Phenomena related to Combined

Heat and Mass Transmission

Combined Heat and Mass Transmission Dynamic State

and Transmission in Hygroscopic Materials
Clothing Comfort Temperature Buffering and Chilling
Clothing Thermal Insulation during Sweating
Dampness
Clamminess
Temperature of Surfaces during Exercise
Effect of Microclimate Thickness
Parameters Expressing Heat and Mass Transmission
Clothing Ventilation
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Heat and Mass Transmission

 Fabric layer is characterized by the two types of resistances
 Resistance to dry heat (insulation), which increases
 Most of the time the clothed human body is
with increase in
 Thickness of the enclosed air layers
 Thickness of fabric layer
 Dryness of the material
 Moisture vapour permeability
 Generally more dependent on the fabric parameters,
but it decreases with increasing thickness of air
layers
Dynamic State ……….
in dynamic state
 Changes in environmental variables
 The air enclosed within the clothing also comes
into dynamic state
 Forced convective movements of air through
openings of clothing and the enclosed air
transmits directly through fabric layers to the
environment
 This air exchange reduces the insulation and
increases the moisture vapour permeability of
the clothing ensemble considerably

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Dynamic State … cont
The final exchange of heat and moisture vapour is
dependent on level and pattern of activity and on the size
of the openings
oWind and physical movements decrease the
insulating air layer sticking to the outside surface of
the clothing assembly
oWith large openings in the clothing structure the
wind penetrates into the clothing thus increases the
heat loss
oIn strong windy situation the high air velocity may
compress the clothing and thus reduce its insulation
as the enclosed air layers are reduced 5 parameters used for steady-state conditions
Combined Heat and Moisture
Interaction with Textile Materials
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Dynamic State … cont
 Insulation of clothing also reduces if the clothing gets
soaking wet with sweat or water
 The evaporative heat dissipation from wet clothing can
be of significant extent especially when the air velocity is
high
 When a person comes to rest after activity, the sweating
stops, but the evaporation of moisture from the
clothing ensembles continues, which provides
unwanted cooling (…….? Soccer player … ??)
 These dynamic heat and moisture vapour transmission
characteristics of clothing cannot be expressed by the
6
Moisture transmission through a textile material is
not only associated with the mass transmission
processes, but the transmission of heat must also be
taken into account.
Heat and moisture transmission in
hygroscopic materials are inseparably
interrelated
 Transmission in Hygroscopic
Materials
 During the transmission of water molecules
through textile materials
 Water molecules get absorbed by the fibre molecules
 Liberation of heat due to heat of sorption (heat of
absorption)
 Due to the production of heat, as the temperature is
increased on the surface of the material, the rate of
moisture vapour transmission is reduced
Transmission in Hygroscopic
Materials
 With the increase in humidity, the heat transfer
efficiency of the material increases – due to
increase in thermal conductivity
 The heat transfer process also comes into play
during the moisture transportation, under
dynamic conditions, due to phase change of
the water molecules (Latent heat of
evaporation).

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Transmission in Hygroscopic Materials … cont

 The coupling effect between moisture diffusion and heat
transfer depends on the following properties,
 Moisture sorption capacities Temperature Buffering and Chilling
 Fibre diameter

 Water vapour diffusion coefficient

 Density

 Heat of sorption

 The heat of wetting of cellulosic fibre depends to some

extent on the moisture regain and the crystalline structure,
and it decreases proportionally with an increase in the
degree of crystallinity of the fibres

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 Temperature Buffering and Chilling
 These two transient phenomena are associated with the
simultaneous heat and moisture vapour transport
through fibre assemblies
 There would be a buffering effect at the onset of
perspiration in hot climates, whereas in the case of cold
climates it would result in a ‘ post exercise chilling
effect’
 Buffering effect
 It is experienced due to perspiration in hot climates
 Sudden increase in relative humidity in the climate, fabrics
absorb moisture and generate heat
 This gives rise to a thermostatic or buffering action for the
person 13
Temperature Buffering and Chilling
•When water vapour (vapour perspiration) comes
into contact with a cold wall (clothing) then it
condensates thus reduces the thermal insulation of
clothing (Chilling).
•Both these phenomena (Buffering and Chilling)
are mainly dependent on atmospheric
temperature and humidity conditions.
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Temperature Buffering and Chilling
 Hygroscopic fibres absorb moisture and release heat
(buffering from sudden chilling)
 This has significant impact on the heat balance and
thermal perceptions of wearer experiencing a sudden
change from a warm and dry atmosphere to a cold
and humid environment.
 The chilling effect is associated with the after exercise
sweating in cool climates
 Reduces the working performance
 Causing hypothermia due to cold
 Water vapour get condensed and it reduces the
thermal insulation of clothing (Chilling)
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Clothing Thermal Insulation during
Sweating
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 Clothing Thermal Insulation during Sweating
 Clothing thermal insulation is used to determine the
heat stress of a clothed person in a hot environment,
which depends on,
 The amount of moisture vapour evaporation to
maintain the thermal equilibrium of body. If
evaporation is low ……humid climate…????
 Rate of body sweating
 Skin wetness
 The total heat transmitted through clothing is
dry heat
commonly considered as the sum of the
transfer and the evaporative heat transfer
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Dampness
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Clothing Thermal Insulation during Sweating
… cont
 Thermal insulations in non-perspiring and
perspiring conditions are different
 Clothing thermal insulation decreases during
perspiration
 Amount of reduction varies from 2 to 8% depends
on the water accumulation within clothing
ensembles
 Total heat loss greatly increases with sweating due
to evaporative heat loss
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Dampness
 Moisture in clothing has been widely recognized as
one of the most important factors contributing to
discomfort sensations.
 The sensation of dampness is related to the amount
of sweat accumulated in microclimate and clothing
 Moisture in clothing - Discomfort
 More the hygroscopicity of the fibre, more will be
the moisture gain by the fibre and in-turn the fabric
 When that wet fabric comes into contact with skin,
temperature drop of the skin occur
 Chilling sensation is produced
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 Dampness Dampness: Ambient conditions
 Ambient conditions, such as temperature and relative
Skin temperature drop increases with increase humidity, influence the skin temperature drop
in degree of fiber hygroscopicity (cotton is significantly
cooler in touch in high humidity) .
 As the ambient temperature increases (become closer
Also, the temperature drop is influenced to skin temperature)
significantly by the degree of the fabric skin  Skin temperature drop decreases due to the
contact that is associated with fabric decrease in temperature difference prior to the
construction and surface hairiness contact
 Smaller the temperature gradient between skin and

fabric, smaller is the skin temperature drop during

the skin-fabric contact

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Dampness: Ambient conditions

 As the ambient relative humidity increases
 The difference in moisture concentration
between the fabric and the environment
decreases, so lesser evaporation, thus lesser Clamminess
evaporative cooling of fabrics
 The difference between various types of fibers
(cotton/polyester/wool etc.)
 Much greater when ambient relative humidity
is low
 Negligible when the relative humidity
approaches saturation

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 Clamminess and Heat Loss during High Activity
Perception of clamminess during exercise
 In transient humidity conditions, hygroscopic fibres
In a wear trials at 28°C and 30% R.H., the subjects were
can absorb or desorb moisture from, or to the walking on a treadmill at 5.6 km/hr for up to 40 minutes.
surrounding environment,
 This can delay the moisture change in the clothing

microclimate – thus delays Clamminess

 Theoretically, this effect often acts as a buffer
In comparing wool
against sudden humidity changes in favour of the and polyester
wearer (due to absorption hysteresis). clothing, the
evaporation limit was
 The moisture build-up at the inner fabric surface facing reached later when
the sweating skin is the subject wore a
 Very slow in case of fabrics made of hydrophilic
wool garment, and
fibres, like wool the perception of
 Very fast in case of fabrics made of hydrophobic
sweating and
fibres, like polyester clinging sensations
were delayed.
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Perception of clamminess during exercise Moisture buffering

 The length of this buffering period and the magnitude of
•Wool garments, delay of humidity rise depend on the ability of the fabric
however, took up to remove moisture relative to the speed of moisture
significantly more sweat build-up in the clothing microclimate; this depends on,
than polyester garments.  Ambient conditions

 Clothing material and style

 Activity or exercise intensity of the subjects

 The moisture flux across an inert porous barrier can

•Correspondingly, subjects reported feeling less clammy,
and warmer, when wearing wool than when wearing
polyester during a period of between 10 to 30 minutes of
exercise, as shown in Figure
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reach steady state within seconds
 Non-steady condition may last for more than an hour
when a wool (hygroscopic) fabric is exposed to a
humidity gradient (due to ???)
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 Moisture buffering …. A study report
Temperature of Surfaces during Exercise

During the transient period, the total amount of

After sweating the
moisture removed from a high humidity
temperature of
microclimate is greater with a highly
the garment and
hygroscopic fabric such as wool than with a
the
weakly hygroscopic fabric such as polyester
corresponding
skin temperature
In comparing wool and polyester clothing, the
rose significantly
evaporation limit was reached later when the
more when
subject wore a wool garment, and the perception
wearing wool
of sweating and clinging sensations were
than when
delayed.
wearing polyester

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Heat Flux at the Outer Clothing Surface during Heat Flux at the Outer Clothing Surface during Exercise
Liberation of heat by hydrophilic
Exercise 
and hydrophobic fibres
 Hydrophilic fibre (Wool)
 During exercise, body
temperature rises and body
starts sweating for cooling it
 Sweat will be absorbed by the
fabric and its temperature raises
due to heat of sorption
 Elevated fabric temperature
interacts with body (stimulating
higher skin temperature) and
raising sweat rate
 Sweat absorbed by the fabric
further
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 Heat Flux at the Outer Clothing Surface during Exercise Heat Flux at the Outer Clothing Surface during Exercise
 Hydrophobic fibre (Polyester)
 Heat of sorption of these fibres are lesser
 Most of the sweat in the garment is present as liquid
and it has a smaller influence on the dry heat loss at
the outer surface of the garments.

Therefore, the role of

clothing made from
weakly hygroscopic
fibres is more passive
and its enhancement of
heat loss during
Increase in heat of sorption and increase in dry heat exercise is smaller.
loss at the outside of the garment (due to higher temp. gradient) Influence on dry heat
Hence, the body is able to release more heat during loss
exercise 33 is also lesser 34

Effect of Microclimate Thickness

Effect of Environment Temperature
 Increase in microclimate thickness results in higher
air layer causes increase in insulation and
 With increase in environment temperature all the decrease in following parameters
individual mechanisms (i.e. driving forces) of heat  The total heat flux and individual heat transfer
flux (W/m2) i.e., mechanisms
 Conduction  Moisture fraction at the inner and outer fabric surfaces
 Temperature at the inner and outer surfaces of fabrics
 Radiation
 Increased air layer behaves like an insulating
 Moisture diffusion
material
decrease  The contribution of radiation increases with the
 Hence heat flux decreases with the decrease in the increase in microclimate thickness, since radiation
driving force is independent of microclimate thickness while the
fabric surface temperature is lowered.

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 Effect of Fabric Thickness
 As fabric thickness increases total heat flux
decreases
 Fabric thickness is less sensitive than Parameters Expressing Heat
microclimate thickness
 Thermal conductivity of fabric is higher than air and Mass Transmission
layer between skin and clothing (microclimate)
 Change in fabric thickness from 0.5 to 5 mm
results in change in total heat flux by 20%
 The effect of fabric thickness is larger when
the thickness of microclimate is smaller

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Evaporative Transmissibility Evaporative Transmissibility

 Thus, evaluation of the insulation and moisture

 It is an indicator of the proportion of maximum
evaporative cooling of sweat generated in a
specific environment.
evaporative capacity of a clothing system is able to
accurately estimate the relative advantages of the
clothing as compared with another, with regard to the
thermal protection or strain when the clothing is worn.

 It is the ratio of moisture vapour  It is possible to compare materials of different

permeability index (im) to total insulation insulation values
(clo), i.e. (im/clo)
 Evaporative cooling is less important when
 Humidity is high

 Air velocity is low

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 Evaporative Transmissibility …. cont
The evaporative transmissibility (im/clo) is helpful
to compare the ensembles with different
insulation values.
Two clothing ensembles with different thermal
insulation characteristics but same evaporative
transmissibility would exchange same heat
between the body and the surrounding in the
same environments at the same activity levels.
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Skin Wettedness (Ws )
 It is the ratio of the actual evaporative heat loss to
the maximum possible evaporative heat loss, emax,
under the same environmental conditions
 For a completely wet skin the value of Ws is 1 (hot
and humid climate)
 Evaporative heat loss from the skin is a
combination of the evaporation of sweat secreted
because of thermoregulatory control mechanisms
and the natural diffusion of water vapour through
the skin.
 Skin wettedness caused by diffusion is
approximately 0.06 for normal conditions 43
Evaporative Transmissibility …. cont
It is easy for clothing materials with high evaporative
transmissibility value (im/clo) to transport heat by
means of both convective heat transfer and
evaporative cooling.
But, in case of environment with high humidity and
at low air speed, the evaporative cooling is less
important and the thermal transmission
characteristics become the most important
factor.
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Skin Wettedness …. cont
For large values of emax or long exposures to low
humidities, the value may drop to as little as 0.02, because
dehydration of the outer skin layers alters its diffusive
characteristics.
Skin wettedness is strongly correlated with warm
discomfort.
For clothed subjects, Ws > 0.2 is perceived as
uncomfortable (due to wettedness).
Skin wettedness can theoretically approach 1.0 while the
body still maintains thermoregulatory control, but in
practice it is difficult to exceed 0.8
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 Clothing Ventilation
 The Clothing Ventilation Index is a quantitative
evaluation which predicts
 Effectiveness, Preference and Suitability of clothing
assemblies
 To ensure that the clothing is worn and used
correctly; and,
 To improve performance by minimizing heat
strain, sweat retention and thermal discomfort.
 Ventilation is vital to the removal of sensible
and insensible heat
 It is an important determinant of thermal
comfort
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Measurement of Condensation in the Clothing
Sweating skin model
 Condensation occurs within the fabric
 Whenever the local vapour pressure
rises to the saturation vapour pressure
(i.e., saturated by liquid perspiration)
 When the atmospheric temperature is
very low, when the warm air from the
body meets the fabric, it acts as a cold
wall
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Clothing Ventilation …. cont
 The clothing ventilation is an evaluation method
of microclimate air exchange
 The factors influencing air exchange are
 Air permeability of fabric
 Design
 Sizing (fit)
 Wind velocity
 Resilience of fabrics
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Measurement of Condensation in the Clothing - Sweating skin model
 Sweating skin model is used to determine the
condensation in the fabric for both in (i) steady and
(ii) transient state conditions
 Two different procedures are used
 First procedure
 Liquid water is injected close to the hot side of the
sample
 It evaporates there and re-condenses toward the
cold impermeable side of the slab
 Second procedure
 Hot plate is directly exposed to the moist air flow
 Transient temperature changes are monitored and
the total amount of absorption and condensation is
measured after a specific time
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 The Saturation Line The Saturation Line
•Pressure (P)–
temperature (T) diagram  Condition of
of wetted air is used to microclimate
record the condition of depends on
microclimate and study  Vapour pressure

whether condensation is  Temperature

formed on the inner
surface of a fabric
 Condensation
occurs when the
•The saturation line is
vapour pressure is
described as the water
Graph shows the saturation saturated in the
vapour pressure giving
line at various temperature microclimate.
rise to 100% relative
humidity at a specific Graph shows the saturation line
temperature. at various temperature
49 50