 )
Qt  eqid  ed iq
• Air‐gap torque (or electric torque)
Pe
Te    d iq  q id
r
=Pt  Ra (id2  iq2 )
© 2021 Kai Sun 33
 Representation of Magnetic Saturation
• Assumptions for stability studies
– The leakage fluxes are not significantly affected by saturation of the iron portion,
so Ll is constant and only Lad and Laq saturate in equivalent circuits
– There is no magnetic coupling between d and q axes,so saturations on Lad and Laq
can be modeled individually. Let Ladu and Laqu denote their unsaturated values:

Lad (ifd)=Ladu, Laq (ifd)=Laqu only if ifd or MMF is not large

– The leakage fluxes do not contribute to the iron saturation. Thus, saturation is
determined only by the air-gap flux linkage
d = -(Ll+Lad)id+Ladifd q = -(Ll+Laq)iq

 at   ad  j aq  at   ad 2   aq 2
  d  Ll id  j q  jLl iq
First find at vs. ifd and then estimate
 Lad (i fd  id )  jLaq iq the function Lad(ifd) or Laq(ifd)
– Saturation relationship at vs. ifd (or MMF) under loaded conditions is assumed to
be the same as under no-load conditions (id=iq=0), so only the open-circuit
characteristic (OCC) is considered.
 at   at  Lad i fd
© 2021 Kai Sun 34
 Estimating Saturation Factors Ksd and Ksd

Lad=KsdLadu Laq=KsqLaqu

• Salient pole machines

– The path for q-axis flux is largely in air, so Laq does
not vary significantly with saturation of the iron
portion of the path
– Assume Ksq=1.0 for all loading conditions.
• Round rotor machines
– There is a magnetic saturation in both axes, but the
saturation data in q axis is usually not available
– Assume Ksq =Ksd
• Thus, we focus on estimating Ksd

Ksd = Lad/Ladu
=at/at0 = at/(at+ I)
= I0 / I (See Kundur’s Example 3.3 on Estimating Ksd
for different loading conditions)
© 2021 Kai Sun 35
 Modeling of the Saturation Characteristic
• I is modeled by 3 approximate functions
– Segment I (at<T1): I=at0 at=0

– Segment II (T1<at<T2):  𝐴 𝑒   I
linear

– Segment III (at>T2): I =G2+Lratio(at T2) at nonlinear

• Note: segments I and II are not connected since when at=T1,

linear
I=Asat 0 (usually small)
• Segments II and III are assumed to be connected at at=T2 to
solve G2
𝐴 𝑒   =G2+Lratio(T2-T2)- T2 Five independent parameters:
  Asat, Bsat, T1, T2 and Lratio
G2 = T2+𝐴 𝑒

© 2021 Kai Sun 36

 Lad=KsdLadu

Ksd =at/at0 = I0/I

Here L =T1, M=T2 and RS=Lratio

© 2021 Kai Sun 37
 From Anderson’s book

linear
I

nonlinear

linear

S(1.0)=

S(1.2)=

SGVt  AG e BG (Vt 0.8)  𝐴 𝑒  

Asat=AG, Bsat=BG, T1=0.8, T2 =1.2

Lratio=Lad(iF3)/Ladu
© 2021 Kai Sun 38
 Example 3.2 in Kundur’s Book
R1d>>Rfd
Lfd/Rfd>>L1d/R1d

L1q/R1q>>L2q/R2q
MR

Figure 3.22
© 2021 Kai Sun 39
© 2021 Kai Sun 40
 39.1o

1.565pu

© 2021 Kai Sun 41

 Sub‐transient and Transient Analysis
• Following a disturbance, currents are induced in rotor circuits. Some of these induced rotor currents
decay more rapidly than others.
– Sub-transient parameters: influencing rapidly decaying (cycles) components
– Transient parameters: influencing the slowly decaying (seconds) components
– Synchronous parameters: influencing sustained (steady state) components

© 2021 Kai Sun 42

 Transient Phenomena
i(t)
• Study transient behavior of a simple RL circuit
v(t )  Vm sin(t   )  u (t ) Unit step function

di (t )
Ri (t )  L  v(t )
dt
• Apply Laplace Transform
V ( s) 1 ( s ) 1 L
RI (s)  L[sI (s)  i(0)]  V (s) I ( s)     where  
R 1  s R / s 1  s R
• Apply Inverse Laplace Transform to I(s) (time to decay to 1/e37%)

i (t )  I m sin(t     )  I m e t / sin(   ) where 𝐼 𝑉 ⁄ 𝑅 𝑋 ,𝛾 tan 𝜔 𝐿 ⁄𝑅

Steady-state dc offset
(sinusoidal component) (transient component)

• Saadat’s Example 8.1

R=0.125, L=10mH, Vm=151V
=L/R=0.08s

© 2021 Kai Sun 43

Saadat’s Example 8.2: Balanced 3‐Phase Short Circuit
A 500-MVA, 30-kV, 60-Hz synchronous generator operates at no-load with a constant
excitation voltage of 400V. A 3-phase short circuit occurs at its armature terminals. Use
its voltage equations to find transient waveforms for the current in each phase and the
field current. Assume the short circuit to be applied at the instant when =0, i.e. the d-
axis is along the magnetic axis of phase a. Also assume the rotor speed r= s.
Solution:
d
The voltage equations are: e  RiL i
dt
e0   Ra  3Rn 0 0 0 0 0   i0   L0  3Ln 0 0 0 0 0   i0 
e    i    
 d  0 Ra 0 0 r Lq r kM Q   d  0 Ld kM F kM D 0 0   id 
eF   0 0 RF 0 0 0  iF   0 kM F LF MR 0 0  d iF 
         
0   0 0 0 RD 0 0  iD   0 kM D MR LD 0 0  dt iD 
e   0 r Ld r kM F r kM D 0   i   0 0 0 0 kM Q   iq 
 q 
Ra
  q 
Lq
  
iF (ifd)
0   0 0 0 0 0 RQ  iQ   0 0 0 0 kM Q LQ  iQ 
 

No-load condition: ia(0+)=ib(0+)=ic(0+)=0  i0(0+)=id(0+)=iq(0+)=0

Balanced 3-phase fault: eaebec0,  e0ed eq0
Initial rotor winding currents: iF(0+)=eF/RF=400/0.4=1000 A, iD(0+)=iQ(0+)=0

d
Then, solve the differential equations i(t) with these initial values i(0+): i  L 1 ( e  R  i )
dt

© 2021 Kai Sun 44

 Three-phase short circuits ia, i b , i c, = 0°
10 5
2

Results 1.5
ia
ib
1 ic

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

-3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
t, sec

© 2021 Kai Sun 45

Saadat’s Example 8.4: Line‐to‐Ground Short Circuit
Same as 8.2 except for a line-to-ground short circuit of phase a.
Solution: No-load condition: ibic0 Line-to-Ground fault: ea 0
d
e a  0   R a ia  (  l aa ia  l ab ib  l ac ic  l aF i F  l aD iD  l aQ iQ )
dt
dia di di diQ dl dl dl dlaQ
  Raia  laa  laF F  laD D  laQ  ia aa  iF aF  iD aD  iQ iF (ifd)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
dia di di di
 Raia  ( Ls  Lm cos 2 )  M F cos F  M D cos D  M Q sin  Q  (2r Lm sin 2 )  ia  r M F sin   iF  r M D sin   iD  r M Q cos  iD
dt dt dt dt
L0  Ls  2 M s ,
Solve these voltage equations: 3
Ld  Ls  M s  Lm ,
 ea  0   Ra  2r Lm sin 2 r M F sin  r M D sin  r MQ cos  ia   Ls  Lm cos 2 M F cos M D cos MQ sin   ia  2
 e    M sin  RF 0 0   i   M cos LF MR 0  i  3
Lq  Ls  M s  Lm
 F  r F  F  F d F 2
eD  0  r M D sin  0 RD 0   iD   M D cos MR LD 0  dt  iD 
         Ls  ( L0  Ld  Lq ) / 3,
eQ  0  r MQ cos 0 0 RQ   iQ   MQ sin  0 0 LQ   iQ 
Lm  ( Ld  Lq ) / 3

© 2021 Kai Sun 46

 Finding short‐circuit and open circuit time constants
Consider the d-axis network
• Short-circuit time constant 
– Instantaneous change on d
– Delayed change on id ( through )

• Open-circuit time constant 0
– Instantaneous change on id
– Delayed change on  d ( through )


Ld ( s)  
 d
 Ld
1  s (1  sTd )(1  sTd)
Ld ( s )  Ld
id e fd  0
1  s 0 (1  sTd0 )(1  sTd0 ) L

R
• Time constant  or 0 is equal to the total inductance L divided by the total
resistance R of the effective circuit

© 2021 Kai Sun 47

 Transient and sub‐transient parameters

+ + +
p1d pfd p1q
- - -

R1d>>Rfd Lfd /Rfd>>L1d /R1d L1q /R1q>>L2q /R2q

d axis circuit q axis circuit

Considered Only field Add the damper winding Only 1st damper winding Add the 2nd damper
rotor windings Winding (ignoring Rfd) winding (ignoring R1q)
Time constant
(open circuit) T’d0= 𝐿 +𝐿 T’’d0=
𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿
T’q0= 𝐿 +𝐿 T’’q0= 𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
8.07(s) Based on Parameters in
Time constant
0.030(s) 1.0(s) 0.07(s) Kundur’s Example 3.2
(short circuit) T’d= 𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿 T’’d= 𝐿 //𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿
T’q= 𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿 T’’q= 𝐿 //𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
• Note: time constants are all
Inductance 1.34(s) 0.023(s) 𝑅
0.37(s) 0.03(s) in p.u. To be converted to
(Reactance) seconds, they have to be
Ld(s) or Lq(s) L’d= Ll+Lad//Lfd L’’d= Ll+Lad//Lfd//L1d L’’q= Ll+Laq//L1q//L2q
L’q= Ll+Laq//L1q multiplied by tbase=1/base
seen from the (i.e. 1/377 for 60Hz).
terminal
0.30(pu) 0.23(pu) 0.65(pu) 0.25(pu)
© 2021 Kai Sun 48
© 2021 Kai Sun 49
 Deriving sub‐transient and transient inductances (Classical)
1d=D fd=F
• Subtransient inductance L”d
d=  Ldid +LadiF +LadiD =  L”d id
F =0=  Ladid +LFiF +MRiD
D = 0= Ladid +MRiF +LDiD

L  LD  2M R If MR=Lad
Ld  Ld  L F
2
L fd  L1d Lad L fd L1d
ad
LF LD  M R 2 Ld  Ld  L2ad  Ll 
L fd Lad  L fd L1d  L1d Lad Lad L fd  Lad L1d  L fd L1d

If MR=LD or MRMD=MFLD as assumed in some textbooks

L”d =Ld L2ad /LD

• Transient inductance L’d: open circuit of the damping winding branch iD=0
d=  Ldid +LadiF =  L’ i d d
F =0 =  Ladid +LFiF

Lad L fd
L’d= Ld  L2 ad /LF  Ll 
Lad  L fd
© 2021 Kai Sun 50
 Synchronous, Transient and Sub‐transient Inductances

(1  sTd )(1  sTd)

Ld ( s )  Ld
(1  sTd0 )(1  sTd0 )

• Under steady-state condition: s=0 (t)

Ld(0)=Ld (d-axis synchronous inductance)

• During a rapid transient: s

TdTd Lad L fd L1d

Ld  Ld ()  Ld  Ll  (d-axis sub-transient inductance)
Td0Td0 Lad L fd  Lad L1d  L fd L1d
• Without the damper winding: s>>1/T’d and 1/T’d0 but << 1/T”d and 1/T”d0

Td Lad L fd (d-axis transient inductance)

Ld  Ld ()  Ld  Ll 
Td0 Lad  L fd

© 2021 Kai Sun 51

Ordering of Time and Inductance Constants

In general, there are:

R1d>>Rfd, Lad>>Lfd and L1d
R2q>>R1q, Laq>>L1q and L2q L1d =LD – Lad Lfd=LF – Lad L1q=LQ – Laq L2q=LG – Laq

𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿 // //
𝑇′ > 𝑇′ >> 𝑇′′ > 𝑇′′
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 //𝐿 //𝐿 𝐿

𝑇′ > 𝑇′ >> 𝑇′′ > 𝑇′′
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

Ld = Ll+Lad > L'd = Ll+Lad //Lfd = Ld L2ad /LF > L"d = Ll+Lad //Lfd //L1d (if assuming MR=Lad)

=Ld L2ad /LD (in some books, if assuming MRMD=MFLD)

Lq = Ll+Laq > L'q = Ll+Laq//L1q=Lq L2aq /LQ > L"q = Ll+Laq//L1q//L2q

=Lq L2aq /LG (in some books)
© 2021 Kai Sun 52
 Xd ≥ Xq ≥ X’q ≥ X’d ≥ X”q ≥ X”d >Xl T’d0 > T’d > >T”d0 > T”d
T’q0 > T’q > >T”q0 > T”q
© 2021 Kai Sun 53
 Parameter Estimation by Frequency Response Tests

T’d0 > T’d > >T”d0 > T”d

(1  sTd )(1  sTd)
Ld ( s )  Ld
(1  sTd0 )(1  sTd0 ) 1/T’d0 <1/ T’d << 1/T”d0 <1/T”d

T’d0=5, T’d =1, T”d0 =0.05, T”d=0.01 (s)

Bode Plot

-20dB/decade

© 2021 Kai Sun 54

 Swing Equations
dm J combined moment of inertia of generator
J  Ta  Tm  Te and turbine, kgm2
dt
m angular velocity of the rotor, mech. rad/s
t time, s
Ta accelerating torque in N.m
Tm mechanical torque in N.m
Te electromagnetic torque in N.m

• Define per unit inertia constant

1 J 0 m
2

H (s)
(s)
2 VAbase

2H
J VA base
 2
0m

Some references define TM or M=2H, called the mechanical starting time, i.e. the time required for rated torque to
accelerate the rotor from standstill to rated speed
© 2021 Kai Sun 55
 dm Angular position of the rotor in electrical radian
J  Ta  Tm  Te with respect to a synchronously rotating reference
dt
2H dm
 02m
VA base
dt
 Tm  Te   r t  0t   0 in rad

d  m  Tm  Te d
2H     r   0    r in rad/s
dt   0 m  VA base /  0 m dt
d  m  Tm  Te d 2 d  r d (  r )
2H     in rad/s2
dt   0 m 
 Tbase dt 2 dt dt
dr
2H  Tm  Te (in per unit) d 2 d ( r ) d (  r )
dt   0   0
in rad/s 2

where dt 2 dt dt
m r / p f r
r (in per unit) =    / p    r 1 d
0m 0 0  r  
0 0 dt
f

2 H d 2
 Tm  Te
0 dt 2

If adding a damping term 2 H d 2 K D d

 Tm  Te - K D r =Tm  Te -
proportional to speed deviation: 0 dt 2
0 dt
© 2021 Kai Sun 56
 State Space and Block diagram Representations

2 H d 2 K D d
 T  T - K  =T  T 
0 dt 2 m e D r m e
0 dt

d (r )
2H  Tm  Te - K D r
dt
1 d
= r
0 dt

© 2021 Kai Sun 57

 State‐Space Representation of a Synchronous Machine

So far, we modeled all critical dynamics about a synchronous machine:

• State variables (pX):

– stator and rotor voltages, currents or flux linkages
– swing equations (rotor angle and speed)
• Time constants:
– Inertia: 2H
– Sub-transient and transient time constants, e.g. T’d0 and T”d0
• Other parameters
– Stator and rotor self- or mutual-inductances and resistances
– Rotor mechanical torque Tm and stator electromagnetic torque Te

© 2021 Kai Sun 58

 State Space Model on a Salient‐pole Machine
• Consider 5 windings: d, q, F (fd), D (1d) and Q (1q)
– Voltage and flux equations: d
e  R  i  L  i  ΩΨ Ψ  Li
dt
e0  i0   0   0 
e  i     
d   d  d   r q
e fd  i fd   fd   0 
e   , i   , Ψ   , ΩΨ   d
0  i1d  1d   0 
 Ψ  (R L1  Ω)  Ψ  e
e  i       dt
q   q  q  
r d

0     
i1q  1q   0  d r
2H  Tm  Te  Tm  ( d iq  q id )
dt
– Swing equations: d
 r  0  r  1
dt

• Define state vector x=[d fd 1d q 1q r ]T

Thus, the state-space model: x  f (x, e fd , Tm , ed , eq )

• efd and Tm are usually known but ed and eq are related to its loading conditions (the grid),
so algebraic power-flow equations should be introduced.
• The grid model is a set of Differential-Algebraic Equations (DAEs)

© 2021 Kai Sun 59

 Simplified Models
pΨ  (R L1  Ω)  Ψ  e
• Salient: [d fd 1d q 1q r ]T
Round: [d fd 1d q 1q 2q r ]T 2 H  pr  Tm  Te
p  r  1
Let pd=pq=0 and r=

• Salient: [fd 1d 1q r ]T (2.1 model) 0

Round: [fd 1d 1q 2q r ]T (2.2 model)
– Inertia 2H  pr
– Transient T’d0  pfd T’q0  p1q
– Sub-transient T”d0  p1d T”q0  p2q

Let p1d =p2q=0 (neglect one

damper winding in each axis)

• Salient: [fd r ]T (1.0 model / 1-axis model)

Round: [fd 1q r ]T (1.1 model / 2-axis model)
– Inertia 2H  pr
– Transient T’d0  pfd T’q0  p1q

Constant flux linkages

• [r ]T (0.0 model / classical model)

– Inertia 2H  pr
© 2021 Kai Sun 60
 ed= rq Raid +pd = rq Raid
Neglecting pd and pq eq= rd Raiq +pq = rd Raiq

© 2021 Kai Sun 61

 Generator models neglecting pd and pq Internal-voltage-behind-reactance model
Flux equations (AEs): Voltage equations (ODEs): appearing under different conditions
d = -Ldid +Ladifd+Ladi1d ed = -Raid - rq +pd
q = -Lqiq +Laqi1q+Laqi2q eq = -Raiq + rd +pq It
fd = -Ladid +LFifd+MRdi1d efd = Rfdifd + pfd
1d = -Ladid +MRdifd+LDi1d 0 = R1di1d + p1d
1q = -Laqiq +LQi1q+MRqi2q 0 = R1qi1q + p1q
2q = -Laqiq +MRqi1q+LGi2q 0 = R2qi2q + p2q
where MRdLD MRqLG
It
• There are four state variables fd,1d,1q, 2q in voltage equations.
• Our goal is to find four ODEs using only Xd, Xq, X’d, X’q, X”d, X”q,
T’d0, T’q0, T”d0, T”q0 as parameters, which can be identified by
frequency response tests.
• We prefer more meaningful state variables such as its internal
voltages or emfs than flux linkages for a stability study on a power
system having many generators.
ed = – Raid+Xqiq +0 Steady-state voltage equations indicate
eq = – Raiq– Xdid +Xadifd an internal voltage in the q-axis

© 2021 Kai Sun 62

 Steady-state:
Voltage equations: ed   Ra id  r q   Ra id  X q iq  r Laq (i1q  i2 q ) ed = – Raid+Xqiq +0
ed = -Raid - rq eq   Ra iq  r d   Ra iq  X d id  r Lad (i fd  i1d ) eq = – Raiq– Xdid +Xadifd
eq = -Raiq + rd
• Find internal voltage E” =E”d+jE”q under sub-transient conditions:
efd = Rfdifd + pfd
ed   Ra id  X qiq  Ed Assume: Ed  k 2 q 2q
0 = R1di1d + p1d
eq  Ra iq  X did  Eq Eq  k1d 1d
0 = R1qi1q + p1q
0 = R2qi2q + p2q ed  Ra id  X qiq  Ed  X qiq  k 2 q (  Laq iq + M Rq i1q  LG i2 q )  X qiq  r Laq (i1q  i2q )
eq  Ra iq   X did  Eq   X did  k1d (  Lad id + M Rd i fd  LD i1d )   X d id  r Lad (i fd  i1d )
Flux equations:
d = -Ldid +Ladifd+Ladi1d
L ad Ed
q = -Lqiq +Laqi1q+Laqi2q Ed   r  2q  q   
L aq
 2q
LG r LG
fd = -Ladid +LFifd+MRdi1d
L ad Eq L ad
1d = -Ladid +MRdifd+LDi1d Eq   r  1d  d    1d
LD r LD
1q = -Laqiq +LQi1q+MRqi2q
2q = -Laqiq +MRqi1q+LGi2q
 q   q  Lqiq
M Rd  L D M Rq  LG
 d   d  Ldid
D. W. Olive, Digital Simulation of Synchronous Machine
Transients, IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. PAS-87, No. 8, Aug. 1968

© 2021 Kai Sun 63

Voltage equations: ed   Ra id  r q   Ra id  X q iq  r Laq (i1q  i2 q )
ed = -Raid - rq eq   Ra iq  r d   Ra iq  X d id  r Lad (i fd  i1d )
eq = -Raiq + rd • Find internal voltage E’ =E’d+jE’q under transient conditions (i1d=0, i2q=0):
efd = Rfdifd + pfd
ed   Ra id  X q iq  Ed Assume: Ed  k1q 1q
0 = R1di1d + p1d
eq  Ra iq  X d id  Eq Eq  k fd fd
0 = R1qi1q + p1q
0 = R2qi2q + p2q ed  Raid  X q iq  k1q (  Laq iq + LQ i1q  0)  X qiq  r Laq (i1q  0)
eq  Raiq   X d id  k fd (  Lad id + LF i fd  0)   X i   L (i  0)
Flux equations: d d r ad fd

d = -Ldid +Ladifd+Ladi1d L aq Ed L aq

Ed  r  1q  q     1q
q = -Lqiq +Laqi1q+Laqi2q LQ r LQ
fd = -Ladid +LFifd+MRdi1d Eq  r
L ad
 fd Eq L ad
 d    fd
1d = -Ladid +MRdifd+LDi1d LF r LF
1q = -Laqiq +LQi1q+MRqi2q
2q = -Laqiq +MRqi1q+LGi2q
 q   q  Lq iq
M Rd  L D M Rq  LG  d   d  Ld id
D. W. Olive, Digital Simulation of Synchronous Machine
Transients, IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. PAS-87, No. 8, Aug. 1968

© 2021 Kai Sun 64

 Finding a detailed generator model
L2ad Eq  Eq
Voltage equations: L aq L X d  X d   r id 
Ed  r  1q Td0  F X d  X d
ed = -Raid - rq LQ R fd LF
L2aq Ed  Ed
eq = -Raiq + rd L LQ
X q  X q   r iq 
Eq  r ad  fd Tq0  X q  X q
efd = Rfdifd + pfd LF R1 q LQ
0 = R1di1d + p1d L2ad L2ad
L
Ed   r ad  2 q LD  X d  X d   r
0 = R1qi1q + p1q LG Td0 
LF LD
0 = R2qi2q + p2q L R1 d L2aq
Eq   r ad  1d X q  X q   r
LD L2aq LG
LG 
Flux equations: LQ
Tq0 
d = -Ldid +Ladifd+Ladi1d def  r L ad R2 q d X  X d X d  X d
E fd = e fd Td0 E q   d  E q   E q  E fd
q = -Lqiq +Laqi1q+Laqi2q R fd dt X d  X d X d  X d
fd = -Ladid +LFifd+MRdi1d d X q  X q X q  X q
Eliminate all but E, X, T, id, iq Tq0 E d    E d   E d
1d = -Ladid +MRdifd+LDi1d dt 
Xq  Xq  
Xq  Xq 
1q = -Laqiq +LQi1q+MRqi2q (modeled as a current source d
Td0 E q  E q  E q   X d  X d   id
2q = -Laqiq +MRqi1q+LGi2q having internal voltages behind a dt
reactance) Tq0 E d  E d  E d   X q  X q   iq
d
M Rd  L D M Rq  LG dt
© 2021 Kai Sun 65
 6th order (2.2) Detailed Model
 d
 dt    r   rad
 r  rad/s
 2 H d  r  P  P  K  r
  0 dt m e D
0 H, T’, T”  sec

T  d E    X d  X d  E   X d  X d  E   E P, E, V, I, i, X, L, R  pu
 d 0 dt q X d  X d
q
X d  X d
q fd


T  d E    X q  X q  E   X q  X q  E 
 q 0 dt d X q  X q
d
X q  X q
d

 Eg
 d
 d 0 dt E q  E q  E q   X d  X d   id
T 
If X d  X q X d
 Ig
 q 0 dt d d d  q q q
T  d E   E   E   X   X   i Et  E   ( Ra  jX d ) It E”

E t  ed  jeq  e  j (  / 2) E g
It  id  jiq  e  j (  / 2) Ig Used in short-circuit analysis

ed   Ra id  X qiq  E d
eq   Ra iq  X did  E q
Eg and Ig are respectively Et and It seen in the
Pe  ed id  eq iq
common reference of the system
© 2021 Kai Sun 66
 4th order (1.1) Two‐Axis Model If Tq0’=0 , a 3rd order (1.0) 1-axis model is obtained.
• Ignore sub-transient dynamics
(let i1d=i2q=0 or T”d0=T”q0=0)

 d
 dt  r

 2 H d r  P  P  K r i1d Efd
 +
 0 dt m e D
0  1
 d-axis: id + + Xd X’d + Eq
1 Td0s
T  d E    E   ( X  X  )  i  E
 d 0 dt q q d d d fd
i2q
 q-axis: 
Tq0 d Ed   Ed  ( X q  X q )  iq iq + XqX’q
1
Ed
 dt +
1 Tq0s
E t  e d  je q  e  j (    / 2 ) E g Eg
It  id  jiq  e  j (    / 2 ) Ig If X d  X q
  rad Ig
e d   R a id  X q iq  E d r  rad/s Et  E   ( Ra  jX d ) It E’
e q   R a iq  X d id  E q H, T’, T”  sec
P, E, V, I, i, X, R  pu
Pe  e d id  e q iq Used for stability studies
© 2021 Kai Sun 67
 2nd order (0.0) Classical Model

•Only keep swing equations as differential equations

•Assume X’d=X’q
Et Eg

 d
 dt  r
Ig

 2 H d  r
 r
 Pm  Pe  K D
 0 dt 0

E g  e j (    / 2 ) E t
Ig  e j (    / 2 ) It
E t  E   ( R a  jX d ) It E’ is constant and can be estimated by
computing its pre-disturbance value
P  real ( E I * )
e t t
E  | Et 0  ( Ra  jX d ) It 0 |
© 2021 Kai Sun 68
 Phasor Diagram
E g  E t  1(  90) Terminal voltage and current
seen from the grid side
q I  I  1(  90)
g t

jX q It
E q Steady state

E  jX q Iq ed   Ra id  X q iq
eq   Ra iq  X d id  X ad i fd
jX d Id
jX qIq 𝐸 =𝐸 – (Ra+ jXq 𝐼

E  where 𝐸 =jXadifd-j(Xd-Xq)id = jXadifd (if Xd=Xq=Xs)

jX dId
Transient dynamic
Im Ra It If X d  X q
ed   Ra id  X q iq  Ed
 eq   Ra iq  X d id  Eq Et  E   ( Ra  jX d ) It
E t ( E g )
i
 
It ( I g ) Sub-transient dynamic
ed   Ra id  X qiq  Ed If X d  X q
eq   Ra iq  X did  Eq Et  E   ( Ra  jX d ) It
d 69
© 2021 Kai Sun
Simplified models neglecting saliency effects Terminal voltage and current
seen from the grid side:
For short‐circuit analysis q
It E g  E t  1(  90)
jX s It Ig  It  1(  90)
E q
E 

jX  It
For stability studies
It
E 
jX It

Im Ra It

For steady‐state analysis E t ( E g )

i
 I ( Ig )
t

d
© 2021 Kai Sun 70
 Comparison of PSS/E Generator Models

© 2021 Kai Sun 71

 Source: J. Weber, “Description of Machine
Models GENROU, GENSAL, GENTPF and
GENTPJ,” PowerWorld, Oct 2015

© 2021 Kai Sun 72