♡
• China last year recorded its lowest ever birth rate, of
TCWD FINALS REVIEWER
THE GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY
Configuring: Shanghai will allow only 800k more to
live there. Chinese City will cap its permanent
population at 25M.
By: John Johnson, Newser Staff (December 26, 2017 –
8:03 AM CST)
• China’s commercial capital, Shanghai, population fall
in 2022 in the first decline in 5 years, after authorities
imposed draconian Covid-19 lockdowns and more
than 250,000 migrant workers departed.
• The data, published by Shanghai’s statistics bureau on
Tuesday (March 28, 2023), showed the densely-
packed hub had 24.76 million people last year,
compared with 24.89 million people in 2021.
• Shanghai’s figures came after Beijing posted its first
population drop since 2003.
• China’s population fell last year for the first time in 6
decades, weighed down by rising living costs
especially in big, sprawling urban hubs, weak
economic growth, and changing attitudes towards
raising a family.
• Around 60% of people living in Shanghai said they
wanted just one child or none. More than 28% of
Shanghai residents polled said they did not plan to
have an additional child because of the high childcare
costs.
• Shanghai's birth rate dropped to 4.4 per 1,000 people
from 4.7 a year earlier, while its death rate increased
to 6.0 per 1,000 people from 5.6 due to a rapidly
ageing population.
6.77 per 1,000 people.
• Around 18.7% of Shanghai's population is older than
65, above the national average of 14.9%.
• Many women in Shanghai were put off having
children during a stringent COVID lockdown in April
and May last year, which demographers said could
have profoundly damaged their desire to have
children.
• Concerned by China's shrinking population, political
advisers to the government have made more than
20 recommendations to boost birth rates, though
experts said the best they can do was to slow the
population's decline.
• 24.2 million - current Chinese economic hub
population and authorities plan to cap the permanent
population at 25 million.
• The idea behind the newly adopted master plan
through 2035 is to curb the maladies common to
major cities such as environmental pollution, gridlock
traffic, and a decline in the quality of services such as
medical care and education.
The term "maladies" refers to
problems or issues. In this context,
the master plan aims to address and
mitigate issues that are frequently
encountered in large cities.
• The State Council, which refers to all the above
as “big city disease,” also will limit the amount of
land made available for development in the
coming years.
• A research fellow at the Shanghai Academy of
Social Sciences predicts that the poor will bear
the brunt of the new population limit the most
because the government will begin tearing down
cheap housing now in existence.
 ♡
• Imposing such limits, he warns, is “unpractical
and against the social development trend.”
• China similarly hopes to cap the population of
Beijing at 23 million by 2020.
• Plans were already in the works to move
government offices out of Beijing to a new city
being built about 50 miles to the south.
THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION: THREE
CENTURIES OF FUNDAMENTAL CHANGE
By: Ronald Lee
• Before the start of the demographic transition,
life was short, births were many, growth was
slow and the population was young.
• During the transition, Z mortality and then
fertility declined, causing population growth
rates first to accelerate and then slow again,
moving toward low fertility, long life, and an old
population.
• 1800 – transition began with declining (means
decrease) mortality in Europe that has now
spread to all parts of the world and is projected
to be completed by 2100.
• This global demographic transition has brought
momentous changes, reshaping the economic
and demographic life cycles of individuals and
restructuring populations.
• Since 1800, global population size has already
increased by a factor of six (6) and by 2100 will
have risen by a factor of ten (10).
• There will then be 50 times as many elderly, but
only five times as many children; thus, the ratio
of elders to children will have risen by factor of
ten (10).
• The length of life, which has already more than
doubled, will have tripled, while births per
woman will have dropped from 6 to 2.
• 1800 – women spent about 70% of the adult
years bearing and rearing young children, but
that fraction has decreased in many parts of the
world to only about 14%, due to lower fertility
and longer life.
MORTALITY DECLINES
• The world’s demographic transition started in
northwest Europe, where mortality began a
secular decline around 1800.
• The first stage of mortality decline is due to
reductions in contagious and infectious diseases
by air or water.
• Preventive medicine, small pox vaccine, played
significantly in the mortality decline in the 18th
century.
• Improved personal hygiene also helped as
income rose.
• GERM THEORY – theory of diseases that became
more widely known and accepted.
Scientific theory that states that many diseases are caused
by the presence and actions of specific microorganisms
within the body. It was proposed by scientists such as Louis
Pasteur and Robert Koch in the late 19th century.
 ♡
• Another major factor in the early phases of
growing life expectancy is improvement in
nutrition.
• Famine mortality was reduced by improvements
in storage and transportation.
• Secular increases in incomes led to improved
nutrition in childhood and throughout life.
• Life expectancy is positively associated with
height in the industrial country populations.
(FOGEL, 1994; BARKER, 1992)
• In recent decades, the continuing reduction in
mortality is due to reductions in chronic and
degenerative diseases, notably heart disease and
cancer. (RILEY, 2001)
• In the later part of the century, publicly organized
and funded biomedical research has played an
increasingly important part, and the human
genome project and stem cell research promise
future gains.
• In India, life expectancy rose from around 24
years in 1920 to 62 years today, a gain of 0.48
years per calendar year over 80 years.
• In China, life expectancy rose from 41 in 1950-
1955 to 70 in 1995-1999, a gain of 0.65 years per
year over 45 years.
• On the optimistic side, Oeppen and Vaupel
(2002) offer remarkable graph that plots the
highest national female life expectancy attained
for each calendar year from 1840 to 2000.
• The points fall close to a straight line, starting to
45 years in Sweden and ending at 85 years in
Japan, with a slope of 2.4 years per decade.
• If we boldly extend the line forward in time, it
reaches 97.5 years by mid-century and 109 years
by 2100.
• Less optimistic projections are based on
extrapolation (means estimating, projecting) of
trends in age-specific death rates over the past
50 – 100 years.
• This approach implies more modest gains for the
high-income nations of the world, with average
life expectancy approaching 90 years by the end
of 21st century (LEE AND CHARTER, 1992;
TULJAPURKAR, LI, AND BOE, 2000)
FERTILITY TRANSITION
• Between 1890 and 1920, marital fertility began
to decline in most European provinces, with a
median decline of about 40% from 1870 to 1930
(COALE AND TREADWAY, 1986, pp. 44)
• Most economic theories of fertility start with the
idea that couples wish to have a certain number
of surviving children, rather than births per se.
• Some of the improvement in child survival is
itself a response to parental decisions to invest
more in the health and welfare of a smaller
number of children (NERLOVE, 1974)
• These issues of parental investment in children
suggest that fertility will also be influenced by
how economic change influences the costs and
benefits of childbearing.
 ♡
• Bearing and rearing children is time intensive.
requires a significant amount of time and
effort
• Technological progress and increasing physical
and human capital make labor more productive,
raising the value of time in all activities, which
makes children increasingly costly relative to
consumption of goods.
• Since women have had primary responsibility for
childbearing and rearing, variations in
productivity of women have been particularly
important.
• Rising incomes have shifted consumption
demand toward non-agricultural goods and
services, for which educated labor is a more
important input.
• Overall, these patterns have several effects:
Children become more expensive, their
economic contributions are diminished by school
time and educated parents have higher value of
time, which raises the opportunity costs of
childrearing.
• Furthermore, parents with higher incomes
choose to devote more resources to each child,
and since this raises the cost of each child, it also
leads to fewer children (BECKER, 1981; WILLIS.
1974, 1994)
POPULATION GROWTH
• The combination of fertility and mortality
determines population growth.
• Between 1950 and 2050, the actual and
projected trajectories for the more, less, and
least developed countries are plotted.
• One is a trajectory for Europe from 1800 to 1950.
The end point of this trajectory in 1950 is quite
close to the start point for the more developed
countries.
• The starting points of these demographic paths
differ somewhat.
• India had higher initial fertility and mortality than
Europe, as did the least developed countries
relative to the less developed countries in 1950,
which in turn had far higher mortality and fertility
than the more developed countries in that year.
• Except for India, the starting points all indicate
moderate (For Europe) to rapid (for least and less
developed countries) population growth.
• There has been rapid global convergence in
fertility and mortality among nations over the
past 50 years, although important differences
remain.
• This convergence of fertility and mortality is in
marked contrast to per capita GDP, which has
tended to diverge between high-income and
low-income countries during this time.
• Today, the median individual lives in a country
with a total fertility rate of 2.3—barely above the
2.1 fertility rate of the US – and a median life
expectancy at birth of 68 years compared to 77
years for the US (WILSON, 2001)
 ♡
• Whether childbearing is concentrated at younger
ages or at older ages and whether age at
CONSEQUENCES OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC
marriage rises or falls seems to vary from setting
TRANSITION
to setting, and patterns are still changing even in
the populations farthest along in the transition.
• The 3 centuries of demographic transition from
1800 to 2100 will reshape the world’s population • Parents with fewer children can invest more in
in number of ways. each child, reflecting the quality-quantity
tradeoff, which may also be one of the reasons
• The obvious changes are the rise in total parents reduced their fertility (BECKER, 1981;
population from 1 billion in 1800 to 9.5 billion in WILLIS, 1974)
2100 – although this long-term estimate is highly
uncertain due largely to uncertainty about future
fertility.

GLOBAL MIGRATION
• The average length of life increases by a factor of
2 or 3, and the median age of the population Configuring: Distribution of OFWs by Place of Work:
doubled from the low 20s to the low 40s. 2016

• Many more developed countries already have • ASIA (85%)

negative population growth rates, and the UN 1. Saudi Arabia (23.8%)
projects that the population of Europe will 2. Other countries in Asia (21.5%)
decline by 13% between now and 2050. 3. United Arab Emirates (15.9%)
4. Kuwait (6.4%)
• But many have other changes will also be set in 5. Qatar (6.2%)
motion in family structure, health, institutions for 6. Hong Kong (5.6%)
saving and supporting retirement even in 7. Singapore (5.6%)
international flows of people and capital.
• Europe (6.6%)
• At the level of families, the number of children • North and South America (5.6%)
born declines sharply and childbearing becomes • Australia (1.4%)
concentrated into few years of a woman’s life. • Africa (1.4%)
• Other countries (0.03%)
• When this changed is combined with greater
longevity, many more adult years become
available for other activities.
• The joint survivorship of couples is greatly
• Migration
increased, and kin networks become more
- Movement of people from one place to
intergenerationally dense, while horizontally
another with the intentions of settling,
sparser.
permanently or temporarily, at a new
location.
 ♡
- The great majority of border crossings do not
imply migration: most travelers are tourists
or business visitors who have no intention of
staying in the country for good.
- Means crossing the boundary of a political or
administrative unit for a certain minimum
period (BOYLE ET AL. 1998)
• Internal Migration
- Domestic migration
- type of voluntary migration where people
move within their own countries.
- Common causes:
1. Economic opportunities,
2. Desire to live somewhere with a familiar
culture
3. Seeking better climate
- Movement of people from one area like a
province, a district, or municipality to
another within one country.
- Tends to be travel for education and for
economic improvement or because or a
natural disaster or civil disturbance.
- Urbanization, movement from rural to urban
areas, also produces a form of internal
migration.
• International Migration
- External migration
- Movement of people across international
borders for the purpose of settlement.
- International migrants change their usual
place of residence from one country to
another.
- Crossing of the frontiers which separates one
of the world’s approximately 200 states from
another.
• Many scholars argue that internal and
international migration are part of the same
process; they should be analyzed together
(SKELDON, 1997)
• International migration arises in a world divided
up into nation-states, in which remaining in the
country of birth is still seen as norm and moving
to another country as a deviation.
Deviation means doing something that is
different from what people consider to be
normal or acceptable.
• Migration tends to be regarded as problematic.
It must be controlled, and curbed, for it may
bring unpredictable changes.
• Emigration
- Relocation or process of people leaving one
country to reside in another.
- People migrate for many reasons including
increasing one’s chance of employment or
improving quality of life.
• Fiscal impact of Emigration
- the departure of skilled workers may result in
a loss of tax revenue and economic
productivity.
 ♡
- remittances sent back by emigrants can
contribute positively to the home country's
economy, offsetting some of the fiscal
challenges.
• Effect of Emigration on Job market and wages
- Emigration can alleviate job market
competition in the home country, potentially
reducing unemployment rates. However, the
departure of skilled workers may lead to
talent shortages in specific sectors, impacting
productivity.
- Wages may rise in remaining skilled
occupations due to increased demand, while
some low-skilled jobs may face downward
pressure.
FINANCIAL REASONS TO EMIGRATE
1. Seek better economic opportunities
2. Avoid poverty and economic hardship
3. Send remittances
4. Seek better cost of living
5. Gain access to credit and financial services
6. Pursue better education (at better costs)
7. Escape from economic discrimination
• Immigration
- act of individuals moving into a new country
to settle there.
- Must abide by the laws of the new country
they have arrived in or face legal
repercussions.
• BRAIN DRAIN
- Often associated with emigration,
- Refer to the phenomenon of skilled,
knowledgeable workers leaving one area,
draining that country of its resources.
INTERNATIONAL MIGRANTS ARE DIVIDED INTO:
1. Temporary labor migrants – migrate for limited
period to work and send remittances to families
in the country of origin.
2. Highly-skilled and business migrants – people
with qualifications such as managers, executives,
professionals, technicians, and the like, who
move within internal labor markets of
transnational corporations and international
organizations.
Transnational Corp, is an enterprise that involved
production of goods or services, foreign investments,
or income and asset management in more than one
country. It sets up factories in developing countries
as land and labor are cheaper there.
3. Irregular migrants – also known as
“undocumented or illegal migrants” who enter
the country in search for employment with no
necessary documents and permits.
4. Refugees – unable or unwilling to return to their
country because of a well-founded fear of
persecution on account of race, religion,
nationality, and membership in a particular
group social group or political opinion.
5. Asylum seekers – move across borders in search
of protection.
6. Forced migration – not only includes refugees
and asylum seekers but also people forced to
move by environmental catastrophes or
 ♡
development projects like new factories, roads,
or dams.
7. Family members – also known as family reunion
or family reunification migrants.
8. Return migrants – return to their countries of
origin after a period in another country.
- Reasons:
1. Conclusion of work contract overseas
2. Desire to be nearer to family
3. Improvement in the economic climate in
the home country.
• Return Migration
- A kind of forced migration
- Typically takes the form of assisted return
that involves involuntary return that the
immigrant has accepted, or deportation
which involves and involuntary return the
immigrant does not accept.
• Seasonal Migration
- Migration on a recurring basis, following the
annual cycle of weather and temperature
variations, from one area or environment to
another.
• Economic Migrants
- Move to benefit from greater economic
opportunities.
CAUSES OF MIGRATION
• Disparity in levels of income
• Employment
• Social well-being
• Differences in demographic patterns about
fertility, mortality, age-structure, and labor-force
growth
• According to neo-classical economic theory, the
main cause is individual’s efforts to maximize
their income by moving from low-wage to high-
wage economies.
• Migration decisions are made not just by
individuals - they often represent family
strategies to maximize income and survival
chances (HUGO, 1994)
THE VOLUME OF CONTEMPORARY MIGRATION
• The United Nations figures show that the global
migrant stock (the number of people resident in
a place outside their country of birth) grew from
75 million in 1965 to 120 million in 1990.
• The 1990 figure was roughly equal to 2% of the
world’s population.
• The number of migrants grew slightly faster that
world population as a whole, but the annual
growth rate of 1.9% for the whole period
increasing 2.6% from 1985-1990 was not
dramatic.
• International migrants remain a fairly small
minority.
• Internal migration, conversely, is much larger.
• For instance, the number of internal migrants in
India in 1981 was some 200 million, more than
double the number of international migrants in
the whole world at that time.
 ♡
• The significance of migration as a major factor in SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
societal change lies in the fact that it is
concentrated in certain countries and regions.
Configuring: GOALS
• Migration affects certain areas within both the
sending and receiving countries more than
others.

• Migration needs to take place in an orderly way

to safeguard the human rights of migrants.

• Europe and Asia each hosted around 87 and 86

million international migrants, respectively
comprising 61% of the global international
migrant stock.

• Followed by Norh America with 59 million int’l

migrants in 2020 or 21% of the global migrant
stock.

1. End Poverty
• Africa (9%), Latin America and Caribbean (5%),
2. End Hunger
and Oceania (3%)
3. Well-Being
4. Quality Education
• Asia experienced the most remarkable growth
5. Gender Equality
from 2000 to 2020, at 74%.
6. Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Sustainable Energy
• Europe experienced the second-largest growth
8. Decent work for all
during this period, with an increase of 30 million
9. Technology to Benefit All
int’l migrants.
10. Reduce Inequality
11. Safe Cities and Communities
• Followed by an increase of 18 million int’l
12. Responsible Consumption by all
migrants in North America and 10 million in
13. Stop Climate Change
Africa.
14. Protect the Ocean
15. Take care of the Earth
16. Live in Peace
17. Mechanisms and Partnerships to reach the
goals
 ♡
Configuring: Press release: Ahead of SDG Summit in
September, countries commit to scaling up action to
deliver on the Sustainable Development Goals
• Despite setbacks, change remains possible – UN
• New York, 19 July – The High-Level Political
Forum on Sustainable Development—the
forerunner to the SDG Summit in September—
ended today, under the auspices of the UN
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), with a
renewed call for urgent and collective action to
deliver the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) by 2030.
• The SDGs remain the world’s blueprint for a
more resilient, peaceful, and inclusive future.
• Over 100 countries joined businesses, civil
society organizations, youth, and others during
the eight days of the Forum to share successes,
experiences and lessons learnt on the SDGs.
• The Forum, which focused this year on specific
goals related to:
1. sustainable energy,
2. clean water,
3. infrastructure and innovation,
4. sustainable cities,
5. and partnerships,
stressed the critical need for bold and
transformative action at the local level.
• Task ahead daunting, but still possible
• 12% of SDG targets are on track, according to a
preliminary assessment of roughly 140 targets
for which data is available.
• With only seven years left, the task ahead to
achieve the SDGs is formidable, but not
impossible.
• “We are halfway to 2030 and yet nowhere near
to achieving the SDGs. The bad news is we’ve lost
7 years. The good news is-we still have 7 years
and victory is within our reach, but countries
must integrate the SDGs into their national
development plans, policies, and strategies. A
strong push must be made to accelerate
progress, and aligning national priorities with the
SDGs is paramount to ensure a coherent and
comprehensive approach to sustainable
development.” - Lachezara Stoeva. (UN
Economic and Social Council President)
• According to the SDGs Report 2023: Special
Edition, there has been progress in some areas.
• 800 million people have been connected to
electricity between 2015 and 2021.
• 146 countries already met or are on track to
meeting the under-5 mortality target and
effective HIV treatment cut global AIDS-related
deaths by 52% since 2010.
• “As we cross the halfway mark to 2030, one
overriding truth stands out in my
mind: Change is possible. Backsliding is not
inevitable. Poverty, pollution, and gender
inequality are not pre-ordained, they are trends
that can be reversed, problems that can be
solved, tragedies that can be averted, lives that
can be saved. And together, we can deliver.” -
António Guterres (UN Secretary-General)
• 38 countries and the European Union presented
their Voluntary National Reviews at the Forum,
demonstrating the bold actions they are taking to
achieve the SDGs.
 ♡
Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) refer to a process in
which countries voluntarily report on their progress in
implementing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
It is presented during the annual High-level Political Forum
on Sustainable Development (HLPF)
Snapshot of countries’ progress:
1. Central African Republic
- mobile phone users increased from 35.6%
(2018) to 56.7% (2022), a leap of 21% in 4
years
2. Comoros
- Government continues its initiatives to
increase renewable energy capacity to 40%
by 2030.
3. European Green Deal
- Strives to make Europe the world’s first
climate-neutral continent by 2050.
4. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- Made significant progress in Jobs with a
particular focus on female labor force
participation, which rose from 19.4% (2015)
to 36% (2022)
5. Kitts and Nevis
- Tourism and its ancillary sectors have
rebounded sharply, contributing to real GDP
growth of 9% in 2022, after contracting
14.5% in 2020 and 0.9% in 2021.
• The most vulnerable countries are bearing the
brunt of the world’s collective failure to
accelerate progress on the SDGs.
• At present, 37 out of the 69 world’s poorest
countries are in debt distress or at high risk,
hampering their ability to accelerate action on
the SDGs.
• More than 108 million people as of December
2022 were forcibly displaced from their homes
and there was a steep rise to conflict related
civilian deaths with over 50% surge in 2022,
fueled by the war in Ukraine.
• This year’s Forum sets the stage for the SDG
Summit on 18 to 19 September, where world
leaders are called on to renew their
commitments and raise their ambition for the
SDGs.
• Strong political will, accompanied by bold
investments in the SDGs, is essential to reversing
setbacks.
• The UN Secretary-General’s SDG
Stimulus outlines the need for the international
community to come together to mobilize
investments for the SDGs, calling on wealthier
countries to scale up affordable long-term
financing to help countries in need to the tune of
$500 billion annually.
• “I urge every government to come to the SDG
Summit with clear plans and pledges to
strengthen action in their countries to 2030, we
need ambitious national commitments and
interventions to reduce poverty and inequality
by 2027 and 2030.” - said Mr. Guterres
SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
• There was a strong impression that the global
economy became the sphere of extreme
uncertainty and risk during the first decade of the
21st century.
• There was a dimension of crisis that began in
2007 that was not like another business cycle
 ♡
setback but a serious breakdown that challenge
the foundations of modern approaches to the
creation of welfare.
• Symptoms of crisis around the globe:
1. Collapsing Financial Markets
2. Rising Unemployment
3. Deeper Inequalities
4. Shrinking Middle Class
5. Extreme Indebtedness
6. Inability Of Governments to Force Through
Reforms
• Moreover, the challenges of climate change and
the unavailability of resources that were
important in the development of technologies to
keep the economy growing continued to
surfaced.
• ULRICH BECK – a German sociologist, has
predicted these things to happen years back, and
has coined the term, “risk society” (BECK, 1986)
STABILITY
• Firmness in position, permanence and resistance
to change are the words associated with stability.
• International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2012) –
defines it as “avoiding large swings in economic
activity, high inflation, and excessive volatility in
exchange rates and financial markets”
• Refers to indexes that describe the economy in
short term categories.
• (KNOOP, 2009) expressed that within a few
years, every economy moves through periods of
rapid growth with rising demand, higher inflation
and dropping unemployment, followed by
depression with reversal phenomena.
• Excessive highs and lows should be avoided.
• There was a Great Depression that happened in
1929, when the economy collapsed in a dramatic
way after long years of post-war prosperity and
overproduction.
• The global crisis in the 1970’s opened the gates
of new economic ideas.
• Monetarism, which is premised on the idea that
stabilization could be produced control of
amount of money in circulation.
• MILTON FRIEDMAN started to dominate global
capitalism.
• Global capitalism fitted well with neo-liberalism,
which expanded with the free market reforms of
RONALD REAGAN in the USA and MARGARET
THATCHER in UK.
• The 1990’s still experienced world economy
collapses such as the Asian financial crisis in
1997, the Russian crisis followed by the disaster
in Argentina that started in 1999.
• These crises were mainly attributed to major
political mistakes, but particularly alarming with
their contagion effects.
• Since 2007, many countries had been trying to
restore stabilization.
 ♡
SUSTAINABILITY
• 1968 – GARRET HARDIN wrote the famous book
• Considers the long-term capacities of a system to
“TRAGEDY OF COMMONS” that analyzed how
exist, not its short-term resistance to change.
public goods got exhausted by actors in a free
market economy (HARDIN, 1968)
• BRUNTLAND REPORT (World Commission on
Environment and Development, 1987) said that
• The Club of Rome published, THE LIMITS TO
“development that meets the needs of the
GROWTH that dealt with the connection
present without compromising the ability of
between economic growth and the scarcity of
future generations to meet their own needs
resources.
deserves the label of sustainability”

• Rising awareness of the sustainability problem in

• Technology became a fantastic escape from the
environmental issues and resources translated
sustainability dilemma.
also into international cooperation.

• The Solow-Swan model (1950) saw the only

• Sustainability perspectives started to be visible
chance for innovations.
not only in the environmental area but also on
the theme of overpopulation.
• A sheer increase of the amount of resources
added to input could lead to diminishing
marginal returns only.

• New ideas in technology and organization made

it possible to overtake the steady state of zero
growth and induce development without
increasing resources.

• PAUL ROMER AND ROBERT LUCAS proposed the

New Growth Theory (1980)

• The endogenous factors like human capital and

education were recognized as crucial for growth
and their application was free from steady state
of classical resources.

• 19th century – the issue of sustainability

considered mainly social conditions in early
industrial capitalism.

• Modern debate on sustainability focused mainly

on environmental questions.