WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Messages are put in writing. There are no gestures, facial expressions, etc
Examples:
1. Informal note -this would be sent to close working colleagues “Today is the
tomorrow you worried about yesterday”
2. Letter – normally used for externally communication
3. Memorandum - is used for internal communication only
4. Forms – pre-printed forms used internally and externally, eg order forms,
invoices etc
5. Notices – normally used to get information to large numbers of people in the
organisation. Often placed on notice boards for all to read.
6. Reports – these are more formal and give a full and accurate summary of a
particular topic of interest within the organisation
7. Press release - this aims to convey information about the organisation to the
public via the media, print or electronic.
Advantages
1. Provides time for message evaluation, analysis and summarization.
2. Provides written record and evidence
3. Capable of relaying detailed/complex ideas
4. Disseminates information to dispersed receivers
5. Forms basis of contract and agreement
6. Interpret and clarify oral communication
7. Messages can be received in absence
8. Can be studied to ensure correct interpretation. That is, it leaves records
which may be consulted to refresh the memory
9. Provides time to think things out through careful compilation, with the
chance to amend first thoughts.
Disadvantages
1. Instant feedback is not possible. It does not allow for the exchange of ideas
and opinions except over a period. Therefore it is not so convenient where there
is need for urgency
2. Communication tends to be more formal and distant 3. Can cause
interpretation problems
4. Can take time to produce
5. Can be costly and expensive, that is, for labor (especially if a typist is used),
postage and printing
6. Once dispatched – difficult to modify the message
7. Permanency can be a drawback – amending or canceling written
instructions when they become out of date is a formidable task, rarely done
thoroughly. 2.
ORAL COMMUNICATION Refers to direct conversation of direct sources Main
forms of oral communication
1. Planned formal talk – a prepared talk on a given topic
2. Unplanned informal talk – oral communication when we meet people in their
regular activities within the organisation. The grapevine is an example of an
informal talk network.
3. Interviews – these may be arranged for many purposes e.g. disciplinary,
counseling, appointments, promotions, exits etc, meetings – these can take
several forms, for example, groups or sections can hold meetings, committee
meetings etc
4. Telephone calls – a swift and simple way of passing on information both
within the organisation and outside
5. Other example includes public address, conferences, training sessions, oral
briefings, etc.
Advantages
1. Allows for contribution and participation from all parties.
2. Allows for instant interchange of ideas, views, attitudes and opinions.
Feedback is instant. Questions can be raised and answered instantly. Please
note that immediacy is both an advantage and a disadvantage. Too often you
think later of some important questions not asked, or some aspect of a
complicated topic not clarified
3. Facial expression, sound & gestures aids understanding
4. Easier to convince or persuade “Today is the tomorrow you worried about
yesterday”
Disadvantages
 1. Often no written record of what has been said. Therefore disputes are likely
to arise over what has been said
2. Does not provide enough time for evaluation and analysis 3. Messages
cannot be received in absence
4. Does not disseminate information to dispersed recipients
5. More difficult to control when a number of people participate
6. Lack of time to think things out and consequently quality of decision making
may be inferior
7. More difficult to hold ground in face of opposition – not easy to communicate
with an opponent.
8. Perception of meaning is likely to be less accurate as the receiver has little
time to work over the meaning of words and figures and work out what the
transmitter really means. We can interpret what is communicated in one
particular way, then later realized that there is an alternative meaning. Few of
us can weigh words and phrases as carefully in oral communication as we do
when dictating a letter or memorandum, nor can a draft of the message be
pondered over and over again to an assistant for his fresh mind to seek
possible double meaning or obscurities. A misleading message is a danger
VISUAL COMMUNICATION
Major forms of visual communication
Visual aids – many organisations make use of graphs and charts, flowcharts,
pie charts diagrams etc. these may be communicated in written form as part of
reports, on wall charts or through the use of overhead projectors, (for example
in a lecture), or meeting or through visual display units.
The advantages of visual aids is their ability to convey complex information in
an understandable, logical form; they can be vital in illustrating statistics.
However, the main disadvantage of visual aids is if their use becomes a
substitute for other more appropriate forms of communication. There is always
a danger of ‘going overboard’ on visual aids and swamping the organisation
with charts and diagrams
2. body language (also known as non-verbal communication)- people
communicate through such visual forms as facial expression, posture and
gesture. Body language can support forms of communication. The following
guidelines will assist personal communication
a. use a firm handshake
b. make proper use of social space, neither standing too close nor too far away
from the person or group with whom you are communicating
c. show that you are interested and prepared to listen by facing the people
within whom you are interacting
d. sit or stand in a posture that conveys interest and involvement
e. use head movements, for example, nodding your approval as you listen.
f. Take care with your facial expressions, it is very easy to look bored or
uninterested
g. Make proper use of eye contact, look individuals directly in the face and look
around all the members of a group as you interact with them
h. Cultivate control of tone and volume of your voice, speak calmly and clearly
i. When you are speaking try to avoid off-putting body movements and
mannerisms, eg scratching or toying with your pens, spectacles etc
Advantages
1. Reinforces/strengthens oral communication
2. Provides additional visual stimulus and concentration
3. Simplifies written or spoken word
4. Quantifies – provides ideas in number form
5. Provides simulations of situations
6. Illustrates techniques and procedure
7. Provides visual record and a clear interpretation in the mind
8. Instant communication “Today is the tomorrow you worried about yesterday”
Disadvantages
1. Requires additional skills of comprehension and interpretation
2. Can be costly to produce store and disseminate
3. Does not allow time for message analysis, evaluation and summarization
4. Does not form basis of agreement
5. May be difficult to interpret without reinforcing written or spoken word.
When deciding whether to use written, oral or visual methods or a
combination of the three methods, contingency theorists hold there is no single
best way to communicate but the method of communication should be
appropriate for the circumstances. This approach implies taking account of the
objectives of the communication, the nature of the information, the audiences
or receivers, the culture and structure of the organisation
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION Introduction The major differences between
non-verbal & verbal communication
1. in face to face communication it is a continuous process. Communication is
going on even if you say nothing
2. Non-verbal communication is usually to be trusted above what people say.
People have to be very skilled to lie both non-verbally and verbally.
3. non-verbally communication is a more effective way of showing emotions
and attitudes than in spoken communication Problems with the interpretation
of non-verbal communication
There are, however, three major problems with the interpretation of non-verbal
communication
1. like words, non-verbal communication can be ambiguous.
2. the meaning of any non-verbal message needs to be established from the
total context, rather than from the behaviour on its own.
3. Non-verbal signs have to be interpreted on clusters, rather than individually.
For example, someone with folded arms may not be setting up a barrier. He
may simply be trying to be comfortable. Because of the problems inherent in
NVC there is need for communicators to be very sensitive to this type of
communication.
We need to be as sensitive as possible to no-verbal cues for five major reasons:
1. in new situations, people often rely on first impressions to make up their
minds about strangers. They notice obvious things about them. From these
superficial cues they make all kinds of judgments, often inaccurate. For
example, we might judge a stranger with a high forehead and spectacles as
very intelligent; we could be wrong in this judgment
2. when we meet stranger we judge them in terms of our own beliefs about
appearance and non-verbal behaviour. Even though these beliefs may be
inaccurate, we sue them to fill in gaps about our knowledge of strangers.
3. our first impressions are often hard to change
4. we make up our minds about people from their facial expressions, eye
contact, mouth, voice, gestures, the way they stand and what they wear.
5. we often use non-verbal stereotypes for judging people. We might, for
example, decide that all short men are aggressive.
When we meet a short man, we assume that he will be aggressive. We then
start communicating with that stereotype in the mind and cause unnecessary
trouble Types of Non-Verbal Communication
1. silence 2.
2. paralanguage
3. 3. kinesics or body language
4. 4. facial expressions & eye contact
5. 5. touching
6. 6. proxemics or distance, and territoriality
7. 7. clothing and accessories such as jewellery
8. 8. objects and the environment within which people work
9. 9. people’s view of time “Today is the tomorrow you worried about
yesterday”
Silence Silence during interpersonal communication is important. When
silence is well used it helps people engage in genuine two-way
communication. Silence encourages effective turn-taking; and show that the
other person is listening. Silence in the form of pauses is also important in
public speaking. It allows the audience time to absorb what people are
saying, particularly if the information is strange. People can however,
misinterpret others’ silence. They decide why others are silent, without
asking them. They then communicate with them on the basis of an incorrect
judgment. Silence has a range of meaning. It could, for example, show:
1. Contemplation
2. Fear
3. Shyness
4. Concentration
5. Boredom
6. Anger
7. Embarrassment
8. respect
People might, however, make a mistake and decide that shyness is actually
rudeness, or that fear is actually boredom. A person showing respect
through silence might be misjudged as angry. All these mistakes could lead
to breakdowns in communication. If one person is often silent, the other
person should try to find out why so that they can communicate with
understanding Paralanguage
This word describes the ways we speak, rather than what we say. It covers
the following aspects of our voices. The intonation, or rise and fall of voice
1. How fast or slowly we talk
2. How loudly or softly we talk
3. How resonant our voices are
4. How harsh our voices are
5. The level of tension in our voices
It also covers clearing of throats, coughs, and even crying As we listen to
paralanguage we make up our minds about people’s
1. age, emotions
2. feelings about themselves and their subject
3. attitudes towards us
4. intelligence
5. level of sophistication
These judgments could be quite wrong. We should, therefore, take great
care to cultivate lively voices that help listen to judge accurately how we feel
about ourselves and our subjects. We should also strive to understand other
people’s language.
Kinesics This terms describes our body movements as we interact with
others. In particular, the study of kinesics covers
1. the way we walk
2.How we stand in relation to others 3.our arm and hand movements
3.the ways in which we sit. All these movements affect and positions affect
the ways in which we communicate. They also affect how people interpret
us. We might for example, walk into a room with our eyes and head down
and our backs bent. People could assume that we have a problem, and are
not very interested in working with them. On the other hand, if we walk
boldly into a room and look at people, they are more likely to communicate
positively with us. “Today is the tomorrow you worried about yesterday”
Body movements can, however, be more subtle than this. You might, for
example, find yourself taking up the same body posture as someone that
you like. This is called echo posture. It helps to create harmony between two
people. You might, for example cross your knee towards a person who also
has crossed legs.
When we stand to deliver a speech, it is very important that we do not:
1. fold our arms
2. Twist our back
3. Cross our legs. All these could be taken as signs that we are setting up
barriers, or that we are uneasy about what we are saying.
Our hand movements during conversations are very important for
regulating the ways in which we take turns.
Effective hand movements with open palms also help us to keep the
attention of our audience.
Open body positions with our arms spread as to show our sincerity. When
we sit we could be tense or relaxed.
We could also be learning forward to listen or leaning back, these postures
show our feelings towards the other person for active listening.
Leaning back could show that we wish to withdraw from the conversation.
We tend to be more relaxed with people of equal or lower status. We are
more tense with people of higher status. All these postures will affect the
way in which we communicate with others.
Facial expressions & eye contact We constantly judge other people by their
facial expressions.
We look at their hair, eyes, foreheads, mouths, chins and the state of their
skin.
However, people have learnt to adjust their facial expressions to ones that
they judge to be socially acceptable. We therefore need to observe people’s
faces very carefully, particularly their eyes, if we are to gain a true idea of
their feelings.
Eye contact is significant when we work with other people. It is used to
regulate conversation in the same way as hand movements. Good eye-
contact signals that the communication channels are open. From a Western
point of view we tend to suspect people who do not look at us. We have
greater confidence in people who look at us while we are speaking. They also
give us a feeling of worth and authority.
 People show by the amount of eye-contact whether they are dominant of
submissive. People who are dominant and confident tend to have greater eye
contact than people who are not very confident.
During speeches, speakers should keep up good eye-contact with an
audience, even if it is a large one.
They should try to look at individuals in the audiences rather than sweeping
their eyes over the audiences.
We should, however, note that some cultures value looking down as a sign
of respect. If, therefore, we are working with people from different cultures,
we should try to find out and respect their attitudes to eyecontact.
Touching Cultures vary a great deal in their attitude to touching. People
involved in intercultural communication need to be aware of this.
Some Western cultures are, for example, classified as not-touch or no-
contact cultures. People from other cultures, however, may value touching
during conversations, particularly to gain attention and to interrupt. If
people from these two cultures work together there may be problems, if they
are not aware of these different customs.
Even in ‘no-touch’ cultures, however, a touch to the elbow or shoulder can
be reassuring. Since it is seen as non-threatening. Such touching is also
effective for gaining a person’s attention.
Touching may also encourage people to disclose more information than they
would normally have. Touches to the cheeks and head are strong signals of
affection. Proxemics, or distance & territoriality We all carry with us a ‘space
bubble’ or comfort zone. If people invade the zone we feel very
uncomfortable. These space bubbles vary a great deal from culture to
culture. The study of
Proxemics covers people’s use of space and how they react to the space
around them. It also covers people’s territoriality or desire to maintain their
own space.
Territoriality includes a study of table seating and table shapes From a
Western point-of-view, we like to keep a distance of at least one-and-half
metres when we meet people for the first time. We also use this distance
when we conduct business at an interpersonal level.
“Today is the tomorrow you worried about yesterday” People from other
cultures might for example, wish to conduct business within a much
smaller space. This desire could cause tension for people who need more
space. Adjustments would then have to be made on both sides.
When people have to be very close together, as in a Commuter Omnibus,
their intimate zone (actual contact to about 25 centimeters) is being
invaded. They cope with this tension by silence, eyes turned away and rigid
seating or standing position that avoids contact possible.
People who know each other tend to stand closer together when they are
talking. They might, for example, use a personal distance ranging from 50
cm to one and half metre
. People in organizations need, therefore, to study each others’ spatial needs
and respect them in interpersonal communication. Territoriality Our
‘comfort zone’ is very important to us. We express out attitudes towards
territory by saying ‘My desk.
My Office, My house, etc. People tend to expand their space by surrounding
themselves with books, bags or briefcases. More space is often given to
senior managers in organizations.
They have large offices and larger desks. These desks give managers more
space. However, they can also become barriers to good communication
because they can be used to dominate people by keeping them from the
manager.
Senior staff also cause tension if they invade junior staff’ space. They could,
for example, walk into a junior’s office unannounced, go up to him/her,
remain standing and demand instant attention. Junior staff could also
cause problems if they invade senior staff’s space.
People in organizations need, therefore, to be sensitive to other peoples’
territories. Seating Seating arrangements affect the ways in which people
communicate. A round table at a staff seminar would be effective, because it
encourages eye-contact.
A lecture, on the other hand, where less interaction is needed, could be
given to people in rows of seats. Seating arrangement at an oblong table will
affect the ways in which people interact.
People who sit a A or B are given the status of leader. People seated at D are
likely to be very involved in the meeting. However, people seated at C and E
runs the risk of being ignored, particularly by people at the ends of the
table. People at C and E need to ensure that they are given a chance to
participate.
In addition, people at the ends of the table need to ensure that they pay
attention to the people on their immediate left and right. If people have to
use a desk for interpersonal communication they should consider talking
across the corner of the desk. This reduces the distance between them, and
the corner of the desk if less of a barrier. If they are working on a task where
they need space, they should consider working side-by-side or across the
width of the desk.
They should encourage good eye-contact and the reduction of barriers
Objects of the environment Objects such as office furniture, curtains,
carpets and pictures on the wall affect us positively or negatively. All these
objects help to provide a good or bad working environment. We react better
in a good working environment than we do in a bad one.
Organisations should, therefore, pay a great deal of attention to the
working environment because it affects peoples’ reactions and the ways in
which they work. Time People from different cultures view time differently.
Many Western organisations view time like a river flowing. Once time has
gone past, it cannot be recovered.
This view stresses that time is precious and should not be wasted. Time is
also viewed as an object that should not be lost. This view of time values
punctuality. Lateness, particularly where people of higher status are
involved, is regarded as a negative message. A C D E B “Today is the
tomorrow you worried about yesterday” Other cultures may view time in a
different way
. They may for example, view time as renewable or circular. This view night
regard lateness as an insult, because time has not been wasted. Business
might then be conducted in a different way.
People in organisations should be assertive to different views of time and
should be prepared to discuss them, however organisations will have to
decide on their time values, because different views of time in one
organization would result in tension, they could also cause difficulties if
organization are competing with others with different time values Clothing &
Accessories Clothing and accessories such as ties, belts and jewellery satisfy
our desire for attention.
They also satisfy our need to be accepted as members of groups and self-
esteem. However, clothing and accessories are important for other reasons.
They are very much part of communication in organisations.
How we dress at work is an important part of the impression that we make
on other people. People build up impressions of what we think about
ourselves, our status, our interests and our personalities. What we wear can
influence our success at work. People in organisations should, therefore,
take great care over what they wear