UCL ENGINEERING

Mathematical Modelling & Analysis

MMA I & II

Standard Formula Handbook

Contents
STANDARD SI UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................. 3

INDICES AND LOGARITHMS ............................................................................................................. 5

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS ................................................................................................................... 5

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES ........................................................................................................... 6

HYPERBOLIC TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES ................................................................................ 8

MATRICES AND VECTORS .................................................................................................................. 9

VECTOR CALCULUS ............................................................................................................................ 11

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS ....................................................................................................... 13

LEAST SQUARES REGRESSION ...................................................................................................... 20

COMPLEX NUMBERS ......................................................................................................................... 21

NUMERICAL METHODS AND MULTIVARIATE CALCULUS................................................. 23

SERIES....................................................................................................................................................... 25

TRANSFORMS ....................................................................................................................................... 27

COMMON FOURIER TRANSFORM PROPERTIES .................................................................... 28

COMMON LAPLACE TRANSFORM PROPERTIES.................................................................... 30

NUMERICAL METHODS .................................................................................................................... 34

STANDARD CALCULUS FORMULAE ............................................................................................ 35

THE NORMAL PROBABILITY INTEGRAL ..................................................................................... 36

t-DISTRIBUTION TABLE ..................................................................................................................... 37

CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION TABLE ............................................................................................ 38

Page 2 of 38
STANDARD SI UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Quantity Unit Unit Symbol

Basic Units
Length metre m
Mass kilogram Kg
Time second S
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela Cd

Derived Units
Acceleration, linear metre/second2 m s-2
Acceleration, angular radian/second2 rad s−2
Area metre2 m2
Density kilogram/metre3 kg m-3
Force newton N (= kg m s−2 )
Frequency Hertz (Hz = s−1 )
Impulse, linear newton-second Ns
Impulse, angular newton-metre-second Nms
Moment of force newton-metre Nm
Second moment of area metre4 m4
Moment of inertia kilogram-metre2 kg m2
Momentum, linear kilogram-metre/second kg m s−1
Momentum, angular kilogram-metre2/second kg m2 s−1
Power Watt W (= J s−1 = N m s−1 )
Pressure, stress Pascal Pa (= N m−2 )
Stiffness (linear), spring constant newton/metre N m−1
Velocity, linear metre/second m s−1
Velocity, angular radian/second rad s−1
Volume metre3 m 3

Work, energy Joule J (= N m)

Page 3 of 38
Quantity Unit Unit Symbol
Electrical Units
Potential volt V (= W A−1)
Resistance ohm Ω (= V A−1 )
Charge coulomb C (= A s)
Capacitance farad F (= A s V−1 )
Electric field strength volt/metre V m−1
Electric flux density coulomb/metre2 C m−2

Magnetic units
Magnetic flux weber Wb (= V s)
Inductance henry H (= V s A−1 )
Magnetic field strength - A m−1
Magnetic flux density - Wb m−2

Page 4 of 38
INDICES AND LOGARITHMS

I. Indices

𝑥 𝑚 × 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚+𝑛 𝑥 𝑚⁄ 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚−𝑛
𝑥

(𝑥 𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑚𝑛 (𝑥𝑦)𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑚 𝑦 𝑚

𝑥 𝑚 𝑥𝑚 𝑥0 = 1
( ) = 𝑚
𝑦 𝑦

1 𝑚⁄ 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑛 𝑚
𝑥 −𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑛 = (𝑥 𝑛) = ( √𝑥 )
𝑥𝑚

II. Logarithms

If 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑐 then log 𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑏

log 𝑎 𝑚 + log 𝑎 𝑛 = log 𝑎 (𝑚𝑛) 𝑚

log 𝑎 𝑚 − log 𝑎 𝑛 = log 𝑎 ( )
𝑛

log 𝑎 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑛 log 𝑎 𝑚 log 𝑎 𝑚

log 𝑛 𝑚 =
log 𝑎 𝑛

log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1 log 𝑎 1 = 0

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, then
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
and (𝑏 2 > 4𝑎𝑐) for real roots.

Page 5 of 38
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

I. Reciprocal identities

1 1 1
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 =
csc 𝑥 sec 𝑥 cot 𝑥

1 1 1
csc 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 =
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 tan 𝑥

II. Pythagorean Identities

sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1 1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃 1 + cot 2 𝜃 = csc 2 𝜃

III. Quotient Identities

sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
tan 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥

IV. Co-Function Identities

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin ( − 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 cos ( − 𝑥) = sin 𝑥 tan ( − 𝑥) = cot 𝑥
2 2 2

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
csc ( − 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 sec ( − 𝑥) = csc 𝑥 cot ( − 𝑥) = tan 𝑥
2 2 2

V. Even - Odd Identities

sin(−𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 cos(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥 tan(−𝑥) = − tan 𝑥

csc(−𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 sec(−𝑥) = sec 𝑥 cot(−𝑥) = − cot 𝑥

Page 6 of 38
VI. Sum-Difference Formulas

sin(𝑢 + 𝑣) = sin 𝑢 cos 𝑣 + cos 𝑢 sin 𝑣 sin(𝑢 − 𝑣) = sin 𝑢 cos 𝑣 − cos 𝑢 sin 𝑣

cos(𝑢 + 𝑣) = cos 𝑢 cos 𝑣 − sin 𝑢 sin 𝑣 cos(𝑢 − 𝑣) = cos 𝑢 cos 𝑣 + sin 𝑢 sin 𝑣

tan 𝑢 + tan 𝑣 tan 𝑢 − tan 𝑣

tan(𝑢 + 𝑣) = tan(𝑢 − 𝑣) =
1 − tan 𝑢 tan 𝑣 1 + tan 𝑢 tan 𝑣

VII. Double Angle Formulas

sin(2𝑢) = 2 sin 𝑢 cos 𝑢
cos(2𝑢) = cos2 𝑢 − sin2 𝑢 = 2 cos2 𝑢 − 1 = 1 − 2sin2 𝑢
2 tan 𝑢
tan(2𝑢) =
1 − tan2 𝑢

VIII. Half Angle Formulas

1 − cos(2𝑢) 1 + cos(2𝑢) 1 − cos(2𝑢)

sin2 𝑢 = cos2 𝑢 = tan2 𝑢 =
2 2 1 + cos(2𝑢)

IX. Sum-to-Product Formulas

(𝑢 + 𝑣) (𝑢 − 𝑣) (𝑢 + 𝑣) (𝑢 − 𝑣)
sin 𝑢 + sin 𝑣 = 2 sin cos sin 𝑢 − sin 𝑣 = 2 cos sin
2 2 2 2

(𝑢 + 𝑣) (𝑢 − 𝑣) (𝑢 + 𝑣) (𝑢 − 𝑣)
cos 𝑢 + cos 𝑣 = 2 cos cos cos 𝑢 − cos 𝑣 = −2 sin sin
2 2 2 2

X. Product-to-Sum Formulas

1 1
sin 𝑢 sin 𝑣 = [cos(𝑢 − 𝑣) − cos(𝑢 + 𝑣)] cos 𝑢 cos 𝑣 = [cos(𝑢 − 𝑣) + cos(𝑢 + 𝑣)]
2 2

1 1
sin 𝑢 cos 𝑣 = [sin(𝑢 + 𝑣) + sin(𝑢 − 𝑣)] cos 𝑢 sin 𝑣 = [sin(𝑢 + 𝑣) − sin(𝑢 − 𝑣)]
2 2

Page 7 of 38
HYPERBOLIC TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
I. Hyperbolic Definitions

(𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) 2
sinh 𝑥 = csch 𝑥 = 1⁄sinh 𝑥 =
2 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )

(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) 2
cosh 𝑥 = sech 𝑥 = 1⁄cosh 𝑥 =
2 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )

𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
tanh 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥⁄cosh 𝑥 = coth 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥⁄sinh 𝑥 =
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥

cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1 tanh2 𝑥 + sech2 𝑥 = 1 coth2 𝑥 − csch2 𝑥 = 1

sinh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 sinh(𝑥 − 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

cosh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦 cosh(𝑥 − 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦

(−1 + cosh 2𝑥) sinh 2𝑥 = 2 sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥

sinh2 𝑥 =
2
(1 + cosh 2𝑥) cosh 2𝑥 = cosh2 𝑥 + sinh2 𝑥
cosh2 𝑥 =
2

II. Inverse Hyperbolic Definitions

arcsinh 𝑥 = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) arccosh 𝑥 = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1)

1 1+𝑥 1 𝑥+1
arctanh 𝑥 = ln arccoth 𝑥 = ln
2 1−𝑥 2 𝑥−1

1 + √1 − 𝑥 2 1 + √1 + 𝑥 2
arcsech 𝑥 = ln arccsch 𝑥 = ln
𝑥 𝑥

III. Relations to Trigonometric Functions

sinh 𝑥 = −𝑗 sin 𝑗𝑥 csch 𝑥 = 𝑗 csc 𝑗𝑥

cosh 𝑥 = cos 𝑗𝑥 sech 𝑥 = sec 𝑗𝑥
tanh 𝑥 = −𝑗 tan 𝑗𝑥 coth 𝑥 = 𝑗 cot 𝑗𝑥

Page 8 of 38
MATRICES AND VECTORS

I. Matrices

Hermitian matrix
A Hermitian matrix is a square matrix with complex entries such that the
element in the ith row and jth column is equal to the complex conjugate of
the element in the jth row and ith column, for all indices i and j. NB the
diagonal elements must be real, as they must be their own complex
conjugate. A Hermitian matrix is equal to its own conjugate transpose.

Matrix inverse:
If A is a square matrix with non-zero determinant, then its inverse𝐴−1 is
such that 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 −1 1 𝑑 −𝑏
For a 2 × 2 matrix [ ], if 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 then [ ] = 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 𝑎

Determinants
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑑𝑒𝑡 [𝑎 𝑎22 ] = |𝑎21 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

det [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22

= 𝑎11 |𝑎 𝑎33 | − 𝑎12 |𝑎31 𝑎33 | + 𝑎13 |𝑎31 𝑎32 |
32

II. Vectors

Cartesian Representation of a Vector:

𝒂 = 𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑎2 𝑗̂ + 𝑎3 𝑘̂ = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 )

Length of a vector (or magnitude):

If 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ), then ‖𝒂‖ = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32

Unit vector (also called direction vector):

Page 9 of 38
 Given a vector 𝒂, the corresponding unit vector with the same direction as
𝒂
𝒂 is 𝒂
̂ = ‖𝒂‖.

Dot product (or scalar product) of two vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃:

If 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and If 𝒃 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ), then the dot product is a scalar:
𝒂 ∙ 𝒃 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 = |𝒂||𝒃| cos 𝜃.

Angle between two vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃:

𝒂∙𝒃
cos 𝜃 =
‖𝒂‖ ∙ ‖𝒃‖

Cross product of two vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃:

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂ 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎 𝑎2
𝒂 × 𝒃 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 | = 𝑖̂ |𝑏 | − 𝑗̂ | ̂ 1
2 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏3 | + 𝑘 |𝑏1 𝑏2 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

The scalar triple product [𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄]:

𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
[𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄] = 𝒂 ∙ 𝒃 × 𝒄 = 𝒂 × 𝒃 ∙ 𝒄 = 𝒃 ∙ 𝒄 × 𝒂 = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
The vector triple product:
𝒂 × (𝒃 × 𝒄) = (𝒂 ∙ 𝒄)𝒃 − (𝒂 ∙ 𝒃)𝒄

Vector equation of a straight line:

𝒓 = 𝒓𝟎 + 𝑡𝒂 → (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) + 𝑡(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 )
Where 𝒓𝟎 is the position vector of the start of the line, and 𝒂 is the
direction vector of the line, and t is a scaling constant.

Parametric equation of a straight line:

𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
= = =𝑡
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Vector equation of a plane:

(𝒓 − 𝒂) ∙ 𝒏 = 0
Where 𝒂 and 𝒓 are the position vectors of two points lying on the plane
and 𝒏 is a vector perpendicular to the plane.

Page 10 of 38
VECTOR CALCULUS
Nabla operator (∇):
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Gradient (∇ applied to a scalar):

For a scalar field 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
grad 𝑓 = ∇𝑓 = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Divergence (Scalar product of ∇ and a vector):

For a vector field 𝒒(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) the divergence is
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑞1 𝜕𝑞2 𝜕𝑞3
div 𝐪 = ∇ ∙ 𝐪 = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) ∙ (𝑖̂ 𝑞1 + 𝑗̂𝑞2 + 𝑘̂𝑞3 ) = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Curl (vector product of ∇ and a vector):

For a vector field 𝒒(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) the curl is
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕| ̂
curl 𝒒 = ∇ × 𝐪 = | = 𝑖̂ |𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧| − 𝑗̂ |𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧| + 𝑘 |𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3

𝜕𝑞3 𝜕𝑞2 𝜕𝑞3 𝜕𝑞1 𝜕𝑞2 𝜕𝑞1

= 𝑖̂ ( − ) − 𝑗̂ ( − ) + 𝑘̂ ( − )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

The Laplacian
The Laplacian of a function φ is written as ∇2 𝜑 and is defined as:
Laplacian 𝜑 = div grad 𝜑 , i.e.
∇2 𝜑 = ∇ ∙ ∇𝜑
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑 𝜕 2𝜑
= ∇ ∙ (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ )= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Some vector differential Identities

The gradient of the product of two scalars ∅ and 𝜑
grad(∅𝜑) = 𝜑 ∙ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∅ + ∅ ∙ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜑
∇(∅𝜑) = 𝜑∇∅ + ∅∇𝜑

The divergence of the product of the scalar ∅ with a vector 𝑨

Page 11 of 38
 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (∅𝐴) = ∅ 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑨 + (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∅) ∙ 𝑨
∇ ∙ (∅𝐴) = ∅ (∇ ∙ 𝑨) + (∇ ∅) ∙ 𝑨

The curl of the product of a scalar ∅ with a vector 𝑨

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(∅𝑨) = ∅ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑨 + (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∅) × 𝑨
∇ × (∅𝑨) = ∅ (∇ × 𝑨) + (∇ ∅) × 𝑨

The curl of the gradient of any scalar ∅

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∅) = ∇ × ∇∅ = 0

The divergence of the curl of any vector 𝑨

𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑨) = ∇ ∙ (∇ × 𝑨) = 0

Vector Integral Theorems

Stokes’ Theorem:
For any vector field F and a contour C which bounds an area S, the
integral of the curl of the vector field over the surface S equals the line
integral of the vector field over the closed curve C bounding the surface S.
∬(∇ × 𝑭) ∙ 𝒅𝑺 = ∮ 𝑭 ∙ 𝒅𝒓

Note:
1. 𝒅𝑺 is a vector perpendicular to the surface 𝑺 and 𝒅𝒓 is the line element
along the contour C.
2. Both sides of the equation are scalars

Divergence Theorem (also called Gauss Theorem):

The closed surface integral of the scalar product of a vector function with the
unit normal is equal to the integral of the divergence of that vector function over
the corresponding volume:
∬ 𝑭 ∙ 𝒅𝑺 = ∭ ∇ ∙ 𝑭 𝑑𝑣

Note:
1. 𝒅𝑺 is a vector perpendicular to the surface 𝑺 and 𝑑𝑣 is the differential
volume element.
2. Both sides of the equation are scalars

Page 12 of 38
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

Basic probability rules

If E is any event in the entire sample space S

0  P(E)  1 ,
P(S) = 1,

Addition ‘or’ rule for mutually exclusive events

P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B)

Addition ‘or’ rule for arbitrary events

P(A  B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A  B)

Complementation rule:
P(E) = 1 - P(EC)

Conditional probability of B given A:

P(A  B)
P(B A) 
P(A)

Multiplication rule:
P(A  B) = P(A)P(B A) = P(B)P(A B) ,

If A and B are independent events:

P(A  B) = P(A)P(B)

Probability mass function

The probability mass function (pmf) of a random variable X is:
p X (a)  P( X  a)
where p X denotes the pmf of X.

Cumulative distribution function

The cumulative distribution function (cdf) for a discrete random variable X is:.

Page 13 of 38
 FX (a )  P ( X  a )   p X ( x) .
x a

The cumulative distribution function (cdf) for continuous random variable X is:
a
FX ( a )  P ( X  a )   f X ( x)dx .


Definition (Probability density function)

The probability density function (pdf) of a random variable X is:
b

 f X ( x)dx  P(a  X  b) ,
a

where f X denotes the pdf of X, and f X  0 for all possible x.

Expectation
The expected value (denoted by E(X) ) of a discrete random variable X is:
E ( X )   xp X ( x)
x
The expected value (denoted by E(X) ) of a continuous random variable X is:

E( X )   xf X ( x)dx

NB: Sometimes the expected value is also denoted by  X .
Variance and standard deviation
For a discrete random variable, the variance with respect to its mean is calculated
as:
 2X  E[ X  E ( X )] 2   ( x   X ) 2 p X ( x)  E ( X 2 )   X2
x

For a continuous random variable, the variance with respect to its mean is
calculated as:

 2X  E[ X  E ( X )]   (x   X ) f X ( x)dx  E ( X 2 )   X2
2 2


The standard deviation is the square root of the variance:  X   2X .

The standard deviation of population 𝜎:

𝑁 0.5
1
𝜎 = [ ∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇)2 ]
𝑁
𝑖=1
where 𝜇 is the population mean, and 𝑁 is the number in the population.

Page 14 of 38
The standard deviation of sample 𝑠:
𝑛 0.5
1
𝑠=[ ∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 ]
𝑁−1
𝑖=1
where 𝑥̅ is the sample mean, and 𝑛 is the number in the sample.

Uniform distribution
The uniform distribution over a given interval (say, from a to b):
 1
 if a  x  b
f X ( x)   b  a

0 otherwise

Bernoulli distribution
If p is the probability of getting a “true” outcome, then:

The probability mass function (pmf) of Bernoulli distribution is:

p X (a)  p a (1  p)1 a
where
a = 0 or 1; 0  p  1 , and p X ( x)  0 if a  0 or 1.

Cumulative distribution function (cdf) of Bernoulli distribution:

0 if a  0
a

FX (a)   p X ( x)  (1  p) if 0  a  1
x 0 1 otherwise

Expected value of Bernoulli distribution:

 X  (1) p  (0)(1  p)  p

Variance of Bernoulli distribution:

 2X  (1  p) 2 p  (0  p) 2 (1  p)  (1  p) p

Page 15 of 38
Binomial Distribution
The probability mass function (pmf) of a binomial distribution is:
 n!  r n  r
p X (r ) = nCr  p r .q n  r    p .q
 r! n-r  ! 
where
p is the probability of a “true” outcome, and q = (1-p) is the
probability of a “false” outcome
𝑛! 𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 2) × ⋯ × (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1) 𝑛𝑃𝑟
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = = =
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟 × (𝑟 − 1) × (𝑟 − 2) ⋯ 3 × 2 × 1 𝑟!
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 = = 𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1) × (𝑛 − 2) × ⋯ × (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!

The expected value/ mean of the binomial distribution is:

𝜇 = 𝐸(𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝

The variance the binomial distribution:

𝜎 2 = 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝𝑞

The cumulative distribution frequency (cdf) of a binomial distribution is:

a a
n
FX (a )   p X ( x)    x  p x (1  p) n x .
x 0 x 0  

Geometric Distribution
The probability mass function (pmf) of a geometric distribution is:
pT (t )  P(T  t )  p(1  p) t 1 ,
where t is number of time intervals (or trials), and it is a positive integer.

The expected value/mean of a geometric distribution is:

1
T 
p
The variance of geometric distribution is:
(1  p)
T2  .
p2

Page 16 of 38
The Poisson Distribution
The probability mass function (pmf) of the Poisson distribution is:
a 
p X (a)  e
a!
where  is the expected number of ‘true’ values observed

When   vt where v is the rate of observing a “true” outcome, and t is a

given time period (say, day, hour, minute, or second…), the pmf of Poisson
distribution can also be written as :
(vt ) a vt
p X (a)  e
a!

The mean of a Poisson distribution is:

𝜇= 

The variance of a Poisson distribution is:

𝜎2 = 

The standard deviation of a Poisson distribution is:

𝜎 = √𝜆

The Exponential Distribution

The probability distribution function (pdf) of an exponential distribution is:
f T (t )  ve (vt ) ,
where v is the rate of observing a “true” outcome in a Poisson distribution,
and t  0 is a given time period (say, day, hour, minute, or second…).

The cumulative distribution function (cdf) of an exponential distribution is:

FT (t )  P(T  t )  1  e (vt )
where T is the trial or “time” when we observe a “true” value.

The expected value of an exponential distribution is:

1
T 
v
The variance of an exponential distribution is:
1
T2  2
v

Page 17 of 38
The Normal (or Gaussian) Distribution
The probability distribution function (pdf) of the normal distribution is:
1  1  a   2 
f (a)  N (  ,  )  exp    ,
 2  2    
where
  x  ;
 and  are the expected value (mean) and the standard deviation
of the distribution respectively.

For a normal distribution, P(a  X  b) given a pair of real numbers a, b, with a<b
is:
b
1  1  x   2 
P ( a  X  b)   exp     dx
a  2  
 2    

The cumulative distribution function (cdf) F, of a normal distribution is:

a
1  1  x   2 
F (a)   exp    dx
  2  
 2    

The variance for a continuous distribution with p.d.f. f(x) is


 2  Var  X    ( x   ) 2 f  x dx


Page 18 of 38
The Standard normal distribution N(0,1) is:
1  1 
( z )  exp  z 2  ,
2  2 
Where z is a random variable following a standard normal distribution.

Area =
(z) F(zi)

z
0 zi
Figure 2 Standard normal distribution

For any X following a normal distribution N (, ) :

P(    X    )  0.68
P(  2  X    2)  0.95
P(  3  X    3)  0.998

Approximations to Distributions
The Normal approximation to the Binomial distribution
p X (r ) = nCr  p r .q n  r  Pr- 12  x  r  1
2
 where X  N(np, npq)

The Poisson approximation to the Binomial

p X (r ) = nCr  p r .q n  r  P X  r  where X  Poisson(np)

The Normal approximation to the Poisson

P X  r   Pr- 12  Y  r  1
2  where X Poisson() and Y  N(, 2) with 𝜎 ≈ √𝜇

Page 19 of 38
LEAST SQUARES REGRESSION

For a set of n pairs of values (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) to which you want to fit a straight line given
by: 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥:

The intercept (𝑎), the gradient (𝑏) and their uncertainties (𝜎𝑎 , 𝜎𝑏 ) can be
computed as follows:

(∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖2 )(∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 ) − (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 )(∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 )

𝑎=
𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖2 − (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 )2

𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 − (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 )(∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 )

𝑏=
𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖2 − (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 )2

1⁄
𝜎(∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖2 ) 2
𝜎𝑎 = 1⁄
(𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖2 − (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 )2 ) 2

1⁄
𝜎𝑛 2
𝜎𝑏 = 1⁄
(𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖2 − (∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 )2 ) 2

where
𝑦̂ = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦

1⁄
1 2
𝜎=[ ∑(𝑦𝑖 − ŷ)2 ]
𝑛−2

Page 20 of 38
COMPLEX NUMBERS

Square root of -1:

𝑗 = √−1 ↔ 𝑗 2 = −1

Modulus of a Complex Number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏

|𝑧| = 𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Argument of a Complex Number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏

𝑏
𝜃 = arg(𝑧) = tan−1
𝑎

Euler’s formula
𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃
(𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
sin 𝜃 =
2𝑗
(𝑒 𝑗𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
cos 𝜃 =
2

Forms of Complex numbers

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 = 𝑅 < 𝜃 = 𝑅(cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃) = 𝑅𝑒 𝑗𝜃

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers: If 𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 and 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑

then:
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + 𝑗(𝑏 + 𝑑)
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (𝑎 − 𝑐) + 𝑗(𝑏 − 𝑑)

Multiplication of Cartesian complex numbers: If 𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 and 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑 then:

𝑧1 × 𝑧2 = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + 𝑗(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)

Complex conjugate: If 𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 then its complex conjugate 𝑧 ∗ is:

𝑧 ∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏

Division of Cartesian complex numbers: If 𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 and 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑 then:

(𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏)(𝑐 − 𝑗𝑑) (𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑) + 𝑗(𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑)
𝑧1 ÷ 𝑧2 = =
(𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑)(𝑐 − 𝑗𝑑) 𝑐 2 + 𝑑2

Multiplication of polar complex numbers: If 𝑧1 = 𝑅1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑅2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 then:

𝑧1 × 𝑧2 = 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑒 𝑗(𝜃1 +𝜃2 )

Page 21 of 38
Division of polar complex numbers: If 𝑧1 = 𝑅1 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑅2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 then:
𝑅1 𝑗(𝜃 −𝜃 )
𝑧1 ÷ 𝑧2 = 𝑒 1 2
𝑅2

Raising Complex Numbers to a power - De Moivre’s theorem:

𝑧 = 𝑅(cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃) → 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑅 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝑛𝜃)
𝑧 = 𝑅 < 𝜃 → 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑅 𝑛 < 𝑛𝜃
𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑗𝜃 → 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑅 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜃
Roots of a complex number:
In general, the nth root of a complex number z has n solutions given by:
𝑛
1 1 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
√𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑅 𝑛 (cos ( ) + 𝑗 sin ( ))
𝑛 𝑛
where k = 0, 1, 2, …, (n -1).

Page 22 of 38
NUMERICAL METHODS AND MULTIVARIATE CALCULUS

Euler Method:
𝑑𝑦
If = 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) then
𝑑𝑥
𝑦(𝑥𝑛+1 ) = 𝑦(𝑥𝑛 ) + ∆ℎ𝑦 ′ (𝑥𝑛 ) + 𝑂(∆ℎ2 )
where ∆ℎ = 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 .

Modified Euler Method:

𝑑𝑦
If = 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) then
𝑑𝑥
(𝑦 ′ (𝑥𝑛+1 ) + 𝑦 ′ (𝑥𝑛 ))
𝑦(𝑥𝑛+1 ) = 𝑦(𝑥𝑛 ) + ∆ℎ + 𝑂(∆ℎ3 )
2

Fourth order Runge-Kutta method:

𝑑𝑦
If = 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) then
𝑑𝑥
∆ℎ
𝑦(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑦(𝑛) + (𝑘 + 2𝑘2 + 2𝑘3 + 𝑘4 )
6 1
where:
𝑘1 = 𝑓(𝑡𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 )
∆ℎ 1
𝑘2 = 𝑓 (𝑡𝑛 + , 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑘1 ∆ℎ)
2 2
∆ℎ 1
𝑘3 = 𝑓 (𝑡𝑛 + , 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑘2 ∆ℎ)
2 2
𝑘4 = 𝑓(𝑡𝑛 + ∆ℎ, 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑘3 ∆ℎ)

Differential of a function 𝒇(𝒙):

𝑑𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
= lim
𝑑𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

Partial derivatives of a function (𝒇𝒙, 𝒚):

Partial derivative with respect to x, keeping y constant:
𝜕𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑓𝑥 = = lim
𝜕𝑥 𝛿𝑥→0 𝛿𝑥

Partial derivative with respect to y, keeping x constant:

𝜕𝑓 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝛿𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑓𝑦 = = lim
𝜕𝑦 𝛿𝑦→0 𝛿𝑦

Page 23 of 38
Higher Order Partial Derivatives

𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 2𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 2𝑓
𝑓𝑥𝑥 = ( )= 2 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = ( )=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 2𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 2𝑓
𝑓𝑦𝑦 = ( )= 2 𝑓𝑦𝑥 = ( )=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

Total differential
Total differential of a function (𝑓𝑥, 𝑦):
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Total differential of a function of several variables 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 ):

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥1 + 𝑑𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝑛

Stationary Points
A necessary condition for a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) to have a stationary point at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
is: 𝑓𝑥 = 0 and 𝑓𝑦 = 0.
The discriminator (or determinant) is: ∆= (𝑓𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑦𝑦 − (𝑓𝑥𝑦 )2 )(𝑥
0 ,𝑦0 )

 Maximum if ∆> 0 and 𝑓𝑥𝑥 < 0

 Minimum if ∆> 0 and 𝑓𝑥𝑥 > 0
 Neither max or min if ∆< 0 but a saddle point.

 No information if ∆ = 0

Page 24 of 38
SERIES

Arithmetic series:
𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + (𝑎 + 3𝑑) ⋯ + (𝑎 + [𝑛 − 1]𝑑)
Sum of n terms:
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]

Geometric Series:
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
Sum of n terms:
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟

Taylor Series
The Taylor Series expansion of a function about the point 𝑥 = 𝑥0 :
∆ℎ2 ′′ ∆ℎ3 ′′′ ∆ℎ4 𝑖𝑣
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + ∆ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) + ⋯
2! 3! 4!
where ∆ℎ = 𝑥 − 𝑥0

Maclaurin Series
The Maclaurin series is the Taylor series expansion of a function about the point
𝑥 = 𝑥0 = 0:
𝑥 2 ′′′ (0)
𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝑥 4 𝑖𝑣 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 + 𝑓 (𝑥 )
0 + 𝑓 (𝑥 )
0 + 𝑓 (𝑥 )
0 + ⋯+ 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
Some Common Maclaurin Series:
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥𝑛
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + + ⋯ +
2! 3! 4! 𝑛!

1
𝑛=0 𝑥 for −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝑛 = ∑∞ 𝑛
1−𝑥

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 (−1)𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − + ⋯+
2 3 4 𝑛+1

𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑛−1
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + + ⋯ + (−1)𝑛+1 (2𝑛−1)!
3! 5!

𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥 2𝑛
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + + ⋯ + (−1)𝑛 (2𝑛)!
2! 4!

Page 25 of 38
Binomial Theorem

If 𝑛 is a positive integer, then:

𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 𝑛−3 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑎 𝑏 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛
2! 3!
𝑛
𝑛
= ∑ ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑖 𝑏 𝑖
𝑖
𝑖=0

For the particular case when 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = 𝑥 the binomial expansion becomes:
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 𝑛
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 = ∑ ( ) 𝑥𝑖
2! 3! 𝑖
𝑖=0

L'Hospital's Rule
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
lim = lim ′
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)

𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
when 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑔(𝑎) are both zero, and approaches a limit or tends
𝑔′ (𝑥)

towards infinity as 𝑥 → 𝑎.

Trigonometric Fourier Series

A function 𝑓(𝑥) can be expressed as a sum of cosine and sine function:
∞
𝑎0
𝑓(𝑥) = + ∑(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)
2
𝑛=1
where
1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋

Complex Fourier Series

∞

𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−∞
where all the coefficients, including 𝑛 = 0, are as follows:
1 𝜋
𝑐𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 −𝜋

Page 26 of 38
TRANSFORMS
Fourier Transform:
∞
𝐹(𝑢) = 𝐹𝑇[𝑓(𝑥)] = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒 −2𝜋𝑗𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−∞

Inverse Fourier Transform

∞
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹𝑇 −1 [𝐹(𝑢)] = ∫ 𝐹(𝑢)𝑒 2𝜋𝑗𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑢
−∞
Convolution
The convolution of a continuous signal 𝑠(𝑡) with another signal 𝑝(𝑡) is given by:
∞
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑠(𝑡) ∗ 𝑝(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑠(𝑡′) ∙ 𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑡′) 𝑑𝑡′
−∞
where (𝑡 − 𝑡′) denotes the shift of 𝑝(𝑡) along the time axis.

Convolution Theorem
The Fourier Transform of the convolution of two functions is equivalent to the
product of the Fourier Transforms of the two functions.

𝐹𝑇[𝑚(𝑡)] = 𝐹𝑇[𝑠(𝑡) ∗ 𝑝(𝑡)] = 𝐹𝑇[𝑠(𝑡)] ∙ 𝐹𝑇[𝑝(𝑡)]

→ 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐹𝑇 −1 [𝐹𝑇[𝑠(𝑡)] ∙ 𝐹𝑇[𝑝(𝑡)]]

Laplace Transform
The Laplace Transform 𝑌(𝑠) of a function of time 𝑦(𝑡) is:
∞
𝑌(𝑠) = 𝛤[𝑦(𝑡)] = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0

Inverse Laplace Transform

The Inverse Laplace Transform 𝑦(𝑡) of the complex frequency function 𝑌(𝑠) is:
1 𝛾+𝑗∞
𝑦(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑌(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗 𝛾−𝑗∞
where 𝑠 = 𝛾 + 𝑗𝜔

Page 27 of 38
COMMON FOURIER TRANSFORM PROPERTIES

Function Transform

+∞ +∞
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹 −1 {𝐹(𝑓)} = ∫ 𝐹(𝑓)𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑓 𝐹(𝑓) = 𝐹{𝑓(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ −∞
transform 𝐹(𝑓)
𝑓(𝑡)
time reversal frequency reversal
𝑓(−𝑡) 𝐹(−𝑓)
complex conjugation reversed conjugation
𝑓 ∗ (𝑡) 𝐹 ∗ (−𝑓)

reversal conjugation complex conjugation

𝑓 ∗ (−𝑡) 𝐹 ∗ (𝑓)
𝑓(𝑡) is purely real even/symmetry
𝐹(𝑓) = 𝐹 ∗ (−𝑓)
𝑓(𝑡) is purely imaginary odd/antisymmetry
𝐹(𝑓) = −𝐹 ∗ (−𝑓)
even/symmetry 𝐹(𝑓) is purely real
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓 ∗ (−𝑡)
odd/antisymmetry 𝐹(𝑓) is purely imaginary
𝑓(𝑡) = −𝑓 ∗ (−𝑡)
time shifting 𝐹(𝑓)𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡0
𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡 frequency shifting
𝐹(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )

time scaling 1 𝑓
𝐹( )
𝑓(𝑎𝑡) |𝑎| 𝑎
1 𝑡 frequency scaling
𝑓( )
|𝑎| 𝑎 𝐹(𝑎𝑓)

linearity 𝑎𝐹(𝑓) + 𝑏𝐺(𝑓)

𝑎𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑡)
time multiplication frequency convolution
𝑓(𝑡)𝑔(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑓) ∗ 𝐺(𝑓)

time convolution frequency multiplication

𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑓)𝐺(𝑓)

delta function 1
𝛿(𝑡)
shifted delta function 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡0
𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
1 delta function
𝛿(𝑓)

𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓0𝑡 shifted delta function

𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )

two-sided exponential decay 2𝑎

𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| 𝑎 > 0 𝑎2 + 4𝜋 2 𝑓 2
2 2
𝑒 −𝜋𝑡 𝑒 −𝜋𝑓
2 1
𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝜋(4−𝑓
2)

Page 28 of 38
Sine 𝑗 −𝑗∅
[𝑒 𝛿(𝑓 + 𝑓0 ) − 𝑒 𝑗∅ 𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )]
sin(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡 + ∅) 2
cosine 1 −𝑗∅
[𝑒 𝛿(𝑓 + 𝑓0 ) + 𝑒 𝑗∅ 𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )]
cos(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡 + ∅) 2
sine modulation 𝑗
[𝐹(𝑓 + 𝑓0 ) − 𝐹(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )]
𝑓(𝑡) sin(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡) 2
cosine modulation 1
[𝐹(𝑓 + 𝑓0 ) + 𝐹(𝑓 − 𝑓0 )]
𝑓(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡) 2
squared sine 1 1 1
[2 𝛿(𝑓) − 𝛿 (𝑓 − ) − 𝛿 (𝑓 + )]
sin2 (𝑡) 4 𝜋 𝜋
squared cosine 1 1 1
[2 𝛿(𝑓) + 𝛿 (𝑓 − ) + 𝛿 (𝑓 + )]
cos 2 (𝑡) 4 𝜋 𝜋
rectangular 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 (𝑇𝑓)
𝑇
𝑡 1 |𝑡| ≤
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( ) = { 2
𝑇 𝑇
0 |𝑡| >
2
triangular 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 2 (𝑇𝑓)
|𝑡|
𝑡 |𝑡| ≤ 𝑇
𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔 ( ) = {1 − 𝑇
𝑇
0 |𝑡| > 𝑇
step 1
1 𝑡≥0 + 𝛿(𝑓)
𝑢(𝑡) = 1[0,+∞] (𝑡) = { 𝑗2𝜋𝑓
0 𝑡<0
signum 1
1 𝑡≥0 𝑗2𝜋𝑓
𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑡) = {
−1 𝑡<0
Sinc 1 𝑓 1
𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ( ) = 1[−𝐵,+𝐵 ] (𝑓)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 (𝐵𝑡) 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 2 2
squared sinc 1 𝑓
𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔 ( )
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 2 (𝐵𝑡) 𝐵 𝐵
n-th time derivative (𝑗2𝜋𝑓)𝑛 𝐹(𝑓)
𝑑𝑛
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑛
n-th frequency derivative 1 𝑑𝑛
𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑓)
(−𝑗2𝜋)𝑛 𝑑𝑓 𝑛
1 𝜋𝑒 −2𝜋|𝑓|
1 + 𝑡2

Page 29 of 38
COMMON LAPLACE TRANSFORM PROPERTIES

Function Transform

𝑓(𝑡) ∅(𝑠) = 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)}

Linearity 𝑎 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} + 𝑏 𝐿{𝑔(𝑡)}

𝑎𝑓(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑡)

First Derivative 𝑠∅(𝑠) − 𝑓(0)

𝑑𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Second Derivative 𝑠 2 ∅(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑓(0) − 𝑓′(0)

𝑑 2 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑛
nth Derivative
𝑠 ∅(𝑠) − ∑ 𝑠 𝑛−𝑘 𝑓 𝑘−1 (0)
𝑛

𝑘=1
𝑑 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑛

Frequency domain differentiation 𝑑∅(𝑠)

−
𝑑𝑠
𝑡𝑓(𝑡)

General Frequency domain differentiation 𝑑∅𝑛 (𝑠)

(−1)𝑛
𝑑𝑠 𝑛
𝑡 𝑛 𝑓(𝑡)

Time scaling 1 𝑠
∅( )
𝑎 𝑎
𝑓(𝑎𝑡)

Frequency shifting ∅(𝑠 − 𝑎)

𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)

Time shifting 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 ∅(𝑠)

𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎)

Convolution ∅(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)

𝑓(𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑡)

Page 30 of 38
Integration 1
∅(𝑠)
𝑠
𝑡
∫ 𝑓(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏
𝜏=0

∞
Frequency Domain Integration ∫ ∅(𝜎) 𝑑𝜎
𝑠
1
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑡

Initial Value Theorem lim 𝑠∅(𝑠)

𝑠→∞

lim 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑠→0

Final Value Theorem lim 𝑠∅(𝑠)

𝑠→0

lim 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑠→∞
1 1
𝑠
𝑒 𝑎𝑡 1
(𝑠 > 𝑎)
𝑠−𝑎

1 1
(𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 )
𝑎−𝑏 (𝑠 + 𝑎)(𝑠 + 𝑏)

1 𝑠
(𝑏𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 − 𝑎𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 ) (𝑠 + 𝑎)(𝑠 + 𝑏)
𝑏−𝑎
sin 𝑎𝑡 𝑎
𝑠 + 𝑎2
2

cos 𝑎𝑡 𝑠
𝑠2 + 𝑎2
sinh 𝑎𝑡 𝑎
(𝑠 > 𝑎)
𝑠2 − 𝑎2
cosh 𝑎𝑡 𝑠
(𝑠 > 𝑎)
𝑠 2 − 𝑎2

𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡 2𝑎𝑠
(𝑠 2 + 𝑎 2 )2
𝑡 cos 𝑎𝑡 𝑠 2 − 𝑎2
(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )2

sin 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑎𝑡 2𝑎3

(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )2

𝑡 sinh 𝑎𝑡 2𝑎𝑠
(𝑠 > 𝑎)
(𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 )2

𝑡 cosh 𝑎𝑡 𝑠 2 + 𝑎2
(𝑠 > 𝑎)
(𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 )2
𝑎𝑡 cosh 𝑎𝑡 − sinh 𝑎𝑡 2𝑎3
(𝑠 > 𝑎)
(𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 )2

Page 31 of 38
 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡 𝑎
(𝑠 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑎2
𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 cos 𝑎𝑡 𝑠+𝑏
(𝑠 + 𝑏)2 + 𝑎2
sin 𝑎𝑡 cosh 𝑎𝑡 − cos 𝑎𝑡 sinh 𝑎𝑡 4𝑎3
𝑠 4 + 4𝑎4
sin 𝑎𝑡 sinh 𝑎𝑡 2𝑎2 𝑠
𝑠 4 + 4𝑎4
sinh 𝑎𝑡 − sin 𝑎𝑡 2𝑎3 𝑠
𝑠 4 − 4𝑎4

𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑎
𝑠

𝛿(𝑡) 1
𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡1 ) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡1

𝑡𝑛 𝑛!
𝑠 𝑛+1
𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑛!
(𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑛+1
𝑛 − 𝑎𝑡 𝑛−1 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠
𝑡 𝑒
𝑛! (𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑛+1
𝐽0 (𝑡) 1
√𝑠 2 + 1
Triangular wave 1 𝑘𝑠
𝑡 ⁄𝑘 , 0≤𝑡≤𝑘 2
tanh ( )
𝑓(𝑡) = { 𝑘𝑠 2
(2𝑘 − 𝑡)⁄𝑘, 𝑘 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑘
with 𝑓(𝑡 + 2𝑘) = 𝑓(𝑡)

Square wave 1 𝑘𝑠
1, 0≤𝑡≤𝑘 tanh( )
𝑓(𝑡) = { 𝑠 2
−1, 𝑘 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑘
with 𝑓(𝑡 + 2𝑘) = 𝑓(𝑡)

Rectified sine wave 𝜋𝑘 𝑘𝑠

𝜋𝑡 coth ( )
𝑓(𝑡) = sin ( ) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑘 𝑘2𝑠2 +𝜋 2 2
𝑘
With 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑘) = 𝑓(𝑡)

Half rectified sine wave 𝜋𝑘

𝜋𝑡 (𝑘 2 𝑠 2 + 𝜋 2 )(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑠 )
sin ( ) , 0≤𝑡≤𝑘
𝑓(𝑡) = { 𝑘
0, 𝑘 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝑘

With 𝑓(𝑡 + 2𝑘) = 𝑓(𝑡)

Sawtooth wave 1 𝑒−𝑘𝑠

𝑡 −
𝑓(𝑡) = , 0≤𝑡≤𝑘 𝑘𝑠2 𝑠(1 − 𝑒−𝑘𝑠 )
𝑘
With 𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑘) = 𝑓(𝑡)

Pulse 𝑒 −𝑘𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑠 )

0 0≤𝑡<𝑘 𝑠
𝑓(𝑡) = {1 𝑘 ≤𝑡 ≤ 𝑘+ℎ
0 𝑡 >𝑘+ℎ

Page 32 of 38
Step 1
𝑛 + 1, 𝑘𝑛 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑘(𝑛 + 1) 𝑠(1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑠 )
𝑓(𝑡) =
𝑛 = 0,1,2, ⋯

erf(√𝑘𝑡) √𝑘
𝑠√𝑠 + 𝑘
2 ⁄4𝑡
𝑒 −𝑘 𝑒−𝑘√𝑠
√𝑘𝑡 √𝑠

erf(𝑘⁄2√𝑡) 1 − 𝑒−𝑘√𝑠
𝑠
𝑛⁄2
𝑡 𝑒−𝑎⁄𝑠
( ) 𝐽𝑛 (2√𝑎𝑡) , 𝑛 > −1
𝑎 𝑠𝑛+1
∞
𝑥 2 (−1)𝑛 𝑛𝜋𝑡 𝑛𝜋𝑥 sinh(𝑥𝑠)
+ ∑ cos ( ) sin ( ) 𝑠 sinh 𝑎𝑠
𝑎 𝜋 𝑛 𝑎 𝑎
𝑛=1

∞
𝑡 2 (−1)𝑛 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑡 cosh(𝑥𝑠)
+ ∑ cos ( ) sin ( ) 𝑠 sinh 𝑎𝑠
𝑎 𝜋 𝑛 𝑎 𝑎
𝑛=1

∞
4 (−1)𝑛 (2𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝑡 (2𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝑥 cosh(𝑥𝑠)
1+ ∑ cos ( ) cos ( ) 𝑠 cosh 𝑎𝑠
𝜋 2𝑛 − 1 2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑛=1

∞
4 (−1)𝑛 (2𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝑡 (2𝑛 − 1)𝜋𝑥 sinh(𝑥𝑠)
∑ sin ( ) sin ( ) 𝑠 cosh 𝑎𝑠
𝜋 2𝑛 − 1 2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑛=1
∞
2𝜋 2 𝜋2 𝑡⁄𝑎2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 sinh(𝑥√𝑠)
2
∑(−1)𝑛 𝑛𝑒−𝑛 sin ( )
𝑎 𝑎 sinh(𝑎√𝑠)
𝑛=1
∞
1 2 2 2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 cosh(𝑥√𝑠)
+ ∑(−1)𝑛 𝑒 −𝑛 𝜋 𝑡⁄𝑎 cos ( )
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 √a sinh(𝑎√𝑠)
𝑛=1

Page 33 of 38
NUMERICAL METHODS
Newton's Method
f ( xn )
x n 1  x n 
f ( x n )

Linear Regression by the Method of Least Squares

Predicted values of yi are given by: y*  a0  a1 x
The normal form of expression for a0 and a1 are;
n n

 yi  na0  a1  xi
i 1 i 1
n n n
where n is the number of data points
x y
i 1
i i  a0  xi  a1  x
i 1 i 1
2
i

Trapezoidal Rule
b

 f ( x) dx  h
a
1
2 f ( x 0 )  f ( x1 )  f ( x 2 )    f ( x n 1 )  21 f ( x n )

where n  number of intervals

ba
h
n
x0  a
xn  b

Simpson's Rule

 f ( x) dx  3  f ( x
b
h
0 )  4 f ( x1 )  2 f ( x 2 )  4 f ( x 3 )    2 f ( x 2 n  2 )  4 f ( x 2 n 1 )  f ( x 2 n ) 
a

where 2n  number of sub - intervals

ba
h
2n
x0  a
x2n  b

Page 34 of 38
STANDARD CALCULUS FORMULAE
t 1 dx 1
If t = tan(x) then: sin x  , cos x  and 
1 t 2
1 t 2
dt 1  t 2

2t 1 t2 2t dx 2
If t  tan 2  then: sin x 
x
2 , cos x  2 , tan x  2 and 
1 t 1 t 1 t dt 1  t 2

x n 1
 x   nx n 1
d n
dx  x ndx  n 1
 C for n  1
d 1 1
 ln x    x dx  ln x  C
dx x
f ( x ) f ( x )
 ln f ( x ) 
d
dx f ( x)  f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x )  C

 e   ae ax
eax
d ax
dx  eaxdx  a
C
d
 sin x   cos x  cos x dx  sin x  C
dx
d
 cos x    sin x  sin x dx   cos x  C
dx
d
 tan x   sec 2 x
 sec 2 x dx  tan x  C
dx
d
dx
 sinh x   cosh x  cosh x dx  sinh x  C
d
 cosh x   sinh x  sinh x dx  cosh x  C
dx
d  1  x   1
sin     1  x

dx   a a2  x2  a x2
dx  sin 1    C
2  a
d  1  x   a
tan     2 a  x

dx   a a  x2  a 2  x 2 dx  tan 1  a   C
where a and C are constants
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥 and 𝑦 is a function of 𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢 ∙ 𝑣) = 𝑢 +𝑣 ∫𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣 −𝑢 = ∙
( )= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣 2

Page 35 of 38
THE NORMAL PROBABILITY INTEGRAL
  x   2   z2  x
F z  
1 1 z

x
exp
 2


dx
2 2

exp
 2
dz 0
 
 2 
where z 


Table of values of F z against z

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0000 0040 0080 0120 0160 0199 0239 0279 0319 0359
0.1 0398 0438 0478 0517 0557 0596 0636 0675 0714 0753
0.2 0793 0832 0871 0910 0948 0987 1026 1064 1103 1141
0.3 1179 1217 1255 1293 1331 1368 1406 1443 1480 1517
0.4 1554 1591 1628 1664 1700 1736 1772 1808 1844 1879
0.5 1915 1950 1985 2019 2054 2088 2123 2157 2190 2224
0.6 2257 2291 2324 2357 2389 2422 2454 2486 2517 2549
0.7 2580 2611 2642 2673 2704 2734 2764 2794 2823 2852
0.8 2881 2910 2939 2967 2995 3023 3051 3079 3106 3133
0.9 3159 3186 3212 3238 3264 3289 3315 3340 3365 3389
1.0 3413 3438 3461 3485 3508 3531 3554 3577 3599 3621
1.1 3643 3665 3686 3708 3729 3749 3770 3790 3810 3830
1.2 3849 3869 3888 3907 3925 3944 3962 3980 3997 4015
1.3 4032 4049 4066 4082 4099 4115 4131 4147 4162 4177
1.4 4192 4207 4222 4236 4251 4265 4279 4292 4306 4319
1.5 4332 4345 4357 4370 4382 4394 4406 4418 4430 4441
1.6 4452 4463 4474 4485 4495 4505 4515 4525 4535 4545
1.7 4554 4564 4573 4582 4591 4599 4608 4616 4625 4633
1.8 4641 4649 4656 4664 4671 4678 4686 4693 4700 4706
1.9 4713 4719 4726 4732 4738 4744 4750 4756 4762 4767
2.0 4773 4778 4783 4788 4793 4798 4803 4808 4812 4817
2.1 4821 4826 4830 4834 4838 4842 4846 4850 4854 4857
2.2 4861 4865 4868 4871 4875 4878 4881 4884 4887 4890
2.3 4893 4896 4898 4901 4904 4906 4909 4911 4913 4916
2.4 4918 4920 4922 4925 4927 4929 4931 4932 4934 4936
2.5 4938 4940 4941 4943 4945 4946 4948 4949 4951 4952
2.6 4953 4955 4956 4957 4959 4960 4961 4962 4963 4964
2.7 4965 4966 4967 4968 4969 4970 4971 4972 4973 4974
2.8 4975 4975 4976 4977 4977 4978 4979 4980 4980 4981
2.9 4981 4982 4983 4983 4984 4984 4985 4985 4986 4986
3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9
4987 4990 4993 4995 4997 4998 4999 4999 4999 4999

Page 36 of 38
t-DISTRIBUTION TABLE

The shaded area is equal to α for t = tα.

df t.100 t.050 t.025 t.010 t.005
1 3.078 6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657
2 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925
3 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841
4 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604
5 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032
6 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707
7 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499
8 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355
9 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250
10 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169
11 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106
12 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055
13 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012
14 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977
15 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947
16 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.583 2.921
17 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898
18 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878
19 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861
20 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845
21 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831
22 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819
23 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807
24 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797
25 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787
26 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.779
27 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771
28 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.467 2.763
29 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756
30 1.310 1.697 2.042 2.457 2.750
32 1.309 1.694 2.037 2.449 2.738
34 1.307 1.691 2.032 2.441 2.728
36 1.306 1.688 2.028 2.434 2.719
38 1.304 1.686 2.024 2.429 2.712
∞ 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576

Page 37 of 38
 CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION TABLE

The shaded area is equal to α for χ2 = χ2α.

df χ2.995 χ2.990 χ2.975 χ2.950 χ2.900 χ2.100 χ2.050 χ2.025 χ2.010 χ2.005
1 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.004 0.016 2.706 3.841 5.024 6.635 7.879
2 0.010 0.020 0.051 0.103 0.211 4.605 5.991 7.378 9.210 10.597
3 0.072 0.115 0.216 0.352 0.584 6.251 7.815 9.348 11.345 12.838
4 0.207 0.297 0.484 0.711 1.064 7.779 9.488 11.143 13.277 14.860
5 0.412 0.554 0.831 1.145 1.610 9.236 11.070 12.833 15.086 16.750
6 0.676 0.872 1.237 1.635 2.204 10.645 12.592 14.449 16.812 18.548
7 0.989 1.239 1.690 2.167 2.833 12.017 14.067 16.013 18.475 20.278
8 1.344 1.646 2.180 2.733 3.490 13.362 15.507 17.535 20.090 21.955
9 1.735 2.088 2.700 3.325 4.168 14.684 16.919 19.023 21.666 23.589
10 2.156 2.558 3.247 3.940 4.865 15.987 18.307 20.483 23.209 25.188
11 2.603 3.053 3.816 4.575 5.578 17.275 19.675 21.920 24.725 26.757
12 3.074 3.571 4.404 5.226 6.304 18.549 21.026 23.337 26.217 28.300
13 3.565 4.107 5.009 5.892 7.042 19.812 22.362 24.736 27.688 29.819
14 4.075 4.660 5.629 6.571 7.790 21.064 23.685 26.119 29.141 31.319
15 4.601 5.229 6.262 7.261 8.547 22.307 24.996 27.488 30.578 32.801
16 5.142 5.812 6.908 7.962 9.312 23.542 26.296 28.845 32.000 34.267
17 5.697 6.408 7.564 8.672 10.085 24.769 27.587 30.191 33.409 35.718
18 6.265 7.015 8.231 9.390 10.865 25.989 28.869 31.526 34.805 37.156
19 6.844 7.633 8.907 10.117 11.651 27.204 30.144 32.852 36.191 38.582
20 7.434 8.260 9.591 10.851 12.443 28.412 31.410 34.170 37.566 39.997
21 8.034 8.897 10.283 11.591 13.240 29.615 32.671 35.479 38.932 41.401
22 8.643 9.542 10.982 12.338 14.041 30.813 33.924 36.781 40.289 42.796
23 9.260 10.196 11.689 13.091 14.848 32.007 35.172 38.076 41.638 44.181
24 9.886 10.856 12.401 13.848 15.659 33.196 36.415 39.364 42.980 45.559
25 10.520 11.524 13.120 14.611 16.473 34.382 37.652 40.646 44.314 46.928
26 11.160 12.198 13.844 15.379 17.292 35.563 38.885 41.923 45.642 48.290
27 11.808 12.879 14.573 16.151 18.114 36.741 40.113 43.195 46.963 49.645
28 12.461 13.565 15.308 16.928 18.939 37.916 41.337 44.461 48.278 50.993
29 13.121 14.256 16.047 17.708 19.768 39.087 42.557 45.722 49.588 52.336
30 13.787 14.953 16.791 18.493 20.599 40.256 43.773 46.979 50.892 53.672
40 20.707 22.164 24.433 26.509 29.051 51.805 55.758 59.342 63.691 66.766
50 27.991 29.707 32.357 34.764 37.689 63.167 67.505 71.420 76.154 79.490
60 35.534 37.485 40.482 43.188 46.459 74.397 79.082 83.298 88.379 91.952
70 43.275 45.442 48.758 51.739 55.329 85.527 90.531 95.023 100.425 104.215
80 51.172 53.540 57.153 60.391 64.278 96.578 101.879 106.629 112.329 116.321
90 59.196 61.754 65.647 69.126 73.291 107.565 113.145 118.136 124.116 128.299
100 67.328 70.065 74.222 77.929 82.358 118.498 124.342 129.561 135.807 140.169

Page 38 of 38