❯♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞❡ ❋❡❞❡r❛❧ ❘✉r❛❧ ❞♦ ❙❡♠✐ár✐❞♦✲❯❋❊❘❙❆

❉❡♣❛rt❛♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❈✐ê♥❝✐❛s ❊①❛t❛s ❡ ◆❛t✉r❛✐s

❈✉rs♦✿ ❇❛❝❤❛r❡❧❛❞♦ ❡♠ ❈✐ê♥❝✐❛ ❡ ❚❡❝♥♦❧♦❣✐❛ ❡ ❈♦♠♣✉t❛çã♦
❉✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛✿ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ▲✐♥❡❛r
❆❧✉♥♦✭❛✮✿

❙♦❧✉çõ❡s ❞♦s tr❛❜❛❧❤♦s ❞❡ ✶ ❛ ✼

✶✳ ❈❧❛ss✐✜q✉❡ ❛s ♠❛tr✐③❡s ❝♦♠ t♦❞♦s ♦s t✐♣♦s ✈✐st♦s ❡♠ s❛❧❛✳

     
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 3 1
✭❛✮
0 1  0 1 0 0  ✭❝✮  0 2 0 
✭❜✮ 
 
 0 0 0 0 
 0 0 3
 1 2 3 4 
5 6 6 6

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

✭❛✮ ♠❛tr✐③ q✉❛❞r❛❞❛✱ ♠❛tr✐③ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ ♠❛tr✐③ ✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞❡✱ ♠❛tr✐③ s✐♠étr✐❝❛❀

✭❜✮ ♠❛tr✐③ r❡t❛♥❣✉❧❛r✱ ♥ã♦ q✉❛❞r❛❞❛✱ ♥ã♦ s✐♠étr✐❝❛✱ ♥ã♦ ✳✳✳❀
✭❝✮ ♠❛tr✐③ q✉❛❞r❛❞❛✱ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r s✉♣❡r✐♦r✳
✷✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐q✉❡ ❛ ♠❛tr✐③ A ♣❡❧❛ ♠❛tr✐③ B ❡♠ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛s♦✳
   
1 3 1 5 −1 0 0
✭❛✮ A= 4 5 6  ❡ B= 0 0 1 2 
7 8 9 3 1 4 5
❙♦❧✉çã♦✿
     
1 3 1 5 −1 0 0 8 0 7 11
 4 5 6 · 0 0 1 2  =  38 2 29 40 
7 8 9 3 1 4 5 62 2 44 61
 
5

 4 
  
✭❜✮ A=
 3 
 ❡ B= 6 5 4 3 2 1
 2 
1
❙♦❧✉çã♦✿
 
5

 4 
  

 3  · 6 5 4 3 2 1 = ♥ã♦
 é ♣♦ssí✈❡❧
 2 
1
✸✳ ❖ ♣r♦❞✉t♦ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③❡s ♥ã♦ é ❝♦♠✉t❛t✐✈♦✳ ❊♥❝♦♥tr❡ ❞✉❛s ♠❛tr✐③❡s A ❡ B✱ ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♠ 2✱ ❞❡ ♠♦❞♦

q✉❡ A × B 6= B × A✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ ◆❡♠ s❡♠♣r❡ ✈❛❧❡ ❛ ❝♦♠✉t❛t✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♠❛tr✐③❡s✿ ❊♠ ❣❡r❛❧✱ A×B é ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ B × A✱

❝♦♠♦ é ♦ ❝❛s♦ ❞♦ ♣r♦❞✉t♦ q✉❡ s❡❣✉❡✿

   
1 2 3 1 2
A= 2 4 6  ❡ B= 3 5 
3 6 9 7 9

     
1 2 3 5 7 7
A·B = · =
2 4 2 1 14 14
     
3 5 1 2 13 26
B·A= · =
2 1 2 4 4 8

P♦rt❛♥t♦✱ A · B 6= B · A✳
✹✳ P♦♥❤❛ ♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡s❝❛❞❛ ❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❡ ❛ ♦♣❡r❛çã♦ ♣❛ss♦ ❛ ♣❛ss♦✿
 
1 0 0
✭❛✮ A= 3 1 2 
0 0 4
❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

     
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
 3 1 2  ∼  0 1 2  L2 → L2 − 3L1 ∼  0 1 0  L2 → L2 − 2L3
0 0 4 0 0 1 L3 → 41 L3 0 0 1
 
1 −1 2 5
✭❜✮ B =  −2 3 2 1 
0 1 4 2
❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

   
1 −1 2 5 1 0 8 16 L1 → L1 + L2
 −2 3 2 1  L2 → L2 + 2L1 ∼ 0 1 6 11 
0 1 4 2 0 0 −2 −9 L3 → L3 − L2
   
1 0 8 16 1 0 0 −20 L1 → L1 − 8L3
 0 1 6 11  ∼ 0 1 0 −16  L2 → L2 − 6L3
0 0 1 9/2 L3 → − 21 L3 0 0 1 9/2
 
 x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 + 3x4 − 7x5 = 14
✺✳ ❊♥❝♦♥tr❡ t♦❞❛s ❛s s♦❧✉çõ❡s ❞♦ s✐st❡♠❛✳ 2x1 + 6x2 +x3 −2x4 +5x5 = −2
x1 + 3x2 − x3 + 2x5 = −1


❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

     
1 3 2 3 −7 14 1 3 2 3 −7 14 1 3 2 3 −7 14
 2 6 1 −2 5 −2  ∼  0 0 −3 −8 19 −30  ∼  0 0 −3 −8 19 −30 
1 3 −1 0 2 −1 0 0 −3 −3 9 −15 0 0 0 5 −10 15
     
1 3 2 3 −7 14 1 3 0 3 −5 10 1 3 0 0 1 1
∼  0 0 1 8/3 −19/3 10  ∼  0 0 1 0 −1 2  ∼  0 0 1 0 −1 2 
0 0 0 1 −2 3 0 0 0 1 −2 3 0 0 0 1 −2 3

 x1 + 3x2 + x5 = 1
x3 − x5 = 2
x4 − 2x5 = 3 ⇒ x4 = 3 + 2x5


❋❛③❡♥❞♦ x5 = α ❡ x2 = β ✱ t❡♠♦s✿

x4 = 2 + α x3 = 2 + α x1 = 1 − 3β − α

❆ s♦❧✉çã♦ ❞❡ss❡ s✐st❡♠❛ t❡♠ ❛ ❢♦r♠❛

(1 − 3β − α, β, 2 + α, 3 + 2α, α)
  
1 −2 3 −1
✻✳ ❊♥❝♦♥tr❡ ♦ ♣♦st♦ ❞❛ ♠❛tr✐③ A =  2 −1 2 3 
3 1 2 3

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ P♦st♦ ✕ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♥❤❛s ♥ã♦ ♥✉❧❛s ❞❛ ♠❛tr✐③ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ r❡❞✉③✐❞❛ à ❢♦r♠❛ ❡s❝❛❞❛✳
   
1 −2 3 −1 1 −2 3 −1
 0 3 −4 5 ∼ 0 1 −4/3 5/3 
0 7 −7 6 0 7 −7 6
   
1 0 1/3 7/3 1 0 0 38/9
∼  0 1 −4/3 5/3  ∼  0 1 0 −11/7 
0 0 7/3 −17/3 0 0 1 −17/7

P♦st♦❂✸
 
1 2 1 0
 0 1 2 1 
✼✳ ❆❝❤❡ ❛ ✐♥✈❡rs❛ ❞❛ ♠❛tr✐③ A = 
 1

3 0 1 
4 1 3 −1

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

   
1 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 0 0
 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 0   0 1 2 1 0 1 0 0 

 1
 ∼  
3 0 1 0 0 1 0   0 1 −1 1 −1 0 1 0 
4 1 3 −1 0 0 0 1 0 −7 −1 −1 −4 0 0 1
   
1 0 −3 −2 1 −2 0 0 1 0 0 −2 2 −1 −1 0
 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 0   0 1 2 1 0 1 0 0 
∼ 
 0
 ∼  
0 −3 0 −1 −1 1 0   0 0 −3 0 −1 −1 1 0 
0 0 13 6 −4 7 0 1 0 0 13 6 −4 7 0 1
   
1 0 0 −2 2 −1 −1 0 1 0 0 0 −14/18 −1/9 4/9 1/3
 0 1 0 1 −2/3 1/3 2/3 0   0 1 0 0 13/18 −7/3 −1/18 −1/6 
∼ 
 0
 ∼  
0 1 0 1/3 1/3 −1/3 0   0 0 1 0 1/3 1/3 −1/3 0 
0 0 0 6 −25/3 8/3 13/3 1 0 0 0 1 −25/18 8/18 13/18 1/6
 
1 0 0 0 −7/9 −1/9 4/9 1/3
 0 1 0 0 13/18 −7/3 −1/18 −1/6 
 
 0 0 1 0 1/3 1/3 −1/3 0 
0 0 0 1 −25/18 4/9 13/18 1/6
✽✳ P♦r ▲❛♣❧❛❝❡ ❛❝❤❡ ♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t❡ ❞❛s ♠❛tr✐③❡s ❛❜❛✐①♦✿
   
1 2 1 2 0
✭❛✮
1 3 ✭❜✮  1 3 0 
1 −1 2

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ ▲❡♠❜r❛♥❞♦✿
∆ij = (−1)i+j |Aij |
det(A) = ai1 ∆i1 + · · · + ain ∆in
1 2
✭❛✮ det = 1(−1)1+1 · 3 + 2(−1)1+2 · 1 = 1(1) · 3 + 2(−1) · 1 = 1
1 3
1 2 0
✭❜✮ det 1 3 0 = (0)∆13 + (0)∆23 + (2)∆33
1 −1 2
1 2
∆33 = (−1)3+3 =1·1=1
1 3
det(B) = 2 · 1 = 2
 ✾✳ ❈❛❧❝✉❧❡ ♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t❡ ❡ ❛❝❤❡ ❛ ✐♥✈❡rs❛ ❞❛s ♠❛tr✐③❡s✿
   
1 0 1 2 3
✭❛✮
0 1 ✭❜✮  2 3 0 
3 0 −1

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

1 0
✭❛✮ det(A) = =1
0 1
 
1 0
A−1 =
0 1

1 2 3
✭❜✮ det(B) = 2 3 0 = 3∆13 + (0)∆23 + (−1)∆33
3 0 −1

2 3
∆13 = (−1)1+3 = (1)(−9) = −9
3 0

1 2
∆33 = (−1)3+3 = (1)(−1) = −1
2 3

     
1 2 3 1 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0
 2 3 0 0 1 0  ∼  0 −1 −6 −2 1 0  ∼  0 1 6 2 −1 0 
3 0 −1 0 0 1 0 −6 −10 −3 0 1 0 −6 −10 −3 0 1
   
1 0 −9 −3 2 0 1 0 0 3/26 −1/13 9/26
∼  0 1 6 2 −1 0  ∼  0 1 0 −1/3 5/13 −3/13 
0 0 26 9 −6 1 0 0 1 9/26 −6/26 1/26
 
3/26 −1/13 9/26
B −1 =  −1/3 5/13 −3/13 
9/26 −6/26 1/26

✶✵✳ ▼♦str❡ q✉❡ R2 é ❡s♣❛ç♦ ✈❡t♦r✐❛❧ ❝♦♠ ❛s ♦♣❡r❛çõ❡s ✉s✉❛✐s ❞❡ s♦♠❛ ❡ ♣r♦❞✉t♦ ♣♦r ❡s❝❛❧❛r ❡♠ R2 ✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ V = R2 = {(x, y); x, y ∈ R} é ✉♠ ❡s♣❛ç♦ ✈❡t♦r✐❛❧ ❝♦♠ ❛s ♦♣❡r❛çõ❡s ❞❡ ❛❞✐çã♦

❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛çã♦ ♣♦r ✉♠ ♥ú♠❡r♦ r❡❛❧ ❛ss✐♠ ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✿
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )

a · (x, y) = (ax, ay)

P❛r❛ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r ♦s ♦✐t♦s ❛①✐♦♠❛s ❞❡ ❡s♣❛ç♦ ✈❡t♦r✐❛❧✱ s❡❥❛♠ u = (x1 , y1 )✱ v = (x2 , y2 ) ❡ w = (x3 , y3 )
(A1 ) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)❀
(A2 ) u + v = v + u❀
(A3 ) ∃0 = (0, 0) ∈ R2 ✱ ∀u ∈ R2 ✱ u + 0 = u❀
(A4 ) ∀u = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 ✱ ∃(−u) = (−x1 , −x2 ) ∈ R2 ✱ u + (−u) = 0❀
(M5 ) (ab)v = a(bv)❀
(M6 ) (a + b)v = au + bv ❀
(M7 ) a(u + v) = au + av ❀
(M8 ) 1u = u
P❛r❛ ∀u, v, w ∈ V ❡ ∀a, b ∈ R✳
✶✶✳ ▼♦str❡ q✉❡

✭❛✮ W = {(x, y, z, t) ∈ R4 |x + t = 0 e z − t = 0} é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R4 ✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

• ❙❡❥❛♠ u, v ∈ W ✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ u = (x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 ) ❡ v = (x2 , y2 , z2 , t2 )✱ t❡♠♦s

u+v = (x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 , t2 )

= (−t1 , y1 , t1 , t1 ) + (−t2 , y2 , t2 , t2 )
= (−t1 − t2 , y1 + y2 , t1 + t2 , t1 + t2 )
= (u + v) ∈ W

• ❙❡❥❛ u ∈ W ✱ k ∈ R✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ u = (x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 )

ku = k(x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 )
= k(−t1 , y1 , t1 , t1 )
= (−kt1 , ky1 , kt1 , kt1 )
= (ku) ∈ W

P♦rt❛♥t♦✱ W é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R4 ✳
✭❜✮ S = {(x, y) ∈ R2 |y = −x} é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R2 ✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

• ❙❡❥❛♠ u, v ∈ S ✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ u = (x1 , y1 ) ❡ v = (x2 , y2 )✱ t❡♠♦s

u+v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 )

= (x1 , −x1 ) + (x2 , −x2 )
= (x1 + x2 , −x1 − x2 )
= (u + v) ∈ W

• ❙❡❥❛ u ∈ W ✱ k ∈ R✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ u = (x1 , y1 )

ku = k(x1 , y1 )
= k(x1 , −x1 )
= (kx1 , −kx1 )
= (ku) ∈ W

P♦rt❛♥t♦✱ W é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R4 ✳
✭❝✮ S = {(x, y)|x + 3y = 2} ♥ã♦ é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R2 ✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

• ❙❡❥❛♠ u, v ∈ S ✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ u = (x1 , y1 ) ❡ v = (x2 , y2 )✱ t❡♠♦s

u+v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 )

= (2 − 3y1 , y1 ) + (2 − 3y2 , y2 )
= (4 − 3y1 − 3y2 , y1 + y2 )
= (u + v) ∈
/W

P♦rt❛♥t♦✱ ♥ã♦ é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ✈❡t♦r✐❛❧ ❞❡ R2 ✳

✶✷✳ ❊①♣❧✐q✉❡ s❡ S = {(x, y, z)|x = z 2 } é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R3 ✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

• ❙❡❥❛♠ u, v ∈ W ✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) ❡ v = (x2 , y2 , z2 )✱ t❡♠♦s

u+v = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 )

= (z12 , y1 , z1 ) + (z22 , y2 , z2 )
= (z12 + z22 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )
6= (z12 + z22 + 2z1 z2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ) = (u + v) ∈
/S

P♦rt❛♥t♦✱ S ♥ã♦ é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R3 ✳

✶✸✳ ❊♠ R2 ♠❛♥t❡♥❤❛ ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐çã♦ ❞♦ ♣r♦❞✉t♦ αv ❞❡ ✉♠ ♥ú♠❡r♦ α ♣♦r ✉♠ ✈❡t♦r✱ ♠❛s ♠♦❞✐✜q✉❡✱ ❞❛s
três ♠❛♥❡✐r❛s ❛ s❡❣✉✐r✱ ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐çã♦ ❞❡ s♦♠❛ u + v ❞♦s ✈❡t♦r❡s u = (x, y) ❡ v = (x′ , y ′ )✳ ❊♠ ❝❛❞❛
t❡♥t❛t✐✈❛✱ ❞✐③❡r q✉❛✐s ❛①✐♦♠❛s ❞❡ ❡s♣❛ç♦ ✈❡t♦r✐❛❧ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛♠ ✈á❧✐❞♦s ❡ q✉❛✐s ♥ã♦ sã♦ ✈á❧✐❞♦s✳
✭❛✮ u + v = (x + y ′ , x′ + y)✳
✭❜✮ u + v = (xx′ , yy ′ )✳
✭❝✮ u + v = (3x + 3x′ , 5x + 5x′ )

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ ❯t✐❧✐③❛♠♦s ❛ ♠❡s♠❛ s❡q✉ê♥❝✐❛ ❞♦s ❛①✐♦♠❛s ❛♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♥❛ q✉❡stã♦ ✶✱ t❡♠♦s✿

✭❛✮ u + v = (x + y ′ , x′ + y) ❡ w = (x1 , y1 )
(A1 ) (u+v)+w = (x+y ′ , x′ +y)+(x1 , y1 ) = (x+y ′ +y1 , x′ +y+x1 ) = (x, y)+(y ′ +y1 , x′ +x1 ) 6=
u + (v + w)❀
(A2 ) u + v = (x + y ′ , x′ + y) = (y ′ + x, y + x′ ) = (y ′ , x′ ) + (y, x) 6= v + u❀
(A3 ) ∃0 = (0, 0) ∈ R2 ✱ ∀u ∈ R2 ✱ u + 0 = u❀
(A4 ) u = (x, y) ❡ (−u) = (−x, −y)✱ u + (−u) = (x − y, y − x) 6= 0 s❡ x 6= y ❀
(M5 ) (ab)v = a(bv)❀
(M6 ) (a + b)v = (ax + bx, ay + by) = (ax, by) + (by, bx) 6= av + bv ❀
(M7 ) a(u + v) 6= au + av ❀
(M8 ) 1u = u✳
✭❜✮ u + v = (xx′ , yy ′ ) ❡ v = (x1 , y1 )
(A1 ) (u+v)+w = (xx′ , yy ′ )+(x1 , y1 ) = (xx′ x1 , yy ′ y1 ) = (x, y)+(x′ +x1 , y ′ +y1 ) = u+(v +w)❀
(A2 ) u + v = (xx′ , yy ′ ) = (x′ x, y ′ y) = v + u❀
(A3 ) ∃0 = (0, 0) ∈ R2 ✱ ∀u ∈ R2 ✱ u + 0 = 0❀
(A4 ) u = (x, y) ❡ (−u) = (−x, −y)✱ u + (−u) = (−x2 , −y 2 ) 6= 0 s❡ x, y 6= 0❀
(M5 ) (ab)v = a(bv)❀
(M6 ) (a + b)v 6= au + bv ❀
(M7 ) a(u + v) = a(xx′ , yy ′ ) = (axx′ , ayy ′ ) 6= au + av ❀
(M8 ) 1u = u
✭❝✮ u + v = (3x + 3x′ , 5x + 5x′ ) ❡ w = (3x1 , 5x1 )
(A1 ) (u + v) + w = (3x + 3x′ , 5x + 5x′ ) + (3x1 , 5y1 ) = (3x + 3x′ + 3x1 , 5x + 5x′ + 5x1 ) =
(3x, 5x) + (3x′ + 3x1 , 5x′ + 5x1 ) = u + (v + w)❀
(A2 ) u + v = (3x + 3x′ , 5x + 5x′ ) = (3x′ + 3x, 5x′ + 5x) = (3x′ , 5x′ ) + (3x, 5x) = v + u❀
(A3 ) ∃0 = (0, 0) ∈ R2 ✱ ∀u ∈ R2 ✱ u + 0 = u❀
(A4 ) ∀u = (3x, 5x) ∈ R2 ✱ ∃(−u) = (−3x, −5x) ∈ R2 ✱ u + (−u) = 0❀
(M5 ) (ab)v = a(bv)❀
(M6 ) (a + b)v = (a + b)(3x, 5x) = a(3x, 5x) + b(3x, 5x) = av + bv ❀
(M7 ) a(u + v) = a(3x + 3x′ , 5x + 5x′ ) = (3ax + 3ax′ , 5ax + 5ax′ ) = (3ax, 5ax) + (3ax′ , 5ax′ ) =
au + av ❀
(M8 ) 1u = u✳

✶✹✳ ▼♦str❡ q✉❡ W = {(x, y, z, t) ∈ R4 | x + t = 0 ❡ z − t = 0} é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R4 ✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿

• ❙❡❥❛♠ u, v ∈ W ✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ u = (x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 ) ❡ v = (x2 , y2 , z2 , t2 )✱ t❡♠♦s

u+v = (x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 , t2 )

= (−t1 , y1 , t1 , t1 ) + (−t2 , y2 , t2 , t2 )
= (−t1 − t2 , y1 + y2 , t1 + t2 , t1 + t2 )
= (u + v) ∈ W
• ❙❡❥❛ u ∈ W ✱ k ∈ R✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ u = (x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 )

ku = k(x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 )
= k(−t1 , y1 , t1 , t1 )
= (−kt1 , ky1 , kt1 , kt1 )
= (ku) ∈ W

P♦rt❛♥t♦✱ W é s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R4 ✳
✶✺✳ ▼♦str❡ q✉❡ p(x) = x3 − 5x2 + 1✱ q(x) = 2x4 + 5x − 6 ❡ r(x) = x2 − 5x + 2 sã♦ ✈❡t♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛r♠❡♥t❡
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❡s✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿
❯t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❝❡✐t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ▲■✱ t❡♠♦s✿
a(x3 − 5x2 + 1) + b(2x4 + 5x − 6) + c(x2 − 5x + 2) = ✵

ax3 − 5ax2 + a + 2bx4 + 5bx − 6b) + cx2 − 5cx + 2c = ✵

x4 (2b) + x3 (a) + x2 (−5a + c) + x(5b − 5c) + (a − 6b + 2c) = ✵
❋❛③❡♥❞♦ ❛ ✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥ô♠✐♦s✱ t❡♠♦s✿
x4 (2b) + x3 (a) + x2 (−5a + c) + x(5b − 5c) + (a − 6b + 2c) = 0 · x4 + 0 · x3 + 0 · x2 + 0 · x + 0

 2b = 0 ⇒ b = 0
a=0
−5a + c = 0 ⇒ c = 0


❈♦♠♦ t♦❞♦s ♦s ❡s❝❛❧❛r❡s sã♦ ✐❣✉❛✐s ❛ ③❡r♦ ✭a = b = c = 0✮✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ {p(x), q(x), r(x)} é ▲■✳
❙♦❧✉çã♦ ❆❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛✿ ❈♦❧♦❝❛♠♦s ❝❛❞❛ ♣♦❧✐♥ô♠✐♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦s s❡✉s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ♥❛ ❧✐♥❤❛ ❞❛
♠❛tr✐③✳ ❊♠ s❡❣✉✐❞❛✱ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❛s ♦♣❡r❛çõ❡s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r❡s s♦❜r❡ ❛s ❧✐♥❤❛s✳ ❆s ♠❛tr✐③❡s r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡s
sã♦ s❡♠❡❧❤❛♥t❡s✳
 
0 1 −5 0 1 ← 0x4 + x3 − 5x2 + 0x + 1
 2 0 0 5 −6  ← 2x4 + 0x3 + 0x2 + 5x − 6
0 0 1 −5 2 ← 0x4 + 0x3 + 1x2 − 5x + 2

     
0 1 −5 0 1 2 0 0 5 −6 1 0 0 5/2 −3
 2 0 0 5 −6  ∼  0 1 −5 0 1  ∼  0 1 −5 0 1 
0 0 1 −5 2 0 0 1 −5 2 0 0 1 −5 2

 
1 0 0 5/2 −3
∼  0 1 0 −25 11 
0 0 1 −5 2

❈♦♠♦ ♥ã♦ ❤á ❧✐♥❤❛s ♥✉❧❛s✱ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ❞❡ss❡s ♣♦❧✐♥ô♠✐♦s é ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛çã♦ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞♦s ♦✉tr♦s✳
✶✻✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ♦ s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞♦ R3 ❣❡r❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦s ✈❡t♦r❡s ❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ A = {(−1, 3, 2), (2, −2, 1)}

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❢❛③❡r ✐ss♦ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❡q✉❛çã♦ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ t❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❛ss❛
♣❡❧❛ ♦r✐❣❡♠ ✭♣❛r❛ q✉❡ s❡❥❛ s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦✮✱ t❡♠♦s✿

x y z
det(A) = −1 3 2 = 3x + 4y + 2z − 6z + 4x + y
2 −2 1

3x + 4y + 2z − 6z + 4x + y = 0 ⇒ 7x + 5y − 4z = 0
3
❉❛í✱ t❡♠♦s ♦ s❡❣✉✐♥t❡ s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R ✱ S = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ; 7x + 5y − 4z = 0}
✶✼✳ ▼♦str❡ q✉❡ p(x) = x3 − 5x2 + 1✱ q(x) = 2x4 + 5x − 6 ❡ r(x) = x2 − 5x + 2 sã♦ ✈❡t♦r❡s ❧✐♥❡❛r♠❡♥t❡
✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t❡s✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ p(x) = x3 − 5x2 + 1✱ q(x) = 2x4 + 5x − 6 ❡ r(x) = x2 − 5x + 2✳ ❉❡✈❡♠♦s t❡♥t❛r ❡s❝r❡✈❡r

✉♠ ♣♦❧✐♥ô♠✐♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛çã♦ ❞♦s ❞❡♠❛✐s✳ P♦r ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✿

p(x) = aq(x) + br(x)

0 · x4 + x3 − 5x2 + 1 = a(2x4 + 5x − 6) + b(x2 − 5x + 2)

= 2ax4 + 5ax − 6a + bx2 − 5bx + 2b
= 2ax4 + bx2 + x(5a − 5b) + (2b − 6a)
= 2ax4 + 0 · x3 + bx2 + (5a − 5b)x + (2b − 6a)

❯t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❛ ✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥ô♠✐♦s✱ t❡♠♦s✿


x4 → 2a = 0 a = 0
x3 → 1 6= 0

▲♦❣♦✱ ♥ã♦ é ♣♦ssí✈❡❧ ❡①♣r❡ss❛r p(x) ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛çã♦ ❞❡ q(x) ❡ r(x)✳ P♦rt❛♥t♦✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
{p(x), q(x), r(x)} é ▲■✳
✶✽✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ♦ s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞♦ R3 ❣❡r❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦s ✈❡t♦r❡s ❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ A = {(−1, 3, 2), (2, −2, 1)}

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❢❛③❡r ✐ss♦ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❡q✉❛çã♦ ❞♦ ♣❧❛♥♦✱ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ t❛❧ ♣❧❛♥♦ ♣❛ss❛
♣❡❧❛ ♦r✐❣❡♠ ✭♣❛r❛ q✉❡ s❡❥❛ s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦✮✱ t❡♠♦s✿

x y z
det(A) = −1 3 2 = 3x + 4y + 2z − 6z + 4x + y
2 −2 1

3x + 4y + 2z − 6z + 4x + y = 0 ⇒ 7x + 5y − 4z = 0
3
❉❛í✱ t❡♠♦s ♦ s❡❣✉✐♥t❡ s✉❜❡s♣❛ç♦ ❞❡ R ✱ S = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 ; 7x + 5y − 4z = 0}
✶✾✳ P♦r q✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ V = {(0, 0, 0), (1, 2, 3), v1 } é ▲✳❉✳ ♠❡s♠♦ s❡♠ s❛❜❡r q✉❛✐s sã♦ ❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s
❞❡ v1 ❄

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ ❚♦❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥té♠ ♦ ✈❡t♦r ♥✉❧♦ é ▲❉✱ ❥á q✉❡ ♦ ✈❡t♦r ♥✉❧♦ ♣♦❞❡ s❡r ❡①♣r❡ss♦ ❝♦♠♦
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛çã♦ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❞❡ q✉❛❧q✉❡r ♦✉tr♦ ✈❡t♦r✿

0·v =✵

❉❛í✱ ♥❡♠ s❡q✉❡r ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠♦s ❝♦♥❤❡❝❡r v1 ♣❛r❛ s❛❜❡r q✉❡ V é ▲❉✳

✷✵✳ ▼♦str❡ q✉❡ B = {1, x − 1, x2 − 3x + 1} é ❜❛s❡ ♣❛r❛ P2 ❡ ❡①♣r✐♠❛ v = 2x2 − 5x + 6 ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛çã♦
❧✐♥❡❛r ❞♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ B ✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ ❋❛③❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛çã♦ ❧✐♥❡❛r 0 = α(1) + β(x − 1) + γ(x2 − 3x + 1)✱ ❡ ♠♦♥t❛♥❞♦ ♦ s✐st❡♠❛✱
♦❜t❡♠♦s  
0 0 1 ← 0 · x2 + 0 · x + 1
 0 1 −1  ← 0 · x2 + 1 · x − 1
1 −3 1 ← 1 · x2 − 3 · x + 1
       
0 0 1 1 −3 1 1 −3 1 1 0 0
 0 1 −1  ∼  0 1 −1  ∼  0 1 0 ∼ 0 1 0 
1 −3 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

❈♦♠♦ ❛ ♠❛tr✐③ q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ Bé ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ♠❛tr✐③ q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❛ ❜❛s❡ ❝❛♥ô♥✐❝❛
❞❡ P2 ✱ t❡♠♦s q✉❡ B é ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ P2 ✭{1, x, x2 })✳

v = a(1) + b(x − 1) + c(x2 − 3x + 1)

2x2 − 5x + 6 = a + bx − b + cx2 − 3cx + c

= cx2 + (b − 3c)x + (a + c)


 c=2
b = 3c = −5 ⇒ b = −5 + 3(2) = −5 + 6 = 1
a+c=6 ⇒ a=6−2=4


❖✉ s❡❥❛✱
v = 4(1) + 1(x − 1) + 2(x2 − 3x + 1)
✷✶✳ S1 = {(a, b, c, d)| a + b + c + d = 0} ❡♥❝♦♥tr❡ Dim(S1 )✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿
S1 = {(a, b, c, d)| a + b + c + d = 0}
❚❡♠♦s q✉❡✿ d = −a − b − c
(a, b, c, −a − b − c) = a(1, 0, 0, −1) + b(0, 1, 0, −1) + c(0, 0, 1, −1)

▲♦❣♦✱ S = [(1, 0, 0, −1), (0, 1, 0, −1), (0, 0, 1, −1)]✳

❇❛st❛ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛r q✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ {(1, 0, 0, −1), (0, 1, 0, −1), (0, 0, 1, −1)} é ▲■ ✭❝♦♠♦ ❞❡ ❢❛t♦ é✮✱ t❡♠♦s
q✉❡ {(1, 0, 0, −1), (0, 1, 0, −1), (0, 0, 1, −1)} é ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ S1 ✳
❈♦♠♦ ❞✐♠❡♥sã♦ é ♦ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ✈❡t♦r❡s ❞❛ ❜❛s❡✱ ♣♦rt❛♥t♦ Dim(S1 ) = 3✳
✷✷✳ P❛r❛ M2×2 ❡♥❝♦♥tr❡✿
✭❛✮ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ▲✳■✳ ❝♦♠ ♠❛✐s ❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡t♦r q✉❡ ♥ã♦ s❡❥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ M2×2 ✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ P♦r ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦

     
1 0 0 1 0 0
, ,
0 0 0 0 1 0

é ▲■✳ P❛r❛
 t❡r♠♦s ✉♠❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ M2x2 ✱ ❜❛st❛r✐❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛r♠♦s t❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♠ ♦ ✈❡t♦r
0 0
✳ ❉❛í✱ t❡rí❛♠♦s ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ▲■ ❡ ❣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ M2×2 ✱ ♣♦rt❛♥t♦✱ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ M2×2 ✳
0 1
✭❜✮ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ M2×2 q✉❡ ♥ã♦ s❡❥❛ ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ M2×2 ✳

❙♦❧✉çã♦✿ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞♦ t✐♣♦

         
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
, , , ,
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

é ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ❣❡r❛r ♣♦r ♠❡✐♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛çõ❡s ❧✐♥❡❛r❡s ♦ M2×2 ✱ ♣♦rt❛♥t♦ ❡❧❡ é ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❣❡r❛❞♦r✱
♥♦ ❡♥t❛♥t♦✱ ❤á ✉♠ ✈❡t♦r s✉♣❧é✢✉♦ q✉❡ t♦r♥❛ t❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ▲❉✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♥ã♦ é ❜❛s❡ ❞❡ M2×2 ✳