Electrical & Magnetic Quantities

Current (moving charge) produces a magnetic field

The direction of field lines, or

magnetic intensity H, can be
determined by the right-hand
“thumb rule”

The magnetic field strength of 1

Ampere-turn/m (At/m) is set up
at the centre of a single-turn
circular coil of diameter 1 m
which carries a current of 1 A
x H is a measure of tendency of a
moving charge to produce flux –
the actual flux produced will
depend on magnetic properties
of the medium – see later
2
Ampere’s Law

 Hds   I

The line integral of the magnetic field intensity

H around a closed path is equal to the total
current linked by the contour

3
Solenoid - Amperes Law

4
 Solenoid - Amperes Law

NI is referred to as magnetomotive force (mmf): it is driving magnetic field

5
Magnetic Flux Density

Flux density depends on the magnetic properties of material:

the same field intensity H will produce a stronger flux in a
ferromagnetic material (e.g. iron) than in air.
6
Magnetic Field Lines
Lines of force: would be followed by a free north pole
Direction: the direction in which the north pole would
move
Every line of force is a closed loop

Magnetic flux:
Magnetic flux density x area = B . A (B=/A)
The unit of magnetic flux is weber: 1 Wb = 1 T . m2
7
9
10
 Magnetomotive force (mmf) NI  Rtotal

Compare to Ohm’s Law in an electric circuit (E = I R):

mmf (NI) drives flux  through reluctance R
Hence:
• emf E corresponds to mmf NI,
• flux  corresponds to current I
• Resistance R corresponds to reluctance R
Reluctance of a path consisting of series-connected sections is
equal to the sum of reluctances of each section.
Air-gap is dominant

11
 Magnetic equivalent circuit

NI   R1  R2  R3 

Magnetic equivalent circuit:

12
Faraday’s Law
Assume that the current is changing. This will produce a
changing magnetic flux. Any change of magnetic flux linked with
a coil will induce voltage (emf) in each turn of the coil,
proportional to the rate of change of flux
d ( N ) d
e  N
dt dt
Minus sign shows that the
voltage induced opposes
the changing flux

flux  current producing it

di (t )
L is a constant of proportionality called e  L
dt
inductance [unit H – henry]
13
14
15
Mutual Inductance

Coupling constant k measures how closely

coupled the two circuits are

16
 Transformer
Transformer is the most common device based on mutual inductance

N1 and N2 - number of
turns of the primary and
secondary windings

A simple transformer consists of two or more coils linked by a common

magnetic circuit
A transformer allows the transfer of electrical energy between two or
more circuits, while all circuits remain electrically isolated: no direct
electrical connection.
17
 Power System Transformer
Main Functions

To transform alternating voltage at one level to voltage at another:

high voltage to low voltage, or low voltage to high voltage

High voltage is used to transmit electricity over long distances, as the

I2R losses in the line are reduced. For example 10 x less current is
equal to 100 x lower power loss

To transform currents

To match impedances between circuits

Provide isolation for safety

18
 Turns Ratio
According to the Faraday's Law, the induced voltages in transformer
are:

where  is the flux linking primary & secondary windings

Dividing one equation by the other and taking rms values of voltages
gives:

where n is the turns ratio (N2/N1). For the ideal transformer, the turns
ratio is equal to the voltage ratio (V2/V1)
The ideal transformer sustains no real or reactive power losses:

19
Impedance Matching

20
Impedance Matching

21
Transformer EMF Equation

22
Transformer EMF Equation

Answer:

23
 Ideal & Real Transformer
The ideal transformer model ignores a number of important factors
which must be accounted for in a real transformer

Ideal transformer:

Real transformer:

24
Real Transformer

I1  I1'

25
 Real Transformer

For a transformer we usually only show the first quadrant of the B-H
curve. The saturation typically occurrs at flux density 1-1.5 T. It is
normal to operate devices below the knee so that  ~ const.
26
Real Transformer

If V1 ~ const. PFe ~ const.

(independent on the load)
27
 Real Transformer
3. Flux Leakage or coupling losses – related to flux losses in the
magnetic circuit
Useful flux links both windings - leakage fluxes close through air and
link only one of the windings
Flux losses are modelled on the equivalent circuit by series leakage
inductances X1 , X2

28
 Real Transformer
4. Magnetising current

In an ideal transformer (infinite permeability of the core and no

losses) there is no current in the primary winding when the secondary
is open-circuited (and vice versa)
In a real transformer, a very small magnetising current I (1-2% of the
full load primary current) would be flowing in the primary winding,
when the secondary is open-circuited, due to a finite permeability of
the core
That current produces a flux that induces emf almost exactly equal
and opposing the applied primary voltage. As the core permeability is
large, the associated shunt magnetising inductance L is also
large (recall that inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance,
which in turn is inversely proportional to permeability).

29
 Equivalent Circuit with Secondary
Referred to Primary
The problem with the equivalent circuit is that primary and secondary
operate at different voltage level  Eliminate ideal transformer:

30
 Equivalent Circuit with Secondary
Referred to Primary
This now describes the circuit below, in which secondary voltages,
currents and impedances have been replaced by fictitious
voltages, currents and impedance which represent the secondary
referred to the primary (their values are "as seen" from the primary)

The ideal transformer as a circuit element is eliminated, providing

much simplified circuit analysis 31
 Equivalent Circuit with Secondary
Referred to Primary
At full load, current I0 << I1 , so that I1~I’2 , and the shunt branch
could be moved ahead of the primary series branch
This simplifies analysis even further, as the series elements can be
combined.

Approximate equivalent circuit of a transformer allowing analysis of

transformer operation using simple ac circuits

32