Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dokumen - Pub The Case Book For Czech 97808
Dokumen - Pub The Case Book For Czech 97808
Preliminaries 1
for Czech
Laura A. Janda
and
Steven J. Clancy
0. Preliminaries 2
Preliminaries
PRELIMINARIES 1 — The mission of this book
Na dveřích do Beátina budoáru byla velká obdélníková samolepka s nápisem PRIVATE a asi
tucet starých vodových obtisků s portréty různých hudebních skupin, přičemž četné rýhy na mnoha
z nich svědčily o marných pokusech je seškrábat. Když jsem se ani po třetím zaklepání nedočkal
žádné slyšitené výzvy, se slovy Mohu dál? jsem vstoupil.
V pokoji panovalo dusné a temné přítmí, neboť brokátové závěsy na oknech propouštěly opravdu
jen minimum světla. Chvíli mi proto trvalo, než jsem se zorientoval: celou místnost rodělovala
dlouhá, asi půldruhého metru vysoká knihovna, která vybíhala z protější stěny a přímo proti
vstupním dveřím byla po způsobu lodních přídí zakončena barevnou dřevěnou figurou mořské
panny, jejíž poněkud expresivně vztyčené paže sloužily jako šatní věšák. V menší části pokoje byl
jednoduchý pracovní kout s psacím stolem, zavaleným knihami a papíry. Zbylým dvěma třetinám
dominovala originální rohová sedací sestava, zahrnující dvě obrovské amorfní hromady jakýchsi
buřtovitých polštářů, dva nízké, už napohled vratké kožené taburety a jedno autentické zubařské
křeslo. Roli tradičního konferenčního stolku zajímavě suplovala polovina ropného barelu firmy
Texaco, stojící uprostřed čtvercového koberečku s orientálními vzory. V rozích stěn byly zavěšené
velké černé reproduktory a mezi zatemněnými okny visela polystyrénová deska se spoustou ručně
psaných poznámek a výstřižků z revue Vokno. Povlečení rozestlané postele, v níž čelem ke zdi ležela
Beáta, bylo ovšem smutně tuctové.
On the door to Beáta’s boudoir there was a large rectangular decal saying PRIVATE and about
a dozen old stickers with the pictures of various bands, although numerous scratches on many of
them attested to vain attempts to scrape them off. When even after knocking three times I didn’t
receive any audible response, I said May I come in? and entered the room.
A stuffy dark gloom pervaded the room because the brocade window dressings let in very little
light, and it took me a while to get oriented. The whole room was divided by a long bookcase about
five feet high, running from the opposite wall all the way to the door, where, like the bow of a ship, it
was appointed with a painted mermaid, whose oddly expressive upraised arms served as coat-
hooks. There was a workspace in the smaller part of the room, with a desk heaped with books and
papers. The remaining two-thirds of the room were dominated by a creative corner seating
arrangement, consisting of two enormous amorphous piles of sausage-shaped cushions, a pair of
rickety-looking leather footstools and an authentic dentist’s chair. Substituting for a traditional
coffee-table was half a Texaco oil barrel standing in the middle of a square rug with an oriental
pattern. Large black speakers were suspended in the corners, and between the darkened windows
hung a styrofoam board with lots of hand-written notes and clippings from Vokno review. The
sheets of the unmade bed, where Beáta was lying facing the wall, were however depressingly
ordinary.
—from Výchova dívek v Čechách, by Michal Viewegh
Open a Czech-English dictionary and you will find the meanings of every kind of word.1 Many
dictionaries will even list translations for prefixes. But you won’t find meanings for cases in your
trusty dictionary. If you are lucky, your textbook might list some meanings for each case, but
chances are these entries will look rather like the disheveled décor of Beáta’s room, and be just as
appealing. Take the dative case, for example. Your grammar book might tell you that the dative is
used in the following contexts: for the indirect object; with the prepositions k ‘toward’ and proti
‘against’; with certain verbs such as odpovědět ‘answer’, chybět ‘be missing’, gratulovat
‘applaud’, zaplatit ‘pay’, podobat se ‘be similar to’, pomoci ‘help’, patřit ‘belong to’, věřit
1
Traditional explanations of Czech cases usually look like random lists of items.
0. Preliminaries 3
‘believe’, škodit ‘harm’, pomstít se ‘take revenge on’, divit se ‘be surprised at’, závidět ‘envy’,
vévodit ‘rule over’; in impersonal expressions of age and comfort such as Je mi dvacet let/zima [Is
me-DAT twenty-NOM years-GEN/cold] ‘I’m twenty years old/cold’. There’s no obvious pattern
in such an explanation, and it doesn’t prepare you to predict what other words might be associated
with the dative, or to interpret a sentence like Miminko nám pláče v noci [Baby-NOM us-DAT
cries in night-LOC] ‘Our baby cries at night’. The incoherent assortments of case usage offered
up in this fashion are incomplete and suggest no logical motive. There is also no logical motive for
the student to try to learn them, since they don’t make sense. The only choice seems to be to
memorize lists of case uses, and this proves to be a formidable if not impossible task, since it is
exceedingly difficult to assimilate information if it looks to you like just so much nonsense.
But entering the realm of Czech case meanings need not be as disheartening or disorienting as
going into the room of a sloppy, spoiled teenager. 2 The goal of this text is to show you that there
are patterns to case usage that make sense and can be learned fairly easily. This book can be used
by students at any level of study, from beginner through advanced.
The meanings of the grammatical cases are probably the biggest obstacle faced by English-
speaking students trying to learn Czech.3 Even advanced learners will often run into sentences they
can’t interpret. Students often know plenty of vocabulary and how to find unfamiliar words in the
dictionary, and maybe they can even figure out what cases all the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives
are in, but if they cannot figure out what the cases mean, the meaning of a sentence remains a
mystery.
The meaning of a sentence is a product of two interdependent forces: the words it contains, and
the relationships they have to each other.4 In English these relationships are usually expressed by
means of word order and prepositions, but in Russian this job is done by case. The words are fairly
self-contained and concrete, since they can exist by themselves, outside of any sentence. The
relationships that hold among words are relatively abstract and largely dependent upon context. The
relationships themselves can be likened to a bare conceptual structure that is fleshed out by the
actual words chosen. You can compare this to the concept sandwich, which indicates a set of
relationships among bread, spreads, and fillings. By itself, sandwich is abstract, and if somebody
asked you to “make a sandwich”, you would probably ask for more information. If instead the
request sounded something like “give me an open-faced turkey sandwich on rye with lettuce,
tomato, and mustard, hold the mayo”, you would find that more satisfactory, because you would
know both the relationship (sandwich) and the specific items in that relationship (one slice of rye,
mustard [not mayonnaise] for spread, filling of turkey, lettuce, and tomato).
Our culture has some abstract relationships that can’t be expressed in a single word, or even in
a common expression.5 Take for example the various types of games that involve two teams of
people, each of which tries to control the movement of a round object into a space belonging to
another team. Variations in the type of object, parts of body or implements used to move it, playing
environments, rules, etc. yield specific games such as basketball, football, soccer, volleyball, field
hockey, ice hockey, lacrosse, rugby, water-polo, tennis, and ping-pong. The abstract relationship that
holds among all the players, objects, playing environments, and rules is so familiar that it is
transparent to us. We don’t even think about it, and we apply it effortlessly even when we encounter
a new game we haven’t seen before. Now, imagine that there are some people who live in a radically
different culture, where there are no such sports. If you led them onto a lacrosse field and handed
them some sticks and a ball, they would be utterly clueless. Without any extra help, it’s extremely
unlikely that these people would start playing anything remotely like lacrosse. The sticks might
seem handy for gathering apples from some nearby trees, and maybe the ball could serve as the
head of a child’s doll or ritual effigy. Goodness knows what they would make of the goals.
Nobody ever explained to you the principal relationship behind lacrosse or all the other games
that work the same way. They didn’t have to. You saw plenty of examples all around you and
2
This text explains the coherent patterns of case meanings and can be used at any level of study.
3
Why learning the meanings of Czech cases is an obstacle to students.
4
Czech cases show the relationships between words in a sentence.
5
Understanding Czech cases is like understanding how a game structures play.
0. Preliminaries 4
internalized the principle without even thinking about it. In order to gain the kind of understanding
you have for such games, newcomers who have never been exposed to such an idea will need an
explanation, not just of the principle itself, but of how it functions in various actual games. The
situation of a student learning Czech is very similar to the culture-shock of these outsiders. Until
you get acculturated to the games Czechs play with their cases, it is impossible for you to interpret
and manipulate Czech sentences the way that Czechs do. The objective is to make you into effective
players of the case game. There are challenges to face, as in any game, but they are part of the sport,
and the rewards of really mastering the language far outweigh the difficulties.
If a Czech asked you to explain the meaning of the English preposition for, you might be
surprised and frustrated by the difficulty of this task. Even if you couldn’t give your Czech friend a
satisfactory answer, that wouldn’t mean that for doesn’t mean anything or that there are lots of
different fors that are not related to each other in any systematic way. Intuitively you sense that for
does mean something and that all uses of for relate to that meaning. The same goes for Czechs and
cases: they may not be able to tell you why all those different verbs take the dative case, but they
have an intuitive sense that the dative case does mean something and the contexts in which the dative
appears has to do with that meaning.
Each case will further be associated with two labels, one of which is a word and the other a diagram.
For example, the instrumental will look like this:
I
INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS
6
The notation and presentation of case in this book.
7
How the Czechs label their cases by names and numbers.
0. Preliminaries 5
Both the word and the diagram are meant to suggest the basic meaning of the case, to give you a
handle to grip your memory to. They are not definitions, nor do they imply that Czechs have such
labels or think in pictograms or anything of that sort. They are merely a reference point for the
process of working through the meanings. Both the word and the diagram focus only on the
meaning of the case itself, which is usually embedded in a sentence that uses several cases. For
example, a sentence like the following could be represented by a larger diagram in which
INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS would be only a component:
N I A
However, such diagrams would quickly become clumsy and distracting. We will focus on only one
case at a time instead of diagramming entire sentences this way.
Most cases have submeanings related to the basic meaning; a double colon will be used to refer
to a specific submeaning:
I
INSTRUMENTAL:: A LABEL
When there are submeanings, they will be arranged in a network to show how they are related to
each other and to the basic meaning. For example, the network of the instrumental looks like this:
A LABEL
A MEANS
AN ADJUNCT
A LANDMARK
The object of this text is not to teach you the case endings for nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and
numerals.8 Working through these materials will certainly reinforce your knowledge of what these
paradigms look like, but there are many other books and materials for achieving that goal. Drilling
8
This book focuses on case meaning, not endings; tables of endings appear in every chapter and in the appendix.
0. Preliminaries 6
the endings would distract you from concentrating on the meanings. However, if you want to review
the case endings at any time, there are tables in the appendix giving complete declensions for your
reference, and shortened tables specific to each given case are at the beginning of each chapter.
In addition to basic meanings and submeanings, metaphor plays an important role in case
meaning.9 Case meaning takes as its point of departure the relationships that hold among physical
objects placed or moving in space. These relationships can be metaphorically transferred to other
domains such as time or social interaction, just as we see in English:
In these examples, time and social interaction are treated as if they were physical spaces. For the
most part, Czechs use these metaphors in ways very similar to those familiar from English, though
some uses might surprise you. Throughout the text mention is made of meanings that are extended
to domains other than space. These metaphorical extensions, in conjunction with items specific to
certain contexts, such as numerals, indirect experience, certain verbs and prepositions, are
responsible for the more specific meanings that you will find nested under the basic meanings and
submeanings.
There are also relations that hold between the cases.10 It is not essential for you to memorize or
appreciate these relations at this point, but since these relations have some influence on the
descriptions they are given, a brief overview is in order. This overview is purely for purposes of
general orientation; the statements it makes are abstract and will probably make more sense to you
after you have completed the text. The nominative basically names an item, and has no particular
designation. The instrumental is relatively peripheral to the nominative, and names an item through
which something happens; it is a mere conduit, envelope, or accompaniment for something else.
Both the accusative and the dative signal direction; the accusative is the destination for some item or
activity, and the dative, relatively more peripheral, is a receiver or experiencer of some item or
activity, usually capable of producing some further action in response. The sectioning of a part from
its source is expressed by the genitive; more abstractly such sectioning can involve background
elements of the setting, expressed by the locative. The vocative is very different from the other cases
since it is not really a part of a sentence, but it does overlap somewhat with the naming function of
the nominative.
Most of the people using this book are probably already very familiar with the fact that Czech
exists in two standard versions: a literary norm, known as Literary Czech, and a spoken language,
known as Colloquial Czech (better thought of as two ends of a continuum of language use). In
order to become proficient in Czech, a learner must master both versions, and this book
acknowledges and presents examples of both Literary Czech (LCz) and Colloquial Czech (CCz).
All case phenomena specific to Colloquial Czech, as well as all examples containing Colloquial
Czech features will be designated CCz. The designation LCz will be used only when it is necessary
to emphasize an exclusively literary case phenomenon or very bookish example.
You will notice that the examples in this book are very different from the examples you have
seen in other textbooks.11 That is because these are not textbook examples; not a single one of them
was cooked up for this book. Our examples have been gathered from literature, periodicals, the
Czech National Corpus, and the internet. Trying to learn Czech cases from traditional textbook
examples is a little like trying to learn about the water cycle by studying the steam in your
bathroom. It leads to the syndrome described at the beginning of this section, where you know all
the words and endings, but still can’t make sense of the sentence. Most learners hit this plateau at
9
Spatial relations and metaphor motivate case meaning.
10
The relationships between the cases.
11
The examples in this book are real, not concocted.
0. Preliminaries 7
some point, and if you’re a fast learner, you risk getting stuck there even sooner. Rather than being
contrived and antiseptic, the examples in this book and exercises will expose you to the cases as
they really are, raw and unadulterated. This means that the examples will be somewhat messier than
the ones you are used to seeing. But hopefully this guided tour of case realia will help to make your
transition from language study to language use a confident, seamless stride rather than a desperate
leap into a void.
2 Appendix
APPENDIX
This chapter will provide you with information on how to spell the endings of all words that
are marked with cases in Czech. This includes nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numerals.
The vowel in case endings associated with hard stems and soft stems
Frequently the case endings of hard stems will have a certain vowel, and we can predict that
soft stems will have a corresponding vowel. In the list below, the vowel on the left is the one
we find with hard stems, and the vowel on the right is the corresponding vowel for soft
stems. Each pair of vowels is followed by a pair of examples showing where we find these
correspondences for hard and soft stems. The uppercase letters refer to the cases
(N=nominative, G=genitive, etc.), and the lower case letters tell you whether the ending is
for singular (sg) or plural (pl), and may also indicate gender (m=masculine, f=feminine,
n=neuter). The vowel e/ě is spelled ě after b, d, f, m, n, p, t, v, but e elsewhere:
Changes in consonants
When certain case endings are added to hard stems, the last consonant in the stem (or the
last group of consonants) might change. This happens when we add the nominative plural
ending for animate masculine nouns -i and the corresponding adjective ending -í, and we
get the same effect from -ích in the locative plural. We also get changes in consonants when
we add -e/ě in the dative/locative singular endings of feminine nouns. Less frequently we
see consonants change when we add -e in the vocative singular of masculine nouns, but this
affects only r and c (and it does not always happen). Here are examples of all of the types of
consonant changes you are likely to encounter:
Masculine paradigms
Hard stems
Inanimate: rozbor ‘analysis’
sg pl
N rozbor rozbory
G rozboru rozborů
D rozboru rozborům
A rozbor rozbory
V rozbore
L rozboru rozborech
I rozborem rozbory
Animacy
If a masculine noun is inanimate, the nominative singular and accusative singular endings
are the same. If a masculine noun is animate, the genitive singular and accusative singular
endings are the same, and there are also special endings (-i, -é, -ové) for the nominative
plural. Animacy can also affect the endings of the genitive singular, dative singular, and
Vocative: a call 5
locative singular. Animate nouns are all male (or grammatically masculine) living creatures
capable of motion (i.e., non-vegetable). In the case of very small creatures, such as bacil
‘bacillus’, mikrob ‘microbe’ animacy is open to interpretation. There are also a good num-
ber of nouns which refer to inanimate objects but display animate endings; this phenom-
enon is known as facultative animacy. Animal names used to refer to inanimates regularly
produce this phenomenon: koníček ‘little horse; hobby’ is animate in both meanings. Most
other facultative animates show some close connection to human males, in terms of appear-
ance (sněhulák ‘snowman’, maňásek ‘puppet’), existence of homonyms referring to male
humans (talián ‘Italian; Italian sausage’, which motivates facultative animacy for other
sausages, such as vuřt ‘wurst’), and stereotypes of male-pattern behavior (drinking of alco-
hol: panák ‘shot’; smoking of cigarettes: čmoud ‘drag from a cigarette’; card-playing: ferbl
‘name of a card game’; sports: kraul ‘crawl (swimming)’; and mathematics: násobenec
‘multiplicand’). Facultative animacy primarily involves the GAsg and to a lesser extent the
Npl, but does not always extend to the DLsg.
Npl: -i is by far the most common ending for animates and causes consonant changes:
Polák, Poláci ‘Pole’. The endings -é -ové are used primarily with certain viriles: soused,
sousedé ‘neighbor’; syn, synové ‘son’.
Lpl: in addition to -ech, the Lpl has the variants -ích (used with some stems ending in -k, -
h, -ch, -b, -p, -v, -s, -z, and -l) and -ách (used with some stems in -k, -h, -ch). With -k, -h, -ch,
the ending -ích causes consonant changes, although the tendency is to replace -ích with -
ách to avoid these changes. Compare the following Nsg and Lpl forms: práh, prazích
‘threshold’; les, lesích ‘forest’; hotel, hotelích ‘hotel’; plech, plechách ‘metal plate’.
Soft stems
Inanimate: koš ‘basket’
sg pl
N koš koše
G koše košů
D koši košům
A koš koše
V koši
L koši koších
I košem koši
DLsg: the distribution of -ovi vs. -i is similar to that of -ovi vs. -u in the animate hard stems,
although -i is somewhat more frequent in the soft paradigm than -u is in the hard paradigm.
Lpl: some nouns in this paradigm have the desinence -ech: cíl, cílech ‘goal’.
Special types
There are two types of masculine nouns that end with a vowel in the Nsg: the hard -a
paradigm and the soft -e paradigm. Both are exclusively virile (designate male humans) and
therefore animate.
Aside from the masculine DLsg -ovi, this paradigm has feminine endings in the singular,
but masculine endings in the plural.
Gsg, Apl, and Ipl: some stems in this paradigm end in consonant letters that do not combine
with y; these forms are then spelled with i, as in nicknames such as Míša, Míši ‘Mike’.
Npl: although most nouns in this paradigm use -ové, those ending in -ita and -ista use -é
(husita, husité ‘Hussite’, houslista, houslisté ‘violinist’).
Lpl: stems ending in -k, -h, -ch will have the ending -ích and consonant changes: sluha,
sluzích ‘servant’.
Although a few borrowings are indeclinable (atašé ‘attaché’, zebu ‘zebu’, tangens ‘tan-
gent’), most foreign words decline even if their stems are incongruous with the stem shape
of native masculine nouns. Nouns ending in a vowel other than i/y will drop that vowel in
8 Appendix
all forms other than the Nsg (and Asg for inanimates) and treat the preceding consonant as
stem final; maestro thus has a stem of maestr- to which desinences are added: GAsg maestra,
DLsg maestrovi, Vsg maestro, Isg maestrem, Npl maestrové, Gpl maestrů, Dpl maestrům,
AIpl maestry, Lpl maestrech. Following a similar strategy, foreign nouns ending in -us, -es,
and -os usually drop those segments for all other forms in the paradigm (NAsg komunismus,
GDLsg komunismu, Vsg komunisme, Isg komunismem; NAsg hádes, GDLsg hádu, Isg
hádem; NAsg kosmos, GDLsg kosmu, Isg kosmem). Foreign nouns and names ending in i/
y (kuli ‘coolie’, pony ‘pony’, Billy) have a mixed declension, with adjective type endings
(with short vowels) in the singular (GAsg kuliho, Dsg kulimu, LIsg kulim), but primarily
noun-type endings in the plural (Npl kuliové, Gpl kuliů, Dpl kuliům, Apl kulie, Lpl kuliech/
-ích/-ch, Ipl kulii/-mi).
Neuter paradigms
Aside from the nominative and accusative forms, the neuter endings are similar to mascu-
line endings.
Hard stems
město ‘city’
sg pl
N město města
G města měst
D městu městům
A město města
V město
L městě/-u městech
I městem městy
Nsg: a few nouns with stems ending in -en have a bookish variant Nsg form with an abbre-
viated stem: břemeno/břímě ‘burden’; these nouns also have alternate endings Gsg břemena/
břemene, Dsg břemenu/břemeni, and Lsg břemenu/břemeni/břemeně (similar to the mas-
culine kotel type above).
Lsg: many nouns use only -e/ě (with consonant changes):okno, okně ‘window’; some only
-u (stems ending in -k, -h, -ch always use -u): středisko, středisku ‘center’.
Lpl: as in masculine nouns, -ích can appear after velars (with type 1 alternations), and is
frequently replaced by -ách.
Nouns referring to paired body parts, such as rameno/rámě ‘shoulder’, koleno ‘knee’, and
prsa ‘chest, breasts’ have GLpl forms ramenou/ramen, kolenou/kolen, and prsou.
lítko ‘calf (leg)’ and bedro ‘hip’and some plural-only nouns (vrátka ‘gate’) admit both
neuter and feminine forms in the plural.
9
Soft stems
There are two types neuter soft stems. One type involves a very small number of nouns with
a paradigm of: NGAVsg/NApl moře ‘sea’, DLsg/Ipl moři, Isg mořem, Gpl moří, Dpl mořím,
Lpl mořích. The other type involves a large number of nouns all of which are derived with
-iště and designate places, such as: NGAVsg/NApl letiště ‘airport’, DLsg/Ipl letišti, Isg
letištěm, Gpl letišt’, Dpl letištím, Lpl letištích.
Special types
-ět-/-at- type: slůně ‘baby elephant’
sg pl
N slůně slůňata
G slůněte slůňat
D slůněti slůňatům
A slůně slůňata
V slůně
L slůněti slůňatech
I slůnětem slůňaty
The -ět-/-at- type is primarily associated with names of offspring (kotě ‘kitten’, nemluvně
‘infant’), although this paradigm is used for some inanimates (koště ‘broom’) and at least
one virile (kníže ‘prince’).
The -í type paradigm includes many nouns derived from verbs (placení ‘paying’) and is
otherwise often associated with collectives (křoví ‘bushes’) and nouns with abstract mean-
ing (zdraví ‘health’); a particularly common source of neuter -í nouns are prepositional
phrases (the head noun here, nábřeží is derived from the prepositional phrase na břehu ‘on
the bank’).
10 Appendix
Latin and Greek borrowings into the Czech neuter continue some aspects of their original
declensions in Czech. Nouns ending in -o, -on, and -um drop those final segments in all
forms but the NAsg and follow the standard hard declension (but those with a new “stem”
ending in a vowel have some soft endings in the plural): NAVsg enklitikon, Gsg/NApl
enklitika, DLsg enklitiku, Isg enklitikem, Gpl enklitik, Dpl enklitik¨m, Lpl enklitikách, Ipl
enklitiky; NAVsg rádio, Gsg/NApl rádia, DLsg rádiu, Isg rádiem, Gpl rádií, Dpl rádiím,
Lpl rádiích, Ipl rádii; NAVsg muzeum, Gsg/NApl muzea, DLsg muzeu, Isg muzeem, Gpl
muzeí, Dpl muzeím, Lpl muzeích, Ipl muzei. Neuter nouns ending in -ma add t to form their
stem: NAVsg drama, GDLsg dramatu, Isg dramatem, NApl dramata, Gpl dramat, Dpl
dramat¨m, Lpl dramatech, Ipl dramaty. Some neuter borrowings do not decline: klišé, taxi,
tabu.
Feminine paradigms
Hard stems
žena ‘woman’
sg pl
N žena ženy
G ženy žen
D ženě ženám
A ženu ženy
V ženo
L ženě ženách
I ženou ženami
Soft stems
růže ‘rose’
sg pl
N růže růže
G růže růží
D růži růžím
A růže růže
V růže
L růži růžích
I růží růžemi
11
Gpl: as a rule, stems ending in -ic have a zero ending instead of -í: ulice, ulic ‘street’.
Variation between zero and -í is not uncommon, particularly among nouns in-yně; přítelkyně
‘girlfriend’ admits both Gpl forms: přítelkyň/přítelkyní.
The -e/ě type and -i type paradigms are converging, resulting in frequent variations for
words of both paradigms in the desinences that do not match, cf. lod’ ‘boat’, which admits
all of the following forms Gsg lodi/-ě, NApl lodi/-ě, Ipl loděmi/lod’mi.
paní ‘Mrs.’ is indeclinable in the singular and has the following plural forms: NGApl paní,
Dpl paním, Lpl paních, Ipl paními.
Borrowed words ending in a vowel or j + a follow a mixed hard/soft declension, e.g.: Nsg
idea, Gsg idey/-je, DLsg ideji, Asg ideu, Vsg ideo, Isg ideou/-jí, NApl idey/-je, Gpl idejí,
Dpl ideám/-jím, Lpl ideách-jích, Ipl iedeami/-jemi. There are a few borrowed feminine
indeclinable nouns: whisky, party.
12 Appendix
soldiers’. With some masculine hard stem nouns the expected Lpl -ích is regularized to -
ech: LCz v lesích vs. CCz v lesech ‘in the forests’. In colloquial Czech there is some prefer-
ence for DLsg -ovi over -i: LCz holiči/-ovi vs. CCz holičovi/-i ‘barber’. The CCz forms
chleba ‘bread’ and sejra ‘cheese’, equivalent to the Gsg partitive forms LCz chleba, sýra,
have spread to the NAsg in CCz. CCz is also characterized by sporadic differences in vowel
length, particularly shortening of ů and í in endings. The neuter -í paradigm (see head noun
nábřeží ‘waterfront’) tends to acquire adjectival endings in colloquial Czech, creating forms
such as CCz Gsg nábřežího, Dsg nábřežímu, Gpl nábřežích, all of which are represented
by LCz nábřeží. The two feminine paradigms with Nsg ending in a consonant, the -e/ě type
(head noun: dlaň ‘palm of hand’) and the -i type (head noun: kost ‘bone’) have become to
some degree intermingled in CCz, which tends to prefer the -e/-ě type endings for all nouns
of both types, creating CCz forms such as Lpl vlastích vs. LCz vlastech ‘homelands’.
Hard stems
druhý ‘second; other’
singular plural
masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter
N druhý druhá druhé druhé/druzí druhé druhá
G druhého druhé druhého druhých
D druhému druhé druhému druhým
A druhý/ druhou druhé druhé druhé druhá
druhého
L druhém druhé druhém druhých
I druhým druhou druhým druhými
14 Appendix
Alternants listed after the slash are used with animate nouns. The Nplmasc animate ending
-í is associated with the consonant changes listed at th beginning of this appendix.
Soft stems
první ‘first’
singular plural
masculine & neuter feminine (all genders)
N první první první
G prvního první prvních
D prvnímu první prvním
A první / prvního první první
L prvním první prvních
I prvním první prvními
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives formed from names of human males (with suffix -ův) and females
(with suffix -in) use a combination of short and long endings:
bratrův ‘brother’s’
singular plural
masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter
N bratrův bratrova bratrovo bratrovy/ bratrovy bratrova
bratrovi
G bratrova bratrovy bratrova bratrových
D bratrovu bratrově bratrovu bratrovým
A bratrův/ bratrovu bratrovo bratrovy bratrovy bratrova
bratrova
L bratrově/-u bratrově bratrově/-u bratrových
I bratrovým bratrovou bratrovým bratrovými
The soft stem adjectival paradigm distingishes CCz from LCz forms only in the Ipl, where
CCz prvníma corresponds to LCz prvními ‘first’. There is, however, one soft adjective that
exhibits the change of í > ej, CCz cizej ‘foreign, strange’, with plural forms GLpl cizejch,
Dpl cizejm and Ipl cizejma corresponding to LCz Nsg masc cizí, GLpl cizích, Dpl cizím,
Ipl cizími.
CCz avoids short form adjectives (except rád ‘glad’), using only long forms for adjectives
and passive participles, and appending long form endings to all but the Nsg masc and neut
forms of the possessive adjectives. Thus LCz nemocen ‘ill’ has the CCz counterpart CCz
nemocnej, with a paradigm like druhej above, and the same goes for passive participles,
e.g., LC napsán, napsaný vs. CCz napsanej ‘written’. Aside from Nsg masc bratrův
‘brother’s’ (sometimes shortened in CCz to bratruv and occasionally realized as bratrovej)
and neut bratrovo (sometimes CCz bratrový), which are the same in both registers, CCz
adds the endings from the druhej paradigm to bratrov- ‘brother’s’ and sestřin- ‘sister’s’.
singular plural
“long” “short”
non-enclitic enclitic
N já my
G mne mě nás
D mňe mi nám
A mne mě nás
L mně nás
I mnou námi
The initial j- of the genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental is replaced by n- whenever
a pronoun is preceded by a preposition; because the locative case appears only with prepo-
sitions, pronouns are cited only in their n- forms. Masculine accusative jej can serve in both
enclitic and non-enclitic roles; -ň is uncommon and restricted only to position after prepo-
sitions ending in a vowel: naň ‘onto him/it’. In the plural, gender is distinguished only in
the nominative case: oni masculine animate, ony masculine inanimate + feminine, ona neu-
ter.
Because the reflexive pronoun typically refers to a nominative subject, it does not have a
nominative (or vocative) form.
Like -ň, -č appears only after prepositions ending in a vowel: Není zač ‘Don’t mention it
(lit: Not for what)’. Syntactically kdo is always masculine animate singular and co is neuter
singular.
17
Possessive pronouns
Můj ‘my’, tvůj ‘your’ and svůj ‘one’s own’ share one declension type, and náš ‘our’ and váš
‘your’ share another declension type. Jeho ‘his/its’ and jejich ‘their’ are indeclinable. Její
‘her’ and čí ‘whose’ decline like soft stem adjectives.
můj ‘my’ (tvůj ‘your’ and svůj ‘one’s own’ have the same endings)
singular plural
masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter
N můj má, moje mé, moje mé, moje/ mé, moje má, moje
mí, moji
G mého mé mého mých
D mému mé mému mým
A můj/ mou, moji mé, moje mé, moje mé, moje má, moje
mého
L mém mé mém mých
I mým mou mým mými
In the nominative and accusative cases for feminine and neuter in the singular and all gen-
ders in the plural, there are variant contracted (consisting of a single long vowel) and
uncontracted (consisting of oj + short vowel) forms; these forms are in free variation, al-
though the contracted forms are more frequent in writing and uncontracted ones are en-
countered more often in speech.
Demonstrative pronoun
ten ‘this, that, the’
singular plural
masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter
N ten ta to ty/ ty ta
ti
G toho té toho těch
D tomu té tomu těm
A ten/ tu to ty ty ta
toho
L tom té tom těch
I tím tou tím těmi
Ten participates in various compounds with affixed -to ‘here’, tam- ‘there’, -hle ‘look’ (em-
phatic), in which ten is declined as expected, among them: tento ‘this (...here)’, tamten ‘that
(...there)’, tenhle ‘this/that’ , tamhleten ‘that (there emphatic)’. Ten can also be reduplicated
(in which case it is declined in both positions), as in tenhleten ‘this/that (emphatic)’.
Všechen ‘all’ has a larger and unique paradigm (note the e > i vowel shift in the Nplmasc
animate):
singular plural
masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter
N všechen všechna všechno/ všechny/ všechny všechna
vše všichni
G všeho vší všeho všech
D všemu vší všemu všem
A všechen všechnu všechno/ všechny všechny všechna
vše
L všem vší všem všech
I vším vší vším všemi
19
The following forms in the paradigm have alternates (used more frequently in speech) in
-cek, -ck-: všechen > všecek, všechna > všecka, všechno > všecko, všechnu > všecku,
všechny > všecky, všichni > všicci.
Cardinal numerals
All cardinal numerals are inflected for case. ‘One’ and ‘two’ also mark gender , and ‘one’
has endings for both the singular and the plural (with a meaning ‘one pair or set of’).
20 Appendix
jeden ‘one’
singular plural
masculine feminine neuter masculine feminine neuter
N jeden jedna jedno jedny/ jedny jedna
jedni
G jednoho jedné jednoho jedněch
D jednomu jedné jednomu jedněm
A jeden/ jednu jedno jedny jedny jedna
jednoho
L jednom jedné jednom jedněch
I jedním jednou jedním jedněmi
dva ‘two’
masculine feminine + neuter
NA dva dvě
GL dvou
DI dvěma
Oba ‘both’ shares this paradigm.
Two-digit numerals above the teens can be expressed either by listing the tens (twenties,
etc.) plus ones (twos, etc.) or by use of an inverted compound consisting of ‘one’ through
‘nine’ + -a- + ‘twenty’ through ‘ninety’; thus ‘twenty-three’ can be realized as dvacet tři or
třiadvacet.The numerals ‘five’- ‘nineteen’; the eight multiples of ‘ten’, ‘twenty’ - ‘ninety’
and all inverted (one-word) numerals have no ending in the nominative and accusative and
-i for all other cases (GDLI). Non-inverted (two-word) numerals ending in -1, -2, -3, and -
4 have the same endings as those numerals would have individually. Here are some ex-
amples:
NA GDLI
5 pět pěti
8 osm osmi
9 devět devíti
10 deset deseti/desíti
21
11 jedenáct jedenácti
18 osmnáct osmnácti
20 dvacet dvaceti
80 osmdesát osmdesáti
25 (inverted) pětadvacet pětadvaceti
25 dvacet pět dvaceti pěti
86 (inverted) šestaosmdesát šestaosmdesáti
86 osmdesát šest osmdesáti šesti
21 (inverted) jednadvacet jednadvaceti
21 dvacet jedna dvaceti jedn-(endings as above)
32 (inverted) dvaatřicet dvaatřiceti
32 třicet dva třiceti dv- (endings as above)
Ordinal numerals
All ordinal numerals are declined like adjectives; three are of the soft stem type: první
‘first’, třetí ‘third’, and tisící ‘thousandth’. Aside from the suppletive první ‘first’ and druhý
‘second’, all cardinals are formed by adding -ý, but cardinals in -e/ět have ordinals in -átý.
With compound numerals all items are ordinal: stý sedmdesátý pátý ‘one hundred seventy
fifth’, however this usage is quite bookish and it is more normal to use cardinal forms for
numerals above ninety, followed by ordinal forms for the final two digits: sto sedmdesátý
pátý. As with cardinal numerals, two-digit numerals between 21 and 99 (excluding the even
tens, which consist of only one word) have two possibilities: both dvacátý třetí and třiadvacátý
express ‘twenty-third’.
Indefinite numerals
Kolik ‘how many’, několik ‘several’, tolik ‘so many’, and mnoho ‘much, many’ all follow
the same paradigm, with the desinence -a in the genitive, dative, locative, and instrumental
cases. Other indefinite numerals, such as málo ‘little, few’, trochu ‘some’, hodně ‘a lot’, are
adverbial and uninflected.
22 Appendix
NOMINATIVE: N A NAME
Prologue
As you probably suspect, the nominative case is relatively simple and straightforward.1 It is the
logical starting point both for our survey of the cases and for many sentences. In addition to its
basic meaning, NOMINATIVE: A NAME, this case has just one submeaning, NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY.
Whereas NOMINATIVE: A NAME has a very broad naming function, NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY has a
more narrow function, targeting a characteristic of something that has already been named. You can
think of NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY as being a specialized version of NOMINATIVE: A NAME, used when
we want to convey more information.
N
NOMINATIVE: A NAME
Because it does not have any other more specific meaning, the nominative is ideal even for use
outside of a sentence, such as: pointing to an object and naming it; signs, tags, labels, titles, and
similar naming devices.2 The fact that dictionaries cite nouns in the nominative case is a symptom
of the nominative’s function as the primary name for an item or idea; the other case forms are all
variations on the nominative, secondary and derived. The following two sentences show how
NOMINATIVE: A NAME is used to point something out and to cite lists of items:
Hele, opičák!
[Look, monkey-NOM!]
Look, a monkey!
Obličeje pevně sešněrované předivem vrásek, vybledlé oči, pootevřená ústa, hle: strohá
uniformita stáří.
[Faces-NOM firmly laced-NOM fabric-INST wrinkles-GEN, faded eyes-NOM,
slightly-opened mouths-NOM, behold: severe uniformity-NOM age-GEN.]
Faces firmly laced with a fabric of wrinkles, faded eyes, slightly opened mouths; behold the
severe uniformity of old age.
1
An overview of the nominative case.
2
The naming function of NOMINATIVE: A NAME.
1. Nominative 2
A great variety of expressions are used to indicate names, such as jmenovat se ‘be named’, na-zvat
‘name, call’, as well as words referring to titles and signs, and these are often associated with
NOMINATIVE: A NAME, as we see in these sentences:
Although the vocative case is normally used when calling someone by first name or title, the
nominative can also be used, particularly when the last name is preceded by the vocative form pane
‘Sir!’, as in:3
3
The use of NOMINATIVE: A NAME in place of VOCATIVE: A CALL.
4
NOMINATIVE: A NAME as the subject of a sentence isn’t always at the beginning.
1. Nominative 3
*Na opravenou kupoli věže chrámu svatého Víta se vrátil český lev.
[To renovated cupola-ACC tower-GEN cathedral-GEN St. Vitus-GEN self-ACC returned
Czech lion-NOM.]
The Czech lion has returned to the renovated cupola on the tower of St. Vitus’ cathedral.
Notice how we have to completely rejuggle the following sentence in order to translate it into
English. In Czech there is no reason why the subject can’t come last, as asteroidy does in the first
clause where it is the subject of an active verb. Because English requires the subject to come first,
the only way we could keep this word order would be by passivizing the verb, and saying ‘A very
serious threat is presented by asteroids which…’
Velmi vážné ohrožení představují asteroidy, které mají proletět nebezpečně blízko Země.
[Very serious threat-ACC present asteroids-NOM, which-NOM have fly-through
dangerously close Earth-GEN.]
Asteroids which are supposed to fly dangerously close to Earth present a very serious
threat.
The subject of a sentence need not engage in any real action in order to serve as the source of
energy for a verb; it can merely exist.5 Here is an example of NOMINATIVE: A NAME serving as the
subject for the verb být ‘be’:
Pan asistent leží kdesi v cizině vážně nemocen a vy myslíte jenom na svoji recenzi!
[Mr. lecturer-NOM lies somewhere in foreign-lands-LOC seriously ill-NOM and you-
NOM think only about own book-review-ACC!]
The lecturer is lying seriously ill somewhere abroad and all you are thinking about is your
book review!
5
NOMINATIVE: A NAME as the subject of být ‘be’.
6
Emphatic use of subject pronouns.
1. Nominative 4
My jsme na české poměry velká firma, ale na světové poměry velice malá.
[We-NOM are for Czech proportions-ACC large company-NOM, but for world
proportions-ACC very small-NOM.]
By Czech standards we are a big company, but by the world’s standards we are very small.
Sometimes a pronoun is used alongside the nominative subject for extra emphasis. In the first two
of the following sentences, this use of an “extra” pronoun is possible in both Czech and English,
but in the third and fourth examples, Czech has pronouns where we can’t use them in English.
Vy, takový znalec, jak můžete tak černě posuzovat své postavení!
[You-NOM, such expert-NOM, how can so blackly judge own position-ACC!]
You, such an expert, how can you judge your own position so severely!
In normal, neutral sentences, where there is no special emphasis, nominative subject pronouns are
commonly dropped.7 In LCz it is generally the rule that you must drop a nominative subject
pronoun that is not emphasized. Note that in Czech you generally don’t lose any information by
dropping a nominative subject pronoun, because Czech verbs almost always give us plenty enough
clues to figure out what the subject pronoun is even when it’s missing.
7
Non-emphatic subject pronouns are usually dropped.
1. Nominative 5
In Colloquial Czech, however, the pronouns often appear even when they are not particularly
emphatic, as we see in these sentences:
In the examples with the missing pronouns above, there is a subject that is known to both the
speaker and the hearer; in other words, the missing pronouns actually refer to specific persons.8
Sometimes, however, languages use ‘they’ to refer to no one in particular, just people in general (or
the media). In English we often hear sentences like They say that’s a great movie or They say it’s
supposed to rain this afternoon. Czech has equivalent expressions, but the pronoun oni ‘they’ is
omitted:
V každém podniku, kde se ptá po zaměstnání, říkají, že musí mít v Praze trvalé bydliště.
[In every business-LOC, where self-ACC asks for employment-LOC, say, that must have in
Prague-LOC permanent residence-ACC.]
At every business where he asks for employment they say that he must have permanent
residence in Prague.
In all of the sentences in this section there is a grammatical subject, and both speaker and hearer
know what it is, even if we don’t hear a pronoun coming from the speaker’s lips.9 In fact, the vast
majority of Czech sentences do have nominative subjects. However, there are sentences that do not
have subjects at all — some examples of subjectless sentences appear in the discussions of
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE, DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER, and INSTRUMENTAL: A MEANS.
8
Dropped oni ‘they’ can also refer to no one in particular.
9
Most Czech sentences have a subject, but some do not.
10
Czech to can serve as the subject of a sentence, and it can also be emphatic.
1. Nominative 6
In addition, to can be used to add stress, either as an emphatic “dummy it” or as an emphatic
sentence particle that is not really a subject. For example, Tady prší [Here rains] ‘It’s raining here’
is a neutral statement, but if it’s really coming down hard, you can add to and say To tady prší!
‘Wow, it’s really raining here!’ In that sentence and in all three examples below to is not filling a
required grammatical role; all of these sentences are just fine without to, but with to they are
emphatic:
N
NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY
11
NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY with být ‘be’
1. Nominative 7
Since both terms in the x = y equation refer to the same thing, the item marked as NOMINATIVE:: AN
12
IDENTITY can be just an adjective, adding extra information, as in:
Czech has some special short forms for adjectives that are used only as NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY.13
The most common is the adjective rád ‘glad’ which is used in both CCz and LCz and has only
short forms:
Certain adjectives have short forms, but the use of short forms is more characteristic of LCz than of
CCz. The most common short forms are hotov formed from hotový ‘ready’, jist formed from jistý
‘sure’, laskav formed from laskavý ‘kind’, nemocen formed from nemocný ‘ill’, schopen formed
from schopný ‘capable’, and zdráv formed from zdravý ‘healthy’. In addition, Czech can use the
short forms of participles in this way (contrasting dopis byl napsán ‘the letter was written’ with
napsaný dopis ‘the written letter’). One is more likely to encounter the short form participles in
LCz than CCz, but note the use of short form bit ‘beaten’ in the CCz song lyric below. Like rád, all
short forms, whether of adjectives or participles, can appear only as NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY:
12
NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY with adjectives.
13
NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY with short-form adjectives and participles.
1. Nominative 8
Note that the verb doesn’t have to be být ‘be’ — other verbs, particularly position verbs, work here
too. Recall our example above of the lecturer, repeated in part below. Here the verb ležet ‘lie’ does
the job usually done by být ‘be’, and we still have a short form adjective nemocen ‘ill’:
In reality Czech has two kinds of x = y expressions, the relatively simple identity described here,
and a different one that involves labeling x as a member of catgory y, in which case y is marked as
14
INSTRUMENTAL:: A LABEL. Here is one example for comparison:
This example is the title of a newspaper editorial in which the author writes about how he would like
to be an admirer of Václav Klaus, but can’t at the moment, because of the way Klaus has been
behaving. This use of INSTRUMENTAL:: A LABEL is more typical of LCz than CCz (which could
produce Proč nejsem ctitel Václava Klause), and will be discussed in greater detail in the chapter on
the instrumental case. For now it is enough to note that although both the nominative and the
instrumental cases can be used to describe an item, NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY is the more neutral
expression, whereas INSTRUMENTAL:: A LABEL tends to describe properties that are limited to a certain
context. Remember that an identity is something that is permanent, whereas a label can be taken off
and exchanged.
14
Contrast between nominative:: an identity and instrumental:: a label with být ‘be’
15
NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY can be used to give specific names to examples of categories.
1. Nominative 9
banky Bohemia [Go to bank-GEN Bohemia-NOM] ‘We are going to the Bohemia bank’, where
the name of the bank is appears as NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY. Here are some more examples:
*Oblast zasáhla série slabých zemětřesení, která měla epicentrum v obci Nový Kostel.
[Region-ACC struck series-NOM weak earthquakes, which-NOM had epicenter-ACC in
town-LOC Nový Kostel-NOM.]
The region was struck by a series of weak earthquakes which had their epicenter in the town
of Nový Kostel.
Zítra ve dvacet hodin zahraje v divadle Archa pražské Divadlo Sklep hru Besídka.
[Tomorrow at twenty-ACC hours-GEN performs in theater-LOC Archa-NOM Prague
Theater-NOM Sklep-NOM play-ACC Besídka-NOM.]
Tomorrow at eight pm the Prague Sklep theater company will perform the play Besídka in
the Archa theater.
When a comparison is made by using a comparative adjective or adverb in Czech, the item that
something is bigger or better than follows the word než ‘than’ and appears in the nominative case,
as we see in the following examples:
Otec hlasitě chrápal za zavřenými dveřmi a ráno vstal dříve než Petr.
[Father-NOM loudly snored behind closed door-INST and morning got-up sooner than
Petr-NOM.]
Father snored loudly behind the closed door and in the morning he got up earlier than Petr.
Z domu byla slyšet veselá hudba a hovor, který propukal v nevázaný smích.
[From house-GEN was hear cheerful music-NOM and conversation-NOM, which-
NOM broke-out into unhinhibited laughter-ACC.]
Cheerful music was heard from the house and conversation which broke out into
uninhibited laughter.
The thing seen or heard looks a bit like a subject here, but the real force of the statement is a
subjectless expression meaning something like ‘A mountain can be seen’, where the logic is more
suggestive of a direct object. In fact, these constructions can alternatively use ACCUSATIVE: A
DESTINATION, as we see in: Je vidět horu [Is see mountain-ACC] ‘A mountain is visible’. This use of
the accusative case confirms the idea that Czechs probably don’t understand these constructions as
having subjects (see more about this in the chapter on the accusative case).
Epilogue
To recap: the nominative case can be used to identify someone or something by name, to name the
subject of a sentence, and also to indicate what an item is. The nominative is all about naming, and it
should not surprise you that the very term “nominative” is related to our English word name.
Though not all Czech sentences have nominative subjects, the vast majority do, and your strategy
should be to look first for a nominative subject and its verb; once you find these two items, the rest
of the sentence becomes easier to unpack. The remaining chapters of this book will reveal the
meanings of the other cases and demonstrate their functions. Czech operates on an austere and
powerful little system, using only seven cases to describe all the possible relationships that human
beings encounter in their lives. As the pieces fall into place, you will gradually become acculturated
to the logic of Czech sentences, and you will find that each case takes on a life of its own.
16
NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY identifies things that are seen or heard.
2. Genitive 1
G
GENITIVE: A SOURCE
A WHOLE A REFERENCE
A GOAL
Prologue
Let’s start by looking at an example:
Here we see five uses of the genitive case in a single sentence, one that is not even particularly
long or unusual. Communism these days is probably more like sand in your bathing suit — it’s
hard to get rid of it entirely, but it’s not really a threat either. The genitive case, however, is quite
pervasive and cannot be ignored. Here are some of its characteristics:1
! The genitive is the most used case in Czech. The likelihood of finding sentences with
five uses of any other case is considerably smaller.
! The genitive is used with over sixty prepositions (about two dozen simple
prepositions and about 50 complex ones), vastly more than all the other cases combined.
! The genitive is the only case that forms chains of consecutive uses, as in our example
above: Pfiedseda Komunistické strany âech a Moravy [President-NOM Communist
Party-GEN Bohemia-GEN and Moravia-GEN] ‘The president of the Communist
Party of Bohemia and Moravia’
! The genitive is probably the most complex case in Czech, and the basic idea of the
gentive is perhaps the hardest to grasp.
1
The genitive case is the most frequent case, has the most prepositions, forms chains of words, and has the most
complex meaning.
2. Genitive 2
These might look like formidable hurdles, but our strategy is to tackle the last item on the list, the
meaning of the genitive. After that, all the other “problems” will become opportunities for easy
success.
The uses of the genitive will be described in terms of four categories: GENITIVE: A SOURCE,
2
GENITIVE:: A GOAL, GENITIVE:: A WHOLE, and GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE. The four labels used
here hint at both what the basic meaning of the genitive is and why it is so hard to make sense of
it. The genitive is by nature an elusive beast, a sort of “back-seat driver” that is always handing
off the responsibility of focusing attention to something else.3 When we say that something
comes from a source, we generally aren’t as interested in the source as we are in the something
that comes from it. The same goes for goals; while a goal is important, what we really care about
is the person or thing that is headed for it. In the GENITIVE:: A WHOLE use, there is always another
item that plays the role of the “part”, and of course when we are talking about something that is
part of a whole, we are focusing our attention on the part more than on the whole. A reference
point is something that we use to locate something else, and in its GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE use,
the genitive serves as a mental address for other things. Rather than turning focus to the item it
marks, the genitive deflects our focus away from it. It is this habit of retreating into the
background that makes the genitive so hard to pin down. Passing the buck, by the way, also
makes the chaining of genitives possible, allowing focus to bounce from one item to the next.
Looking at the labels, however, it is at first hard to understand what they have in common.
After all, a source and a goal seem to be opposites, and both involve movement, whereas whole
and reference do not. If we compare the diagrams of the four uses, we see that the GENITIVE:: A
GOAL is really the same as the GENITIVE: A SOURCE, just run in reverse, and furthermore the
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE and GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE are simply the two endpoints of GENITIVE: A
4
SOURCE. More abstractly, we could say that all of the diagrams support the following definition:
The genitive is a backgrounded item (big circle) that yields focus of attention to something
else (small circle) which exists or maneuvers in its proximity.
In order to make sense of this definition we will have to examine the many faces of the
genitive in action.
2
An overview of the genitive case.
3
The genitive case diverts attention to another item.
4
An abstract definition of the genitive.
2. Genitive 3
rest. Here are some examples of the use of z to indicate a container or location from which
something is removed:5
In these three examples, the city of Prague, the speaker’s brain, and the microcosmos of village
life serve as containers from which various items (‘she’, ‘everything’, and ‘they’) emerge.
Z can also be used metaphorically to describe the sources of phenomena in the absence of
physical movement through space.6
Although none of these examples involves real movement from a source, they are understood as
metaphorical parallels to movement, and note that this is just as true of English as it is of Czech,
because all of these examples can be translated with English ‘from’.
Just as in English we can say that we make things from various raw materials, in Czech we
can use z to refer to this process of creation, although sometimes Czechs will use z even when we
wouldn’t say from, as in hrad z písku [castle-NOM from sand-GEN] which is simply ‘a sand
castle’. Here are a couple of examples:7
5
z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from’ in the domain of space.
6
z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from’ in metaphorical domains.
7
z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate what an item is made from.
2. Genitive 4
V USA se uÏ tehdy kontaktní ãoãky dûlaly, ale pouze z tvrd˘ch látek na bázi plexiskla.
[In USA-LOC SELF-ACC already then contact lenses-NOM made, but only from hard
substances-GEN on basis-LOC plexiglas-GEN.]
At that time in the USA contact lenses were already being made, but only from hard
substances on the basis of plexiglass.
Potah vûjífie se obvykle vyrábûl z kufiecí kÛÏe, hedvábí nebo papíru a Ïebra z rohoviny,
slonoviny, kosti nebo dfieva.
[Cover-NOM fan-GEN self-ACC usually made chicken skin-GEN, silk-GEN or paper-
GEN and ribs-NOM from horn-GEN, ivory-GEN, bone-GEN or wood-GEN.]
The cover of a fan was usually made from chicken skin, silk, or paper, and the ribs were
made from horn, ivory, bone, or wood.
Time is a domain that we all have to deal with, but because we have no direct experience of
time (only of its effects on us and our surroundings), most human beings understand time in
terms of space.8 This use of space as a source for understanding time is very evident in Czech,
and we will see many examples of this throughout the case system. Czech z ‘from’ can identify a
period of time in the past that is the source of knowledge or experience, usually z mládí
‘from/since one’s youth’ or z dûtství ‘from/since childhood’, as in this example:
A group can serve as a container or source from which one or more items are picked out, and
z is often used to express selection from a group, most frequently in the phrase jeden z ‘one of’,
although other words are associated with this meaning as well.9 Here are a few examples:
8
z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from’ in the domain of time.
9
z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE to indicate selection of something from a group.
2. Genitive 5
Here the sources are the following groups of items: the most successful Czech private high
schools, Lucie Bílá’s closest friends, doctors, and drivers at the crosswalk. From among those
groups we mentally extract one, few, or no members, and we treat this mental exercise as if the
items involved were actually leaving their groups, though of course they aren’t.
In the next two sentences we see another kind of metaphorical use of z, in which ideas serve
as sources inspiring the work of institutes and the behaviors of politicians.10
Jejich postup vychází z neomezeného sebevûdomí, které získali, kdyÏ byli zvoleni.
[Their attitude-NOM comes from unlimited self-confidence-GEN, which-ACC
acquired, when were elected-NOM.]
Their attitude results from the unlimited self-confidence they acquired when they were
elected.
A related idiomatic use of z is the expression ze v‰ech sil [from all strengths-GEN] ‘with all
one’s might’, as in:
Kfiiãel ze v‰ech sil, ale hudba byla tak hluãná, Ïe ho stejnû nikdo nesly‰el.
[Shouted from all strengths-GEN, but music-NOM was so loud-NOM, that him-ACC
still no-one-NOM not-heard.]
He shouted with all his might, but the music was so loud that no one heard him anyway.
Lectures, courses and examinations are based upon a given subject matter, and this relationship
is also expressed using z, as in:
Taking this sort of logic one step further, we can understand a source also as a cause, as
something that motivates movement to a consequence. In English we can sometimes say things
like They did it out of concern for our safety; in the following Czech example we see z used to
express causation in this fashion:
10
z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE to indicate inspirations, sources of knowledge, and causes.
2. Genitive 6
It is common for people to understand states of being as locations that people and other items
move to and from.11 In English, for example, we can say that Sally has gone from being a lowly
factory worker to CEO of the company. Czech often uses z with the verb stát se ‘become’ to
describe transformations. As these examples show,this meaning of z also continues the logic of
the examples we saw above concerning making items out of raw materials, but here the raw
materials are people:
Byl to takov˘ ãas Václava Havla. Deset let tomu, co se z disidenta stal prezidentem.
[Was that-NOM such time-NOM Václav Havel-GEN. Ten-NOM years-GEN that-DAT,
what-NOM SELF-ACC from dissident-GEN became president-INST.]
That was Václav Havel’s time. It’s been ten years since he went from being a dissident
to become president.
With the verb b˘t ‘be’we see only the endpoint of a transformation, the situation in which a
person or object has attained a new state of being. Here is a typical example:
Pfied deseti lety by nikdo nevûfiil tomu, Ïe z té nenápadné dívky bude jednou
nejÏádanûj‰í filmová hereãka.
[Before ten years-INST AUX noone-NOM not-believed that-DAT, that from that
inconspicuous girl-GEN will-be once most-desired movie actress-NOM.]
Ten years ago no one would have believed that that inconspicuous girl would one day
be the most desired movie actress.
11
z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE to indicate transformations.
2. Genitive 7
The preposition z is associated with the following verbs (note that English from often parallels
this association): obvinit/obviÀovat z ‘accuse of, indict for’, po-tû‰it se z ‘enjoy, derive pleasure
from’, zotavit/zotvovat se z ‘recover from’, vylouãit/vyluãovat z ‘exclude, remove from’,
vyfiadit/vyfiaìovat/vyfiazovat z ‘discard, remove from service’, vyobcovat z ‘ostracize from’,
exkomunikovat z ‘excommunicate from’, vymanit/vymaÀovat se z ‘extricate oneself from’.12 Here
are a couple examples of how these verbs and z interact:
KvÛli mrakÛm by se Venu‰ané nikdy nemohli tû‰it z pohledu na krásy hvûzdné oblohy.
[Due-to clouds-DAT would SELF-ACC Venutians-NOM never could-not enjoy from
view-GEN on beauties-ACC starry sky-GEN.]
Due to the clouds, Venutians could never enjoy a view of the beauty of a starry sky.
Spadl jsem se stromu zády na kofien a pátefi se prolomila dovnitfi do tûla, takÏe do‰lo k
poru‰ení míchy.
[Fell AUX self-ACC from tree-GEN back-INST on root-ACC and spine-NOM self-ACC
broke into to body-GEN, to happened to injury-DAT spinal-cord-GEN.]
I fell out of a tree landing on my back on the root and my spine broke inward in my
body, so the spinal cord was injured.
12
Verbs associated with z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE.
13
s + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘off of, down from’ can always be replaced by z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE.
2. Genitive 8
However, the tendency is to use z instead of s even in contexts that have the specific meaning
associated with s, as we see in these examples:
V noci byla taková zima, Ïe se nedala vystrãit ani ruka zpod pefiiny, aby neumrzla.
[In night-LOC was such cold-NOM, that self-ACC not-gave stick-out even hand-NOM
from-beneath comforter-GEN, so-that not-froze.]
It was so cold in the night, that you couldn’t even stick your hand out from under the
comforter without it freezing.
Since seeing and looking are understood metaphorically as visual journeys, it is also possible to
look out from beneath something using the Czech preposition zpod:
Jason nefiíkal nic, jen se na ni díval zpod k‰iltu své baseballové ãepice.
[Jason-NOM not-said nothing-ACC, just self-ACC on her-ACC looked from-beneath
brim-GEN own baseball cap-GEN.]
Jason didn’t say anything, he just looked at her from beneath the brim of his baseball
cap.
The preposition zpoza describes motion ‘from behind’ something marked as GENITIVE: A
SOURCE. This preposition can also describe the virtual motion of looking as well as the
movement of sound from a source:15
14
zpod + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from beneath’.
15
zpoza + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from behind’.
2. Genitive 9
Here is an example of a more metaphorical usage where people are GENITIVE: A SOURCE:
VÏdycky, kdyÏ ji vidím v televizi, tak jsem hrdej, Ïe je od nás, Ïe je na‰e. (CCz)
[Always, when her-ACC see in television-LOC, then am proud-NOM, that is from us-
GEN, that is ours-NOM.]
Whenever I see her on television, I am proud that she is from us, that she is ours.
Whenever location is expressed in terms of u ‘by’ + GEN (see below under GENITIVE:: A
17
REFERENCE), removal from that place is expressed with od.
When stable locations are described, od can signal how far something is ‘away’ from something
else, as we see here:
16
od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘from’ in the domain of space.
17
od indicates removal from a location marked as u + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE.
2. Genitive 10
If you take some y away from some x, that can imply that the y belongs to the x, and as a
consequence od can signal belonging, particularly of something that can be separated, like a key
from a lock, as in the common expression klíã od domu [key-NOM from house-GEN] ‘the key
to the house’.18 Here is an example of how this works:
Just as in English we use from to indicate the starting point of a list of things, as in from A to
Z or from soup to nuts, Czech od can also mark the beginning of a range of relevant items,
usually in combination with pfies + ACC or (aÏ) po + ACC, as we see in this example:19
Od can be used in the domain of time to express when something begins.20 In this use, od
often appears together with do ‘until’, as we see in this example:
Czech can use the verb li‰it se ‘differ’ with od to express how one thing differs from another
(note that our logic of using English from parallels the Czech use of od), and note also the
expression na rozdíl od [on difference-ACC from] ‘as opposed to’:21
18
od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate belonging.
19
od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate the first item in a series.
20
od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate a time when something begins.
21
li‰it se od, na rozdíl od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE ‘differ from’, ‘as opposed to’.
2. Genitive 11
Na rozdíl od ãápÛ ãern˘ch absolvují ãápi bílí podstatnû del‰í cesty a ãasto doletí aÏ na
jih Afriky.
[On difference-ACC from storks black-GEN complete storks-white-NOM considerably
longer trips-ACC and often fly up-to to south-ACC Africa-GEN.]
As opposed to black storks, white storks complete considerably longer trips and fly all
the way to the south of Africa.
In metaphorical uses, od, like English from, can identify the source of feelings, as in this
sentence:22
Various substances can cause our things to be dirty or stained, thus serving as the source of a
laundry or other cleaning challenge, motivating uses like skvrny od krve [stains-NOM from
blood-GEN] ‘blood stains’ and the following example:23
Ráno je‰tû ãistû vyprané obleãení bylo celé od bláta zepfiedu i zezadu.
[Morning still cleanly laundered clothing-NOM was all-NOM from mud-GEN front and
back.]
Even in the morning the freshly laundered clothing was already muddy both front and
back.
The most significant idioms involving od include kreslit/ãrtat od ruky [draw/sketch from hand-
GEN] ‘draw/sketch free-hand’, vafiit od oka [cook from eye-GEN] ‘cook by instinct (without
measuring ingredients)’, ‰patnû/blbû od Ïaludku [bad/stupid from stomach-GEN] ‘sick to
one’s stomach’. Here are a couple of examples:24
By itself, od ruky [from hand-GEN] just means that something (usually work) goes well, as we
see in this sentence:
22
od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate the source of feelings and motives.
23
od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE can indicate a substance that dirties something.
24
Idiomatic uses of od + GENITIVE: A SOURCE.
2. Genitive 12
In both Czech and English we can take a break from something, signalling a separation
understood as if it were a physical separation, as in this example:
25
Words indicating withdrawal can trigger GENITIVE: A SOURCE.
2. Genitive 13
Pánové se vût‰inou chtûjí zbavit jen sv˘ch tukov˘ch pol‰táfiÛ na bocích a pivních bfiich.
[Men-NOM SELF-ACC primarily want get-rid-of only own fat pillows-GEN on hips-
LOC and beer bellies-GEN.]
Men for the most part only want to get rid of their love-handles and beer bellies.
As its name suggests, GENITIVE:: A GOAL identifies an item that is approached. Like GENITIVE: A
SOURCE, GENITIVE:: A GOAL is always triggered by a preposition or other word. By far the most
common of all of these is the preposition do ‘to’, which can be applied to the domains of space
and time, as well as metaphorical realms. Here are two examples of how do indicates an
approach in terms of physical space:
Note that it doesn’t matter how long the journey is. In the first example we have a trip to Austria,
but in the second example the “trip” is only that of Jan’s backside on the way to his chair. What
does matter is how the endpoint of the journey is expressed in Czech. Do can and will be used
whenever the corresponding final location is expressed using v + LOC ‘in’. After I have traveled
2. Genitive 14
to Austria, I can say Jsem v Rakousku [Am in Austria-LOC] ‘I am in Austria’; and after Jan’s
body has traveled to his seat, we can say Jan sedí v kfiesle [Jan-NOM sits in armchair-LOC] ‘Jan
is sitting in his armchair.’
Do can indicate the direction of motion even when there is no verb involved as in this
example:
Do is the antonym of z, and they often appear together, just like English from…to:
Although the primary meaning of the verb dát is ‘give’ (motivating its use with DATIVE: A
RECEIVER), this verb also serves as an all-purpose equivalent for English put, place. This
secondary meaning of the verb gives life to many uses of the combination dát do + GENITIVE:: A
GOAL ‘put in (a place)’, which can be used to descibe both the physical placement of objects and
also the metaphorical act of putting things in a certain state (usually that of good order). In this
example of dát do a WWII veteran expresses his frustration with the Soviet army when in 1968
this ally turned its aggression on the Czechs:
Vracím Vám v‰echna vyznamenání úãastníka Velké vlastenecké války a dávám je do muzea na
pamûÈ toho, Ïe lidé, ktefií nás osvobodili, stali se na‰imi okupanty.
[Return you-DAT all medals-ACC participant-GEN Great Patriotic War-GEN and give them-
ACC to muzeum-GEN on memory-ACC that-GEN, that people-NOM, who-NOM us-ACC
liberated, became self-ACC our occupiers-INST.]
I’m returning all my medals from the Great Patriotic War and putting them in a museum as a
memorial to the fact that the people who liberated us later occupied our country.
One can also throw oneself into one’s work or other activities, and this is done with the same
expression, just by adding se, to form dát se do or with pustit se do:
Physical blows are delivered to one’s body or to a part of the body using do as well,
motivating uses like those in the three examples below. This use of do is so well entrenched that
you don’t even need a verb, as we see in Do hlavy ne! [To head-GEN no!] ‘Don’t hit me in the
head!’
2. Genitive 15
Other, less violent, items can also be delivered to a person’s body parts using do + GENITIVE:: A
GOAL, as in this example:
The use of do can be extended to metaphorical domains where there is no real movement
involved, as we see in the following examples (but note that the association with v + LOC is
maintained, since that is how the end result is expressed):
There is a related, though somewhat idiomatic use of do with mluvit ‘talk’ which can be used
when you want someone to mind their own business, as in Prosím tû, do toho nemluv! [Ask you-
ACC, to that-GEN not-talk!] ‘Please stay out of this!’ Translation from one language into
another also occasions the use of do, as in this sentence:
Kvalita pfiekladu do matefiského jazyka b˘vá zpravidla lep‰í, neÏ kdyÏ tent˘Ï
pfiekladatel pfiekládá do cizího jazyka.
[Quality-NOM translation-GEN to mother tongue-GEN is as-a-rule better-NOM, than
when same translator-NOM translates to foreign language-GEN.]
As a rule the quality of translation into one’s mother tongue is better than when the
same translator translates into a foreign language.
2. Genitive 16
In the domain of time, do can simply treat the timeline as a type of metaphorical space, or it
can indicate a deadline or a time when something ends, as in these examples:26
In other realms do can express an extreme limit, comparable to English all the way up to or
to the very, as in this example:27
Do appears in a number of important idioms, such as: b˘t nûkomu do pláãe [be someone-DAT to
crying-GEN] ‘make someone feel like crying’, b˘t nûkomu do Ïertu [be someone-DAT to joke-
GEN] ‘make someone feel like joking’, Co je vám/ti do toho? [What-NOM you-DAT to that-
GEN?] ‘What’s it to you?’, do toho se neplet’(te) [to that-GEN self-ACC not-weave] ‘don’t get
involved/mind your own business’, dát nûco do pofiádku/kupy [give something-ACC to order-
GEN/heap-GEN] ‘put something in order, fix something up’. Here are a few examples:28
26
do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL means ‘into, within, until’ in the domain of time.
27
do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL can indicate an extreme limit.
28
Idiomatic uses and verbs associated with do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL.
2. Genitive 17
Proã nehrajete, proã prostû nedáte do kupy kapelu, abyste mohli hrát?
[Why not-play, why simply not-give to heap-GEN band-ACC, so-that could play?]
Why don’t you play, why don’t you just put together a band, so that you can play?
There are a few verbs associated with do that indicate getting into something in a metaphorical
way, such as zamilovat se do ‘fall in love with’, dát se do ‘set about doing something’, and pustit
se do ‘set about doing something’, zapojit se do ‘get involved in something’.
Wishes can be directed toward given times when it is hoped that they will be realized, motivating
the idiomatic use of do with po-pfiát ‘wish’, as in this example:
V‰em ãtenáfiÛm dûkujeme za pfiízeÀ, kterou nám vûnovali v tomto roce a do nového roku
pfiejeme mnoho osobních i pracovních úspûchÛ.
[All readers-DAT thank for goodwill-ACC, which-ACC us-DAT bestowed in this year-
LOC and to New Year-GEN wish many personal-GEN and work successes-GEN.]
We thank all our readers for the goodwill they have bestowed on us this year and wish
them much personal and professional success in the New Year.
29
Some words denoting inclinations and metaphorical approaches require GENITIVE:: A GOAL.
2. Genitive 18
have accusative direct objects (the only common exceptions are uãit se ‘study’ and dozvûdût se
‘find out’).
Kdosi hrál Chopina, av‰ak vÏdy na stejném místû se znovu a znovu dopou‰tûl jedné a
téÏe chyby.
[Somebody-NOM played Chopin-ACC, however always on same place-LOC SELF-ACC
again and again committed one-GEN and same error-GEN.]
Somebody was playing Chopin, but again and again he made one and the same error in
the same place.
Ptala jsem se Filípka, jestli by chtûl bratfiíãka, nebo sestfiiãku, ale chce pejska, takÏe
nemÛÏu slouÏit. (CCz)
[Asked AUX SELF-ACC Filípek-GEN, whether AUX wanted little-brother-ACC, or
little-sister-ACC, but wants doggie-ACC, so cannot serve.]
I asked Filípek whether he wants a little brother or a little sister, but he wants a doggie,
so I can’t help him.
Since the use of the genitive with these verbs is more characteristic of LCz than of CCz,
examples tend to have a literary character.30 All of these sentences reflect a style not usually
found in CCz, and some have additional features (such as the use of jenÏ ‘who’ instead of kter˘
and the word jiÏ ‘already’ instead of uÏ) that mark them as LCz.
30
Some words denoting inclinations and metaphorical approaches can use either GENITIVE:: A GOAL or ACCUSATIVE:
A DESTINATION.
2. Genitive 20
Nikdo neví pfiesnû proã: v‰ichni, ktefií byli poblíÏ, kdyÏ se jako dvanáctiletá dívka
rozhodla uÏívat pro sebe tohoto jména, jiÏ zemfieli.
[No-one-NOM not-knows exactly why: everyone-NOM, who-NOM was close, when
SELF-ACC like twelve-year-old girl-NOM decided use for self-ACC that name-GEN,
already died.]
No one knows exactly why: everyone who was close to her when as a twelve-year-old
girl she decided to use that name for herself, has already died.
Jeden nejmenovan˘ politik chtûl této situace zneuÏít, aby si udûlal jméno.
[One unnamed politician-NOM wanted this situation-GEN abuse, so-that SELF-DAT
made name-ACC.]
An unnamed politician wanted to abuse this situation in order to make a name for
himself.
In this submeaning the genitive is a whole of which something else is a part.31 This accounts for
all the uses of the genitive that can be translated as ‘of’, as well as numerical quantifications
indicating amounts of things.
By far the most common use of the genitive is what we call its “bare case” usage, where it is
not triggered by any other word.32 In this pristine state the genitive can indicate possessors,
wholes (in relation to parts), and other kinds of ‘having’ relationships that can motivate a
meaning of ‘of’.
31
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE can indicate ‘of’ and numerical quantification.
32
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE means ‘of’.
2. Genitive 21
Perhaps the most basic use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE is to identify wholes that parts belong to.33
In the physical realm we have parts of discrete objects (feet of mortals and gates of palaces), as
in the first example below. More abstractly one could say that purity is part of the water and
healthy development is part of the carp, as in the second example; and that meaning is part of
forests just as life is part of people, as in the third example. In the domain of time, seasons can be
understood as parts of the year, as illustrated in the fourth example.
Since a part belongs to a whole, it can also be thought of as a possession of the whole, and
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE is often used for this meaning, translatable into English with either the
possessive form in ’s, or with of, as in these examples:34
*âlenové svûtového v˘konného orgánu by nemuseli b˘t vybíráni podle toho, z jaké
zemû pocházejí.
[Members-NOM world executive body-GEN AUX not-had-to be chosen-NOM
according-to that-GEN, from what country-GEN come.]
The members of a world executive body would not have to be chosen according to what
country they are from.
33
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE expresses parts ‘of’ wholes.
34
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE expresses possession.
2. Genitive 22
Images and jobs are also possessions of a sort, and again the Czech GENITIVE:: A WHOLE
corresponds to English of, as we see in these two examples:
KdyÏ jsem jim ukazoval obrázek císafie Karla a jeho manÏelky Zity, asi si mysleli, Ïe
jsem blázen.
[When AUX them-DAT showed picture-ACC emperor Karel-GEN and his wife Zita-
GEN, probably self-DAT thought, that am crazy-person-NOM.]
When I showed them a picture of the emperor Karel and his wife Zita, they probably
thought I was crazy.
Of course the Czech GENITIVE:: A WHOLE shares much of the range of meanings of English of,
namely belonging to a category, being of a type.35 Here are some examples:
Rusko je zemí paradoxÛ, která nesná‰í a souãasnû bezmeznû obdivuje v‰e, co je cizí.
[Russia-NOM is land-INST paradoxes-GEN, which-NOM not-endures and at-same-time
endlessly admires everything-ACC, what-NOM is foreign-NOM.]
Russia is a land of paradoxes that cnnot endure yet at the same time endlessly admires
everything foreign.
35
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE expresses membership in a category.
2. Genitive 23
Czech characteristically uses the GENITIVE:: A WHOLE to describe colors of objects, using the
logic of the English phrase a horse of a different color:36
Zvlá‰tû vysoko jsou cenûny kvûty pupurové a levandulové barvy a vÛbec nejv˘‰e kvûty
modré barvy.
[Especially highly are valued-NOM flowers-NOM purple-GEN and lavender color-
GEN and entirely most-highly flowers-NOM blue color-GEN.]
Purple and lavender flowers are especially highly valued, and most of all blue flowers.
In this next example, the event is Jozef Ja‰ík pojídal ‰vestkové knedlíky ‘Jozef Ja‰ík ate plum
dumplings’, and the phrase pojídání ‰vestkov˘ch knedlíkÛ ‘eating of plum dumplings’ reduces
it to a relationship between the action pojídání ‘eating’ and the object ‰vestkové knedlíky ‘plum
dumplings’:
*Jozef Ja‰ík se stal vítûzem leto‰ní Velké ceny Vizovic v pojídání ‰vestkov˘ch
knedlíkÛ, kdyÏ jich bûhem hodiny spofiádal 123.
[Jozef Ja‰ík-NOM self-ACC became victor-INST this-year’s Grand prize-GEN Vizovice-
GEN in eating-LOC plum dumplings-GEN, when them-GEN during hour-GEN
consumed 123-ACC.]
Jozef Ja‰ík became the victor of this year’s Vizovic plum-dumpling eating Grand Prize
when he polished off 123 of them in an hour.
36
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE describes color.
37
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE indicates participation in an event.
2. Genitive 24
As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, the genitive is the one case that can be repeated
to form chains.39 It is specifically the GENITIVE:: A WHOLE in its bare case usage that makes this
posible. Here is a chain of four consecutive genitive items:
Strings of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE are not unusual in Czech, and unfortunately they often translate
into clumsy trails of of in English.
38
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE in idiomatic expressions.
39
The chaining capacity of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE.
40
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE can be triggered by many words and phrases.
2. Genitive 25
Some of these entries are the instrumental forms of words (and themselves conventionalized
examples of INSTRUMENTAL : A MEANS): formou ‘in the form of’ následkem ‘as a result of’,
pomocí ‘with the help of, by means of’, prostfiednictvím ‘by means of, through’, and most of the
rest are prepositional phrases (or result historically from prepositional phrases) using na, v, and
po + LOCATIVE: A PLACE, pod + INSTRUMENTAL:: A LANDMARK, or z + GENITIVE: A SOURCE. Here
are some examples to give you a feeling for how these words and phrases are used:
Jste na vrcholu kariéry, máte v‰echno, o ãem vût‰ina lidí jen sní.
[Are on height-LOC career-GEN, have everything-ACC, about what-LOC majority-
NOM people-GEN only dreams.]
You are at the height of your career, you have everything that most people only dream
about.
Soud ho uznal vinn˘m — na základû velmi sporn˘ch svûdectví — a vyfikl nejtûωí trest:
‰ibenici.
[Court-NOM him-ACC recognized guilty-INST — on basis-LOC very questionable
testimonies-GEN — and pronounced harshest punishment-ACC: gallows-ACC.]
The court found him guilty — on the basis of very questionable testimonies — and
pronounced the harshest sentence: the gallows.
41
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE expresses quantification with numerals and other quantifiers.
2. Genitive 27
‘few/little’, více/víc ‘more’, ménû/míÀ ‘fewer’. There are also many other words indicating
amounts, like pár ‘a couple’, fiada ‘a lot’, nedostatek ‘lack’, dost ‘enough’, and hojnost
‘abundance’ which behave just like numerals. Here is a sampling of quantifiers with GENITIVE::
AWHOLE:
In the following two examples, note that the quantifiers (Kolik and tisíce) and the quantified
(nov˘ch vûcí and jich) do not have to appear in sequence in a sentence; the case endings do the
job of making the connection clear:
Byly jich tisíce a generál je v‰echny bûhem nûkolika mûsícÛ vyzbrojil a vycviãil.
[Were them-GEN thousands-NOM and general-NOM them all-ACC during several
months-GEN armed and trained.]
2. Genitive 28
There were thousands of them and the general armed and trained them all in the course
of a few months.
Any container can likewise serve to quantify the amount of matter it can hold, motivating the use
of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE to mark objects and substances when triggered by words designating
containers, as in these examples:
42
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE is used with words that imply amounts.
2. Genitive 29
pfiejíst se ‘eat too much of’ pfieÏrat se ‘eat too much of’
(animal or vulgar)
The verbs in the first group are used in constructions that lack a subject, so the verbs themselves
have the “default” neuter third-person singular agreement (in other words, they behave as if the
subject were ono ‘it’). The item that is increasing or decreasing is marked GENITIVE:: A WHOLE.
Here are a few examples of this construction:
Mnozí lidé tedy ztratili víru v politiky: ubylo i obãanÛ ochotn˘ch vefiejnû se angaÏovat.
[Many people-NOM consequently lost faith-ACC in politicians-ACC: decreased also
citizens-GEN willing-GEN publicly SELF-ACC engage.]
As a result, many people lost faith in politicians, and the number of citizens willing to
become publicly engaged also decreased.
Note that not all verbs meaning ‘increase’ or ‘decrease’ use the G E N I T I V E:: A WHOLE
construction. In the last example above the verb sniÏovat se ‘decrease’ appears with a subject
marked NOMINATIVE: A NAME.
The use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE with the adjective pln˘ ‘full’ parallels our own use of English
of with full. In Czech this association has spawned an idiomatic expression mít nûãeho plné zuby
[have something-GEN full teeth-ACC] ‘be fed up with something (literally ‘have one’s teeth
full of something’)’. Here are some examples of both pln˘ and this idiom:
Tak fieknûte — není ta ãe‰tina plná skvûl˘ch barvit˘ch slov a obrazn˘ch rãení?
[So say — not-is that Czech -NOM full-NOM terrific colorful words-GEN and
figurative sayings-GEN?]
So say — isn’t Czech full of terrific colorful words and figurative sayings?
Mûl jsem plné zuby únavného a navíc bezv˘sledného jednání s úfiedníky, tak jsem ‰el
rovnou za starostou.
[Had AUX full teeth-ACC tiresome-GEN and furthermore fruitless negotiation-GEN
with officials-INST, so AUX went straight beyond mayor-INST.]
I was fed up with tiresome and furthermore fruitless negotiations with officials, so I
went straight to the mayor.
The prefix na- can indicate that something is done in quantity; when it and se are added to verbs
describing taking substances into the body (by breathing, drinking, or eating), the resulting word
2. Genitive 30
means‘get one’s fill of’ (or even too much of) and the substance that is consumed appears as
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE. The following examples illustrate these verbs:
MuÏ v Novodvorské ulici se nad˘chal zplodin, ale lékafii se podafiilo jej zachránit.
[Man-NOM in Novodvorská Street-LOC self-ACC inhaled waste-products-GEN, but
doctor-DAT self-ACC succeeded him-ACC save.
A man on Novodvorská Street inhaled a lot of waste products, but the doctor managed
to save him.
The prefix pfie- always indicates that a line has been crossed, in this case the upper limit of what
one’s belly can hold. All of the verbs with pfie- se in our table above refer to overeating, and as
we saw for the na- se verbs, the item that is consumed is marked as GENITIVE:: AWHOLE. Here is
an example:
Po veãefii, kdy jsme se pfiejedli ústfiic, nás ãekala tûÏká noc s velk˘mi bolestmi bfiicha.
[After dinner-LOC, when AUX self-ACC over-ate oysters-GEN, us-ACC waited hard
night-NOM with great pains-INST stomach-GEN.]
After a dinner at which we ate oysters to excess, a hard night with great stomach pains
awaited us.
Sometimes an amount can be implied even when there is no word suggesting a quantity. 43 In
these instances, the amount is either a small amount, equivalent to English some, or an
unexpectedly large amount, equivalent to a lot. The use of GENITIVE:: A WHOLE to designate
small amounts is archaic for most words in Czech. It used to be possible to encounter phrases
like Dej mi vody [Give me-DAT water-GEN] ‘Give me some water’, but this kind of usage is
now unusual even in LCz; in CCz one would say instead Dej mi vodu [Give me-DAT water-
ACC] or Dej mi trochu vody [Give me-DAT some-ACC water-GEN]. There are two important
exceptions, however: chléb ‘bread’ and s˘r ‘cheese’. For these two words the use of GENITIVE:: A
WHOLE to mean ‘some’ is very common, and in CCz the genitive forms chleba and sejra have
practically eclipsed the nominative and accusative forms, so that you hear only chleba and sejra
as subjects and direct objects in all contexts, even when there is no implication of an amount.
Here are is an example to illustrate:
43
By itself, GENITIVE:: A WHOLE can express small or large amounts.
2. Genitive 31
GENITIVE:: A WHOLE can also be used to indicate unusually large numbers of objects, as we
see in this example:
In the fourth and final meaning of the genitive, the focus of our attention is located near the
genitive item, from which it is separated.44 This combination of proximity and separation allows
the genitive to serve as a reference point in various domains of time, and space, or to represent an
item that is not available. In the domain of time, the most obvious use of the GENITIVE:: A
45
REFERENCE is with dates, which serve as temporal reference points for events:
In addition to calendar dates, Czech can use GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE to refer to other time
periods that act as settings:
44
GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE serves as a reference point in time and space , and for expressions of lack.
45
The use of GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE to express dates in the domain of time.
2. Genitive 32
When a time period is alluded to by mentioning phenomena or people connected with a given
era, za + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE ‘during the time of’ locates the event of a sentence in the
proximity of the associated time period.46 Common examples of this use of za include za války
[during war-GEN] ‘during the war’ and za komunistÛ [during communists-GEN] ‘during the
communist era (literally ‘during the time of the communists’)’. Here are a couple of
contextualized examples:
V roce 1971, bûhem bojÛ o nezávislost Bangladé‰e, situaci je‰tû zhor‰ila vlna uprchlíkÛ.
[In year-LOC 1971, during battles-GEN for independence-ACC Bangladesh-GEN,
situation-ACC yet worsened wave-NOM refugees-GEN.]
In 1971, during the battles for an independent Bangladesh, a wave of refugees made the
situation even worse.
Over a dozen prepositions locate items in space with reference to GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE as
being near, alongside, around, next to, etc.48 Many of these prepositions operate in other
domains, such as time (especially kolem ‘around’) or concepts (dle, podle ‘according to’).
46
za + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE ‘during the time of’.
47
bûhem + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE ‘during’.
2. Genitive 33
¤ez se vede kolem ucha, aby byly jizviãky nenápadné, kÛÏe se vypne a pfiebyteãná je
odstranûna.
[Cut-NOM SELF-ACC leads around ear-GEN, so-that were scars not-obvious-NOM,
skin-NOM SELF-ACC draws-tight and excess-NOM is removed-NOM.]
The cut goes around the ear so that the scars won’t be obvious, the skin is drawn tight
and the excess is removed.
KdyÏ chtûjí nakoupit maso, jezdí na farmu nedaleko Toronta — je tam pr˘ asi o dva
dolary levnûj‰í.
[When want buy meat-ACC, ride to farm-ACC not-far-from Toronto-GEN — is there
allegedly about by two dollars-ACC cheaper-NOM.]
When they want to buy meat, they go to a farm not far from Toronto — it is supposedly
about two dollars cheaper.
Pracovala jsem tehdy v obchodû vedle tetovacího salónu a dostali jsme darem od ‰éfa
poukázky na tetování.
[Worked AUX then in shop-LOC next-to tatoo parlor-GEN and received AUX gift-
INST from boss-GEN coupons-ACC for tatooing-ACC.]
At the time I was working in a shop next to a tatoo parlor and we got free tatoo coupons
from the boss.
48
GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE with prepositions.
2. Genitive 34
In addition to these basic meanings, some of these prepositions are used in metaphorical
extensions, so that for example okolo can be used for approximations (much as around is used in
this way in English), and vedle can mean ‘in addition to, aside from’, as we see in these
examples:
The preposition u ‘near, by, at’ has both a spatial meaning and an idiomatic one that indicates
location at someone’s place. Here are some examples of both uses:
The meaning of ‘at someone’s place’ can be extended to include much larger entities than a
single household. In this sentence u nás [by us-GEN] literally means something like ‘in our
country’:
Attributes and parts of items can be conceived of as located ‘at’ items, motivating uses of u
like the following:
2. Genitive 35
Location ‘at’ something can imply that people are engaging in an activity normally associated
with an item. Here the participants are not just located near some beer, but most likely enjoying
heated discussion while drinking in a pub:
MuÏi dûlají rádi politiku u piva, ale konkrétní vûci nechávají na nás.
[Men-NOM do gladly politics-ACC at beer-GEN, but concrete things-ACC leave for us-
ACC.]
Men like to conduct politics over beer, but they leave the concrete things to us.
This use of GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE to indicate ‘lack’ is also associated with negated verbs,
and therefore sometimes called “the genitive of negation”.51 In modern Czech the genitive of
49
GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE can express lack.
50
bez + GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE ‘without’.
51
GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE with negated verbs.
2. Genitive 36
negation survives primarily in a few fixed phrases like Nemám slov [Not-have words-GEN] ‘I
have no words (I am tongue-tied)’, Nemohl dechu popadnout [Not-could breath-GEN catch]
‘He couldn’t catch his breath’, and Není divu [Is-not surprise-GEN] ‘That’s no surprise’.
Ocassionally GENITIVE:: A REFERENCE can still be found, more often in LCz texts than in CCz
conversation. Here are a few examples:
Epilogue
The word genitive is related to generation and genesis, and all these words are derived from a
Latin root meaning ‘give birth’. Indeed giving birth is the means by which living creatures such
as ourselves serve as sources for more of our kind. The genitive is used for a variety of
maneuvers and manipulations involving removal, withdrawal, and locating an item in reference
to another. The genitive case is also very concerned with quantity, be it positive or negative, as
well as with the measure of time. Against the backdrop of the genitive we have seen repeatedly
that physical space is often used as a metaphor for understanding time and other domains
(including the elusive realm of the emotions) — this is a theme that will continue throughout the
book, since the dative, accusative, instrumental, and locative all have spatial meanings that are
likewise used in metaphorical extensions. Many of the concepts associated with the genitive case
are familiar from the conceptual structure of English; even the ideas that strike us as foreign
make sense in the overall structure of the genitive case, because even though the genitive is quite
complex, all the parts fit together to make a coherent whole. Understanding the whole helps you
orient to the individual meanings of the genitive because you have a structure to relate those
meanings to. Even if you don’t memorize all the meanings right off, you will now have a “feel”
for the genitive, and you’ll be surprised how well your new-found intuitions will serve you.
2 The Dative Case
Feminine
declension
nouns
Masculine
declension
nouns
Neuter
declension
nouns
Adjectives
Pronouns
Possessives
Numerals
Chapter: a designation 1 3
Margin notes:
dative item, it is likely to be able to react or at least to exert forces of its own. context of
metaphorical
The dative pronoun si ‘for/to oneself’ is very prominent in Czech, and given the
transfer.
fundamental expectation that an item marked with the dative case is capable of serving as a 11. Dative
subject, it is easy to see why.(mn2) The inherent meaning of the pronoun and the case pronoun si with
meaning of the dative are very compatible: inherently this pronoun refers always to the synonyms of
4 The Dative Case
‘give’. subject of the sentence it is in, which means that it is always referring to an item that has
12. Dative already proven its potential to be a subject, and is therefore an ideal candidate for the dative
pronoun si can
indicate recipro-
case. In fact, si is used in Czech very frequently, far more than most grammar books let on.
cal giving. You can use si in a sentence any time an action affects the subject, or is done for the subject,
13. Vzít/brát si particularly if it is done for the subject’s enjoyment. Perhaps because it is such a little word,
can mean both si sneaks into many sentences that wouldn’t normally contain ‘for oneself’ or the equivalent
‘take’ and in English, giving its behavior a rather “phantom” flavor from our perspective. The special
‘marry’.
14. DATIVE: A
role of si will be noted repeatedly in this chapter.
RECEIVER in the There are three basic meanings to the dative, all of which involve the dative’s capacity to
context of interact with its surroundings.(mn3) The first two meanings are relatively passive, involv-
creation. ing receiving or losing objects (DATIVE: A RECEIVER) and absorbing experiences (DATIVE:: AN
15. DATIVE: A EXPERIENCER), whereas the third one is relatively active, involving exerting equal, superior,
RECEIVER in the
absence of ‘give’
or lesser strength in relation to something else (DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR). These three mean-
in formulaic ings are not entirely separate and discrete. Instead they overlap in significant ways because
expressions. they are so closely related to each other. It might be easier to understand the relationships
16. DATIVE: A between the meanings if we remember how our own English word give behaves: we can
RECEIVER in the
give something to someone (like DATIVE: A RECEIVER), we can give someone all our love or
absence of ‘give’
in formulaic
give them a hard time (like DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER), and we can also give someone a chal-
expressions. lenge or just give in to them (like DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR). As you read through this chapter,
17. DATIVE: A notice how many of the Czech words associated with the dative case can be translated or
RECEIVER can paraphrased using English give.
express the
indirect object
without a direct DATIVE: A RECEIVER 1 — The indirect object
object.
18. “Missing”
direct objects
include signals,
money and gifts,
and the self.
D
19. DATIVE: A
RECEIVER in the
context of giving
verbal messages. Dative:a receiver
20. DATIVE: A
RECEIVER in the
DATIVE: A RECIEVER involves the transfer of an object from one thing or person to another, as
context of giving
gestural, written, in Sally gave the book to John.(mn4) The thing or person on the receiving end (John) is
or electronic marked with the dative. You might recognize this as the indirect object (the direct object, of
signals. course, is the book, marked in the accusative). As we will see, Czech has a lot of ways to
21. DATIVE: A extend the idea of the indirect object. For example, you can sometimes have an indirect
RECEIVER in the
object (DATIVE: A RECEIVER) without an obvious direct object (ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION).
context of giving
money or gifts. And you can even run the transaction in reverse and mark the loser as an indirect object
22. DATIVE: A (with DATIVE: A RECEIVER) in the same way that you mark the recipient. But let’s start with
RECEIVER in the some straightforward examples.
context of giving
the self.
Giving is a universal experience of human interaction, and it serves as the logical starting
Margin notes
23. ???? n./a point for the meanings of the dative.(mn5) The Czech verb for ‘give’ is dát/dávat (which
Chapter: a designation 1 5
can take many prefixes), and the following example illustrates its use with the dative: 24. DATIVE: A
RECEIVER in the
context of
(1) “Dám ti půlku svých peněz, když mi dáš tu roli v novém filmu,” usmála se hvězdička. taking.
[“Give you-DAT half-ACC own money-GEN, when me-DAT give that role-ACC 25. DATIVE: A
in new film-LOC,” smiled self-ACC star-NOM.] RECEIVER in the
“I’ll give you half my money if you give me that role in the new film,” smiled the context of
star. taking the self.
You can also see that both the director and the movie star are much more than passive
destinations for the money and the role.(mn6) In both instances we presume that they are
going to do something with what they have received: the director can buy something with
the money, and the movie star will be able to play the role and advance her career. Even if
they fail to do anything, the fact that they could do something is crucial here.
Giving need not involve tangible objects.(mn7) In English we can offer more abstract, meta-
phorical “gifts”, such as power and humor, and the same goes for Czech:
(2) Hrajeme hru, že politici jsou profesionálové, kterým dáme moc, a oni už vše zařídí.
[Play game-ACC, that politicians-NOM are professionals-NOM, whom-DAT give
power-ACC, and they-NOM already everything-ACC manage.]
We’re playing a game that politicians are professionals to whom we give power,
and then they take care of everything.
The verb dát/dávat ‘give’ + DATIVE: A RECEIVER participates in numerous idioms motivated as
extensions of the meanings of ‘give’ and the dative case.(mn8) For example, if someone is
bothering you, you can say Dej mi pokoj! [Give me-DAT peace-ACC!] ‘Leave me alone
(literally: Give me peace)!’. If they still don’t get the message, you might need to take the
advice of the phrase dát někomu najevo, že… [give someone-DAT clear, that…] ‘make it
clear to someone that…’, and insist on no uncertain terms that you don’t want to be dis-
turbed. A person who is puzzled might say: Nedává mi to žádný smysl [Not-gives me-DAT
that-NOM any sense-ACC] ‘That doesn’t make any sense to me’. The Czech equivalent of
our English idiom give credence to something is dávat něčemu váhu, literally ‘give weight
to something’. A hypothesis can be introduced by saying Dejme tomu, že… [Give that-
6 The Dative Case
DAT, that…] ‘Let’s assume that…’. Caution can be suggested by using the idiom dát si
pozor [give self-DAT attention-ACC] ‘watch out, be careful’. Finally dát si ‘have, order
(food) (literally: give oneself)’ is used in the setting of meals with menus of choices. Here
are a couple of examples of idiomatic uses of dát/dávat.
(4) Nedávám anketám velikou váhu: přitahují lidi snadnějšího názoru, jimž se chce
odpovídat.
[Not-give surveys-DAT great weight-ACC: attract people-acc simpler opinion-GEN,
who-DAT SELF-ACC wants answer.]
I don’t give surveys much credence: they attract people with simple opinions who
feel like answering.
Acts of transferring objects from one party to another are fairly widespread; in English, for
example we can send, offer, supply, and deliver things to other people.(mn9) We can even
extend this idea of making something available to someone to words like buy (She bought
me a ticket) and show (He showed me his report card). These words aren’t exact synonyms
of give, but they share the same basic conceptual structure, and it is no surprise that in
Czech words like these will also have dative indirect objects, as we see in the following
table and examples:
adresovat ‘address’
tribute’
nabídnout/nabízet; nabídka ‘offer’ přislíbit/přislibovat
‘promise (to give’
nadělit/nadělovat ‘bestow’ přivodit/přivozovat ‘cause, inflict’
poskytnout/
poskytovat ‘provide’ vyložit/vykládat ‘interpret, explain’
(8) Dostal jsem stipendium, které tehdy poskytovala francouzská vláda kosovským
studentům.
[Got AUX stipend-ACC, which-ACC then provided French government-NOM
Kosovo students-DAT.]
I got a stipend which the French government was providing for students from
Kosovo at the time.
(9) Jestliže nevíte, co koupit svému dítěti pod stromeček, pak pro vás připravily Lidové
noviny malý výběr z dětských vánočních dárků, které jsou letos nejprodávanější na
předvánočním trhu.
[If not-know, what-ACC buy own child-DAT under tree-ACC, then for you-ACC
prepared Lidové noviny small selection-ACC from children’s Christmas presents-
GEN, which-NOM are this-year most-sold on pre-Christmas market-LOC.]
If you don’t know what to buy your child for Christmas, Lidové noviny has pre-
pared a sampling of the hottest selling children’s Christmas gifts on the market.
Transfer of objects with a variety of verbs also lends itself to abstract, metaphorical
usage.(mn10) Acts like giving a person a new identity, adding picturesque beauty, and sac-
rificing one’s private life involve a transfer that is more fictive than actual, but still the
connection with giving is clear:
(10) Armáda mi obstarala úplně novou totožnost, stal jsem se příslušníkem francouzského
zpravodajského týmu.
[Army-NOM me-DAT got completely new identity-ACC, became AUX self-ACC
member-INST French press team-GEN.]
The army got me a completely new identity, I became a member of the French press
team.
Several of these verbs can be used when a subject obtains items for itself, occasioning the
use of the Czech dative pronoun si, which is particularly frequent with the following verbs,
as the examples below attest: (mn11)
(15) Jak si vysvětlujete to, že se vrací například zájem o hudbu z osmdesátých let?
[How self-DAT explain that-ACC, that self-ACC returns for-example interest-NOM
about music-ACC from eighty years-GEN?]
How do you make sense of the fact that for example interest in eighties’ music is
coming back in?
The pronoun si can also be used with verbs meaning ‘give’ and their synonyms to indicate
reciprocal giving — when two or more people give things to each other, as in this example:
(mn12)
10 The Dative Case
In addition to the verbs that are related to ‘give’, quite a few verbs cannot have any indirect
object other than si. These verbs have meanings like ‘want’, ‘keep’, ‘need’, ‘demand’ and
the like that imply that someone is getting or trying to get something for themselves. The
use of si is not always required for all of these verbs, but it is extremely common. Here is a
table of these verbs, along with a couple of examples to show how they work:
As the last few batches of examples show, English translations often don’t have any equiva-
lent for si, since it is obvious that the recipient is also the subject, and si isn’t really required
for Czech, either, much of the time, but that doesn’t stop the Czechs from peppering their
sentences with this pronoun at the slightest provocation.
The verb vzít/brát si ‘take’ works the same way, but unlike the verbs just above, it
can have indirect objects other than si (however, other indirect objects are the person or
item that loses possession of something, not the one that receives it, as we will see in the
Chapter: a designation 1 11
section on taking verbs below).(mn13) The use of si is very common with this verb, even in
contexts where it would be extremely awkward to translate si into English. Here is a pair of
examples:
(20) Vypil jsem několik litrů vody, vzal si pár acylpirinů a zalezl do postele.
[Drank AUX several-ACC liters-GEN water-GEN, took self-DAT couple-ACC as-
pirins-GEN and crawled-in to bed-GEN.]
I drank several liters of water, took a couple of aspirin and crawled into bed.
Another way to give someone something is by creating the gift for the person.(mn14)
If I say I’ll bake you a cake for your birthday, I’m promising to bring the cake into existence
so that you will receive it; in Czech you would be marked DATIVE: A RECEIVER. All kinds of
words involving making things can be recruited for this purpose, such as building, cooking,
sewing, etc. Here’s an example:
(22) Celou cestu domů si říkal, že by měl fence vymyslet nějaké úplně jiné měkčí a
mazlivější jméno.
[Whole way-ACC home SELF-DAT said, that AUX had dog-DAT think-up some-
ACC completely different softer-ACC and cuddlier name-ACC.]
The whole way home he was saying to himself that he should think up some com-
pletely different, softer and cuddlier name for the dog.
Verbs of creation are used in the idiomatic construction nechat/nechávat si + verb of cre-
ation (ušít ‘sew’, postavit ‘build’, etc.) + item created (šaty ‘clothes’, vilu ‘villa’) with the
meaning ‘have something made for oneself’, as in this example:
Czech has an idiomatic expression meaning ‘ask a question’ that requires the person being
addressed to be an indirect object marked DATIVE: A RECEIVER: položit/klást otázku/otázky
(literally: lay question/questions).(mn15) Here is an illustration of how this expression works:
12 The Dative Case
The force of the dative case is so strong that the role of DATIVE: A RECEIVER comes through
loud and clear even when there is no verb at all, as in formulaic expressions like Sláva
Bohu! [Glory-NOM God-DAT] ‘Glory to God!’ or the old communist greeting Čest práci!
[Honor-NOM work-DAT!] ‘Honor to work!’.(mn16)
Some uses of the DATIVE: A RECEIVER submeaning are not indirect objects in the classic sense
because they don’t have any ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION direct objects.(mn17) However, they
do involve the transfer of something to a receiver, even if that something is not explicitly
named in the accusative case, and for this reason we can think of these uses as being very
close relatives to the indirect object. Usually the “missing” direct objects can be found in
the meaning of the verb; for example, verbs of communication all involve the transfer of a
signal to a receiver, and these verbs take the dative case.(mn18) When you contribute to a
worthy cause, it is not necessary to specify that you gave money; we still understand the
charitable organization as the receiver even when the money is not mentioned. It is also
possible for something to bring itself to a receiver, in which case the “missing” direct object
is the subject of the sentence. Each of these types of indirect objects will be taken up below.
There is quite a selection of words that express delivering signals to receivers.(mn19)
For convenience they can be broken down into two groups: those that involve talking and
those that do not. In most instances you can easily recover the “missing” direct object by
restating these words as ‘give a signal to X’, where signal is the direct object and X is the
DATIVE: A RECEIVER. Because the signal is already implicit in the word, we can skip right over
it and go directly to the receiver. This table contains some of the communication words
associated with the dative that you are likely to encounter:
ozvat/ozývat se ‘respond’
The following three examples illustrate how communication words involving talking are
used with the dative:
(26) *Mám radost, že když náš Honza odjede do New Yorku, za dva dny mi zavolá
jakoby nic.
[Have joy-ACC, that when our Honza-NOM goes to New York-GEN, in two days-
ACC me-DAT calls, like nothing-NOM.]
I’m happy that when our Honza goes to New York, he calls me two days later as if
it was no big deal.
Many of these verbs can be used with the dative reflexive pronoun si in its reciprocal mean-
ing, such as tykat si/vykat si ‘say ty/vy to each other’, povídat si ‘converse with each
other’, and vytýkat si ‘reproach each other’.
Related words, such as díky ‘thanks to’ and slib ‘promise’, often require the dative
just like the verbs in our table:
(28) Díky konstrukci nabízí Mazda Demio uvnitř opravdu dostatek prostoru jak pro
přepravu cestujících, tak třeba i atypického nákladu.
[Thanks construction-DAT offers Mazda Demio inside really enough space-GEN
both for transporting-ACC passengers-GEN, and perhaps even atypical load-GEN.]
Thanks to its construction, the Mazda Demio really provides enough space both
for transporting passengers and even for an atypical load.
The verb říkat can be used with DATIVE: A RECEIVER to indicate the use of names, as in Říkají
mu “Čmelák” [Say him-DAT “Bumblebee”-NOM] ‘They call him “Bumblebee”, and in
this example:
Communication through bodily gestures and electrical signals is likewise directed to DA-
TIVE: A RECEIVER. Here is a table of common verbs followed by an example so you can see the
parallel with verbs of verbal communication: (mn20)
Like the verbal communication verbs, these verbs often use si to mean ‘each other’, as in
dopisovat si ‘correspond (write letters to each other)’.
In both Czech and English there are some verbs that mean ‘give money or goods’,
such as pay , reward and contribute to.(mn21) Because the idea that money or goods are
involved is already part of the word, it doesn’t need to appear as an accusative direct object,
just like the signals above. Here are some of the words you can expect to see with DATIVE: A
RECEIVER, along with an example to illustrate:
‘seem’
připadnout/připadat ‘accrue; happen; seem’ zjevit/zjevovat se (ve
snu) ‘appear to (in a dream)’
(34) Volný čas tráví sháněním originálních nahrávek, fotografií, informací — prostě všeho,
co jim umožní přiblížet se své rockové či popové hvězdě.
[Free time-ACC spend searching-for-INST original recordings-GEN, photographs-
GEN, information-GEN — simply everything-GEN, what-NOM them-DAT enables
get-close-to own rock-DAT or pop star-DAT.]
They spend their free time searching for original recordings, photographs, informa-
tion — in short, everything that will enable them to get close to their rock or pop
star.
(35) Již několik let se v rámci svých nadací věnuje handicapovaným dětěm a dětěm z
dětských domovů.
[Already several-ACC years-GEN self-ACC in framework-LOC own foundations-
GEN dedicates hadicapped children-DAT and children-DAT from children’s
homes-GEN.]
For several years already in connection with his foundations he has been dedicating
himself to handicapped children and children from orphanages.
A number of adjectives play off this same idea of giving the self. Here are some of them,
along with illustrations of how they function in context:
(38) Cestovní kancelář Fischer se v letošním roce zaměřila na nabídku zájezdů cenově
dostupných i rodinám s dětmi.
[Travel agency-NOM Fischer-NOM self-ACC in this year-LOC focused-attention
on offer-ACC trips-GEN pricewise accessible-GEN even families-DAT with chil-
dren-INST.]
This year the Fischer travel agency has focused attention on offering trips afford-
able even for families with children.
(39) Chová se jako malé dítě, když mu berou jeho oblíbenou hračku.
[Behaves self-ACC like small child-NOM, when him-DAT take his favorite toy-
ACC.]
He’s behaving like a small child does when someone takes away his favorite toy.
(40) Následný vývoj v Čechách po změně režimu v roce 1989 vzal mnohým lidem iluze
o rychlém a hlavně bezbolestném přechodu od socialismu k tržnímu kapitalismu.
[Subsequent development-NOM in Bohemia-LOC after change-LOC regime-GEN
in year-LOC 1989-NOM took many people-DAT illusions-ACC about rapid-LOC
and especially painless transition-LOC from socialism-GEN to market capitalism-
DAT.]
The subsequent development in Bohemia after the change in regime in 1989 took
away many people’s illusions about a rapid and especially a painless transition
from socialism to market capitalism.
Note that the person from whom something is taken is often not mentioned in English (as in
the first example above), or is mentioned as the initial possessor of the item that is removed
(as in the second example above).
Like dát/dávat ‘give’, vzít/brát ‘take’ has a number of synonyms and near-synonyms
that also occasion the use of DATIVE: A RECEIVER. As is evident from the table below, these
19
verbs focus primarily on taking that victimizes the original owner; most of these verbs are
better thought of as synonyms of ‘steal’ than of ‘take’, and there is palpable overlap be-
tween this use of DATIVE: A RECEIVER and the use of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER with words
meaning ‘harm’.
odstranit/
odstraňovat ‘remove’ vyvlastnit/
vyvlastňovat ‘expropriate’
sebrat/sbírat ‘take away’ zabavit/zabavovat ‘seize’
(42) Muž odmítl peníze vydat, otevřel dveře auta a snažil se vytrhnout útočníkovi zbraň.
[Man-NOM refused money-ACC hand-over, opened door-ACC car-GEN and tried
self-ACC yank-away attacker-DAT weapon-ACC.]
The man refused to hand over the money, opened the car door and tried to yank
away the attacker’s weapon.
As we saw above the notion of ‘giving’ can be present when something is created for some-
one else. The same kind of logical extension applies to taking — if you destroy something
20 The Dative Case
that belongs to someone, you have in effect taken that something away, motivating use of
DATIVE: A RECEIVER to mark the owner of something that gets demolished, as we see in this
example:
(44) Stoletá voda v roce 1995 zničila domy téměř všem obyvatelům vesnice Troubky.
[Hundred-year water-NOM in year-LOC 1995-NOM destroyed houses-ACC prac-
tically all residents-DAT village-GEN Troubky-NOM.]
The hundred-year flood of 1995 destroyed the houses of nearly all the residents of
the village of Troubky.
(45) Městský soud projednává kuriózní případ, kdy sedmdesátiletý důchodce rozbil svému
sousedovi téměř všechna okna.
[City court-NOM processes curious case-ACC, when seventy-year-old retiree-NOM
broke own neighbor-DAT practically all windows-ACC.]
The city court is processing the curious case of a seventy-year-old retiree who broke
nearly all of his neighbor’s windows.
One can also take something from oneself, and once again dative si steps in to play this role,
most commonly with verbs like odříci/odřeknout/odříkat si and odepřít/odpírat si both of
which mean approximately ‘give up, refuse (to take)’. Here are some examples for weight
watchers and smokers, people who are often faced with denying themselves what they
crave:
(46) Ten další zákusek sis mohl odříci, začínáš se podobat svému otci.
[That further pastry-ACC self-DAT-AUX could refuse, begin self-ACC look-like
own father-DAT.]
You could have refused that extra pastry, you’re beginning to look like your father.
(#) Akce Den proti kouření by měla kuřákům pomoci odepřít si svoji denní dávku
nikotinu alespoň na jeden den.
[Action-NOM Day-NOM against smoking-DAT AUX had smokers-DAT help give-
up self-DAT own daily dose-ACC nicotine-GEN at-least for one day-ACC.]
Anti-Smoking Day should help smokers give up their daily dose of nicotine at least
for one day.
u-prchnout/prchat ‘flee’
INST, but then self-ACC that power-DAT freed and ran after that-INST him-DAT EXPERIENCER
with líbit se
most-dear voice-INST.]
‘like’.
For an instant he stiffened up, paralyzed by something inconceivably powerful, but 1.4 D A -
then he freed himself from that power and ran after the voice that was most dear to
22 The Dative Case
TIVE :: AN him.
EXPERIENCER
with chutnat
‘taste good’ DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER 1 — BENEFIT
used for food
and drink.
1.5
Idiomatic use of
DATIVE ::
EXPERIENCER
AN
D
with jít to ex-
press ‘suit,
work for’.
DATIVE::AN EXPERIENCER
2.1 DATIVE:: AN Something happens to a DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER, and the dative item absorbs that
EXPERIENCER si
experience.(mn1.1) You can think of this as a diluted version of DATIVE: A RECEIVER; here the
in the context of
benefit for the dative doesn’t get or lose something, instead it gets just an experience of something. Words
self. meaning ‘show’ and ‘appear to’ are transitional examples, demonstrating the link between
2.2 DATIVE:: AN DATIVE: A RECEIVER and DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. We use the dative case for experiences
EXPERIENCER si because the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER is capable of appreciating the impact of whatever ac-
with verbs of
tion or state it is exposed to. Experiences can be good and bad, thus benefiting or harming
enjoyment pre-
fixed in po- and the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. Possession and need are also common experiences, and then
za-. there are many miscellaneous experiences that don’t fit into neat categories. Let’s start with
2.3 DATIVE:: AN the good experiences that bring benefit to the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER.
EXPERIENCER si Kindness comes in many forms, and there is a wealth of ways in which something
with verbs
or someone can bring benefit.(mn1.2) Here is a table of words that you can expect to see
meaning ‘as-
sume a posi- accompanied by DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER:
tion’.
2.4 DATIVE:: AN Verbs Expressing Benefit
EXPERIENCER si
with verbs ex-
asistovat ‘assist’ po-vést se ‘be lucky’
pressing relief
and urgency.
2.5 DATIVE:: AN dovolit/dovolovat ‘allow, permit’ po-/vy-/z-dařit se ‘do well, thrive; suc-
EXPERIENCER si ceed’
with verbs ex- hodit se ‘suit’ prominout/promíjet ‘forgive’
pressing aware-
ness and capa-
bility. jít ‘suit, work for’ prospět/prospívat ‘benefit’
4.1 DATIVE:: AN
napomoci/napomáhat ‘help with’ ulehčit/ulehčovat ‘relieve’
23
EXPERIENCER can
(50) *Pražskému týmu kuchařů se podařilo připravit 2125 palačinek. 5.1 DATIVE:: AN
[Prague team-DAT cooks-GEN self-ACC succeeded prepare 2125-ACC pancakes- EXPERIENCER in
GEN.] the context of
The Prague team of cooks managed to prepare 2125 pancakes. external forces.
5.2 DATIVE:: AN
EXPERIENCER ex-
(51) Armáda v socialistickém Československu sice měla sloužit lidu, ve skutečnosti však presses age.
byla nástrojem komunistické moci. 5.3 DATIVE:: AN
[Army-NOM in socialist Czechoslovakia-LOC after-all had serve people-DAT, in EXPERIENCER ex-
dertaken for the In addition to these verbs, a great number of adjectives expressing positive qualities and
benefit of DA - inclinations can be used with the dative in a similar fashion, among them milý ‘nice, pleas-
TIVE :: AN
EXPERIENCER.
ant’, nápomocný ‘helpful’, příjemný ‘pleasant’ vzácný ‘precious’, užitečný ‘useful’, vděčný
6.3 Dative pro- ‘thankful’. Here are a couple of examples:
noun si empha-
sizes that the (54) Vážení posluchači, mám tu čest přivítat mezi námi nám tak vzácného hosta — pana
subject is af- prezidenta Václava Havla.
fected by an
event.
[Esteemed listeners-VOC, have that honor-ACC welcome among us-INST us-DAT
6.4 DATIVE:: AN such precious guest-ACC — Mr. president Václav Havel-ACC.]
EXPERIENCER Ladies and Gentlemen, I have the honor of welcoming a guest who is very special to
suggests that an us — president Václav Havel.
activity is hap-
pening to a per-
son.
(55) Mohu vám být ve vaší záležitosti nějak nápomocen?
[Can you-DAT be in your matter-LOC somehow helpful-NOM?]
7.1 DATIVE:: AN Can I be helpful to you in some way in this matter?
EXPERIENCER can
imply interest, To express ‘like’ (any attraction weaker than full-blown love, which is of course
aggression, or
solidarity.
milovat ), Czech uses verbs meaning ‘appeal to, please’, especially líbit se, with the dative,
and the logical structure of the sentence is the inverse of what we have in English, so Ty se
mi líbíš [You-NOM SELF-ACC me-DAT please] really means ‘I like you’.(mn1.3) Here’s
an example of how this works in Czech:
(57) Chtěla jsem se mu líbit, nevěděla jsem, že líčení u žen nesnáší, a také jsem netušila,
že červená barva ho dokáže rozzuřit jako býka.
[Wanted AUX self-ACC him-DAT please, not-knew AUX, that makeup at women-
GEN not-endures, and also AUX not-suspected, that red color-NOM him-ACC
manages enrage like bull-ACC.]
I wanted him to like me, I didn’t know that he can’t stand makeup on women, and I
also didn’t suspect that the color red could enrage him like a bull.
Odd as it may seem, the verb líbit se cannot be used to describe liking food and beverages
(unless you only want to refer to the way they look); if the subject is caloric consumables,
the only correct choice is chutnat ‘taste good’.(mn1.4) Here’s an example for good mea-
sure:
The use of the verb jít with the dative to mean ‘suit, work for’ is idiomatic, but then so is the
use of English go in phrases like go well with.(mn1.5) In this example, the thing that is
25
‘going’ is the studying, though in English we don’t always bother mentioning the person
who is having the experience:
(59) Nenech se rušit, chtěl jsem se jen přesvědčit, jak ti jde studium.
[Not-let self-ACC disturb, wanted AUX self-ACC just convince, how you-DAT
goes studying-NOM.]
Don’t let me disturb you, I just wanted to see how the studying was going.
Jít can be used in combination with the preposition o + ACC to describe what someone
cares about, or is concerned with, what their main point is. Here is an example of this usage
with DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER:
Some benefit verbs associated with approval can appear either with an accusative direct
object or with an infinitive, in addition to the item marked DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. These
verbs include: dovolit/dovolovat ‘allow’, povolit/povolovat ‘permit’, přijmout/přijímat ‘ac-
cept’, schválit/schvalovat ‘approve’. The first two examples below the approved items are
things represented as accusative direct objects (projekt ‘project’ and vše ‘everything’), and
in the third one the approved item is an action described by a verb (ukončit ‘finish’). As we
see in th first example, this use of DATIVE: AN EXPERIENCER can also suggest possession.
(61) Projekt nám musí mimo jiné schválit i ministerstvo životního prostředí.
[Project-ACC us-DAT must among other-ACC approve also ministry-NOM life
environment-GEN.]
Among other things, the Ministry of the Environment must also approve the project
for us (= approve our project).
ever possible, and this occasions the use of the Czech dative pronoun si, since such activi-
ties involve persons providing benefit for themselves.(mn2.1) In most cases, the verbs in-
volved also exist without si (except the position verbs below), but si transforms their mean-
ing to reflect the self-indulgence it implies.
The verb užít/užívat si ‘enjoy’ is very representative of the use of the si to express benefit
for oneself. By itself, užít/užívat means simply ‘use’, but if we use something self-indul-
gently, then we use it in order to enjoy it. The verb žít ‘live’ can aquire the self-indulgent
meaning ‘live it up’ simply by adding si. Here are examples of how si expresses enjoyment
with these two verbs:
Similarly, the verb hrát ‘play’ is fairly non-specific and can be used in a variety of contexts
(for playing games, sports, musical instruments, etc.). However, if Czechs want to talk
about what children do when they play, they will almost always use hrát si to emphasize the
fact that this kind of play is done for the fun of it. Certain other activities like throwing or
kicking a ball can be done just for fun, and Czech adds si to the verbs házet ‘throw’ and
kopat ‘kick’ to produce házet si ‘throw for fun’ and kopat si ‘kick for fun’. Here is an
example from an article on cloning:
There are many other activities that can be enjoyed, usually in pleasurable quantities.(mn2.2)
The prefixes po- and za- frequently combine with si and verbs describing enjoyable activi-
ties to produce verbs that mean ‘enjoy doing something, have a nice time doing something’.
The most common verbs of this type are gathered in the table below, although Czechs are
capable of creating more verbs according to this pattern whenever the mood strikes them.
Here are some examples to give you a feel for how these verbs are used:
(67) *Na palačinkách si pochutnali návštěvníci oslav svatého Vavřince, patrona kuchařů
a cukrářů.
[On pancakes-LOC self-DAT tasted visitors-NOM celebration-GEN St. Vavřinec-
GEN, patron-GEN cooks-GEN and confectioners-GEN].
Visitors to the celebration of St. Vavřinec, patron saint of cooks and candy-makers,
enjoyed eating the pancakes.
(68) “Moji chlapi” si zajezdili na horských kolech z půjčovny hotelu, já jsem si raději
poležela na sluníčku.
[“My boys-NOM” self-DAT rode on mountain bikes-LOC from rental-office-GEN
hotel-GEN, I-NOM AUX self-DAT rather lay on sun-LOC.]
“My boys” enjoyed going for a ride on mountain bikes from the hotel rental office,
but I instead enjoyed laying around in the sun.
There are four verbs that mean ‘take a position’, all of which require si: dřepnout si ‘squat’,
sednout/sedat si ‘sit down’, lehnout/lehat si ‘lie down’, stoupnout/stoupat si ‘stand
up’.(mn2.3) The connection with benefit for the self is obvious for the first three verbs,
since squatting, sitting, and lying down are all things that we do to increase our comfort.
The fourth verb, stoupnout/stoupat si ‘stand up’, might seem a bit puzzling until we remem-
ber that this is not the usual, neutral verb that Czechs use for standing up — the verb most
normally used is vstát/vstávat. Stoupnout/stoupat si is used only in contexts where a stand-
28 The Dative Case
ing position is the most convenient one. For example when a mother is helping a small child
get dressed, she might say Tak si stoupni! ‘So get up!’, emphasizing that the dressing will be
easier to accomplish while standing. Other contexts would include stepping up to a counter
or other raised surface so that one can get something. The following examples show the
obligatory use of si with verbs meaning ‘assume a position’:
People do a variety of things in response to stress: they hurry up, voice their needs,
complain, and rest.(mn2.4) All of these activities help a person who feels some urgency or
need for relief, and are thus beneficial. Here are some Czech verbs of this type that are
associated with si:
stýskat si ‘complain’
(72) “Velkým problémem hlavního města jsou psí výkaly”, posteskl si primátor Jan
Koukal.
[“Big problem-INST” capital center-GEN are dog droppings-NOM”, complained
self-DAT mayor Jan Koukal-NOM.]
“Dog droppings are a big problem in the capital city,” complained mayor Jan Koukal.
Knowing about something and knowing what to do or think about it are valuable experi-
ences for people, ones that tend to attract the use of Czech si.(mn2.5) Here are common
verbs of this type that you are likely to encounter, followed by a few examples. You might
notice that several of these verbs also exist without si, although their si and non-si mean-
29
ings are quite different from each other. Cenit, for example, means ‘estimate, assess’, whereas
cenit si means ‘appreciate’, a meaning that relates the estimation to the benefit it brings to
the person doing the estimation. Without si, myslet means ‘think’ in the sense of ‘engage in
a thought process, use one’s brain’, but myslet si means ‘think’ in the sense of ‘have an
opinion’.
(74) Mnoho lidí si, jako i já, myslí, že životní cíle této společnosti i cesta k nim jsou
špatné.
[Many people-GEN self-DAT, like also I-NOM, think, that vital goals-NOM this
society-GEN and path-NOM to them-GEN are bad-NOM.]
Many people like myself think that this society’s vital goals and the path to them are
bad.
In a weaker sense, our behavior is something that we do for ourselves, following our own
design (whether ultimately good or bad), and Czech has two verbs meaning ‘behave, per-
form’ which use the dative si, počínat si and vést si.
30 The Dative Case
(75) Obě české tenistky si na turnaji v Moskvě vedly dobře a postupují do druhého kola.
[Both Czech tennis-players-NOM self-DAT on tournament-LOC in Moscow-LOC
performed well and progress to second round-GEN.]
Both Czech tennis players performed well at the Moscow tournament and are pro-
gressing to the second round.
(77) Vyšetřovatel jej již obvinil z obecného ohrožení spáchaného z nedbalosti, za což mu
hrozí až pět let vězení.
[Investigator-NOM him-ACC already indicted for general menace committed-GEN
from negligence-GEN, for which-ACC him-DAT threatens up-to five-ACC years
jail-GEN.]
The investigator has already indicted him for general menace due to negligence, for
which he can get up to five years in jail (literally: he’s threatened with up to five
31
years in jail).
Although just about any adjective expressing a negative quality can inspire the use
of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER, the following four adjectives assume this role with particular
frequency: nepříjemný ‘unpleasant’, odporný ‘disgusting’, protivný ‘repulsive’, trapný ‘both-
ersome’, as we see in the following examples:
(78) Učitel nesmí, i když je to někdy obtížné, dělit žáky podle toho, kdo je mu milý nebo
protivný.
[Teacher-NOM not-dares, even when is that-NOM sometimes difficult, divide stu-
dents-ACC according-to that-GEN, who-NOM is him-DAT dear-NOM or repul-
sive-NOM.]
Even though it is sometimes difficult, a teacher must not divvy up his students ac-
cording to who is dear to him and who is repulsive.
(79) Slavné japonské suši může být pouze podle popisu některým lidem odporné, avšak
po ochutnání často změní názor.
[Famous Japanese sushi-NOM can be only according-to description-GEN some
people-DAT disgusting-NOM, however after tasting-LOC often change opinion-
ACC.]
Based solely on a description, the famous Japanese sushi is disgusting to many
people, however they often change their minds after they taste it.
Like the benefit verbs, there are some verbs describing harm that frequently have an accu-
sative direct object or infinitive verb tagging along in addition to the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER.
The most common verbs of this type all mean ‘refuse’: odmítnout/odmítat,
odříci/odřeknout/odříkat, and odepřít/odpírat. The item refused in the first example below
is expressed as an accusative direct object (jasnou penaltu ‘a clearly deserved penalty kick’),
but in the second example the refusal involves an action, expressed as a verb (podepsat
‘sign’).
(80) Poté, co rozhodčí odepřel mužstvu Slavie jasnou penaltu, propukly na stadionu
emoce.
[After, what-NOM referee-NOM refused team-DAT Slavie-NOM clear penalty-
kick-ACC, burst-out at stadium-LOC emotions-NOM.]
Emotions burst out at the stadium after the referee refused the Slavie team a clearly
deserved penalty kick.
EXPERIENCER.(mn3.2) If you take a Czech verb meaning ‘deliver a blow’ and add the prefix
na- (which here means ‘do a quantity of something’), you can get a verb which means ‘to
hurt a person’, and the person is marked as DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER.
(82) Pokud policista například nafackuje malému děcku, je otázka, jestli toto povolání
může nadále vykonávat.
[If policeman-NOM for-example slaps small child-DAT, is question-NOM, if that
profession-ACC can further perform.]
If, for example, a policeman slaps a small child, the question arises as to whether he
can continue in his job.
(83) Otec býval prchlivý, často se tak rozzuřil, že zbil matku, a když nabil mamince,
namlátil obyčejně i nám.
[Father-NOM was hot-headed-NOM, often self-ACC so enraged, that beat-up mother-
ACC, and when beat-up mom-DAT, thrashed usually also us-DAT.]
Father was hot-headed, often he would get so enraged that he beat mother up, and
when he beat up mom, he usually thrashed us too.
Although we are more likely to do things for our enjoyment, and Czech has many verbs to
prove it, people do distress themselves, as evidenced by verbs of harm with si,such as
hnusit si ‘be sickened at’ and ošklivit si ‘be disgusted by’. Here’s an example of involuntary
distress:
(84) *Peklo si prožil devatenáctiletý horolezec, který čtyři dny čekal na záchranu.
[Hell-ACC self-DAT lived-through nineteen-year-old mountain-climber-NOM, who-
NOM four days-ACC waited for rescue-ACC.]
A nineteen-year-old mountain climber who had to wait four days to be rescued went
through hell.
In English we talk about our body parts by using possessive forms like my, your, her, but
when Czechs express the relationship between a person and a body part, they will often use
dative forms like mi [me-DAT] ‘me’, ti [you-DAT] ‘you’, and jí [her-DAT] ‘her’.(mn4.1)
This is possible because whenever something happens to a part of your body, you experi-
ence that event, playing the role of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER. This is true for all manner of
events directed toward body parts, whether beneficial, harmful, or neutral. For many types
of events it would actually be strange to use the possessive form in Czech, since this would
seem to deny that a person had any experience of something that happened to their body.
For example, you can say Zlomil jí ruku [Broke her-DAT arm-ACC] ‘He broke her arm
(literally: He broke the arm to her)’, but you cannot normally replace jí with the possessive
její ‘her’ in this sentence, because this sounds as if the woman in question were somehow
alienated from her own arm (perhaps it was cut off before he broke it?). Here are some
examples of how DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER indicates the relationship between a person and
his or her body parts:
(85) Kvidovi poklesly koutky úst, ale byl odhodlán svou pravdu hájit.
[Guido-DAT drooped corners-NOM mouth-GEN, but was determined-NOM own
truth-ACC defend.]
The corners of Guido’s mouth drooped, but he was determined to defend his point.
(86) Hlavou mu během oněch deseti, dvaceti vteřin proletělo dobrých padesát podstatných
jmen ženského rodu.
[Head-INST him-DAT during those ten-GEN, twenty seconds-GEN flew-through
good-GEN fifty-NOM substantive nouns-GEN feminine gender-GEN.]
During those ten or twenty seconds a good fifty feminine nouns flew through his
head.
(87) Sliny se mu sbíhaly a kouř valící se z mokrého dřeva mu vehnal slzy do očí.
[Saliva-NOM self-ACC him-DAT ran and smoke-NOM rolling self-ACC from wet
wood-GEN him-DAT drove-in tears-ACC to eyes-GEN.]
His mouth was watering, and the smoke pouring from the wet wood brought tears to
his eyes.
Of course it is always possible for people to do things to their own body parts,
especially when attending to personal hygiene or as the result of an accident, and once again
Czechs have an occasion to use the dative pronoun si.(mn4.2) In these instances the use of
si is mandatory, since the use of a possessive form would imply that someone else’s body
part was involved (and that the other party had no experience of the event). The following is
a list of common phrases in which si indicates that the given body part belongs to the
subject of the sentence, and a few actual examples are presented to show how these phrases
function in real sentences.
(88) Matka si utřela ruce do utěrky a nalistovala v časopise stránku se zatrženým textem.
[Mother SELF-DAT wiped hands to dishcloth-GEN and turned-pages in magazine-
LOC page-ACC with crossed-out text-INST.]
Mother wiped her hands on a dishcloth and turned to a page in the magazine where
the text was crossed out.
(89) Nejlepší český fotbalista, který si zlomil nohu na konci sezóny, se v současné době
doléčuje.
[Best Czech soccer-player-NOM, who-NOM self-DAT broke leg-ACC on end-LOC
season-GEN, self-ACC in present time-LOC completes-treatment.]
The best Czech soccer player, who broke his leg at the end of the season, is still
recuperating at the present time.
(90) Každou neděli jsme se museli podrobit stejnému rituálu: vykoupat se, umýt si hlavu,
vyčistit si zuby, ostříhat si nehty.
[Every evening-ACC AUX self-ACC had submit same ritual-DAT: bathe self-ACC,
wash self-DAT head-ACC, clean self-DAT teeth-ACC, cut self-DAT nails-ACC.]
Every week we had to submit to the same ritual: take a bath, wash our heads, brush
our teeth, and cut our nails.
the verb vzít/brát ‘take’ and its near-synonyms, which, as we saw, can be extended to in-
clude destruction. Damage overlaps somewhat with harm, and the dative is particularly
likely to appear if the possessed item is important enough to the possessor to cause an
experience of suffering, as in Bratr mi naboural auto [Brother-NOM me-DAT crashed car-
ACC] ‘My brother crashed my car’. Here’s an example to illustrate this use:
(91) Nejdřív mi dvě rakety spadly na dům a pak ruští vojáci odnesli všechno, co zůstalo.
[First me-DAT two rockets-NOM fell on house-ACC and then Russian soldiers-
NOM took everything-ACC, what-NOM remained.]
First two rockets fell on my house, and then the Russian soldiers took everything
that was left.
In English we say that things have ends (as well as beginnings and middles), and this notion
of possessing an endpoint justifies expressions like There’s no end to those problems or I’ll
put an end to that.(4.4) In a parallel fashion it is possible to use the dative case in Czech in
conjunction with the word konec in the phrases ne-být + DAT + konec and u-dělat +DAT +
konec, as in: Není těm problémům konec ‘There’s no end to those problems’ and Udělám
tomu konec ‘I’ll put an end to that’. Here’s an authentic example of how DATIVE:: AN
EXPERIENCER marks the possessor of an end:
(92) Česká dálkařka Šárka Kašparková ve finále bohužel třikrát přešlápla a to byl konec
všem nadějím na medaili.
[Czech long-jumper Šárka Kašparková-NOM in finals-LOC unfortunately three-
times overstepped a that-NOM was end-NOM all hopes-DAT for medal-ACC.
Unfortunately the Czech long-jumper Šárka Kašparková stepped over the line three
times during the finals and that was the end of all hopes for a medal.
(93) Vážená redakce, za necelý měsíc mi bude osmdesát let, ale stále čtu se zaujetím váš
časopis.
[Esteemed editorial-board-VOC, in not-whole month-ACC me-DAT will-be eighty-
NOM years-GEN, but still read with interest-INST your periodical-ACC.]
Dear Editor, in less than a month I will be eighty years old, but I still read your
36 The Dative Case
(94) Když je některým hokejistům třicet let, jsou tak otlučení, že musí vrcholový sport
opustit.
[When is some hockey-players-DAT thirty-NOM years-GEN, are so battered-NOM,
that must top-performance sport-ACC abandon.]
When some hockey players are thirty years old they are so beaten up that they have
to abandon top-performance sport.
Environmental conditions can induce feelings of heat and cold, as in Je jí zima/horko [Is
her-DAT cold/hot] ‘She feels cold/hot’, a host of emotions, as in Je mi smutno/Není mi k
smíchu [Is me-DAT sad/Is-not me-DAT to laughter-DAT] ‘I feel sad/I don’t feel like laugh-
ing’, as well as nausea, as in Bylo mu nevolno/blbě [Was him-DAT uneasy/weird] ‘He felt
sick to his stomach’. Here is a sentence illustrating this use of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER:
(mn5.3)
DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER is commonly associated with the phrase být jedno, literally ‘be one’
in an idiom that expresses the feeling of indifference, as in this example: (mn5.4)
In contrast to apathy, one can also express need this way, by using DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER
with třeba ‘necessary’, as in this example: (mn5.5)
ally happened to us that in the establishment where we gathered and played songs on a
portable record-player people began to react, dance and say “thank you”.There are addi-
tionally all manner of actions that can be done for someone’s benefit, such as opening a
door for someone, making calls for someone, or even washing the dishes for someone.(mn6.2)
At this point we see an overlap between DATIVE: A RECEIVER and the “benefit” uses of DATIVE::
AN EXPERIENCER. Here are a few examples of acts done for the benefit of others:Tak mi je
pojď najít, ty chytrá![Then me-DAT them-ACC come find, you-NOM smart-NOM!]Then
come and find them for me, you smart-alec!Sypu rybkám v akváriu sušené mšice.[Pour
fish-DAT in aquarium-LOC dried aphids-ACC.]I pour out dried aphids for the fish in the
aquarium.*Maminka odešla dcerkám pro helmičky, tatínek vypustil rodinné psy a připravil
kola.[Mother-NOM went daughters-DAT for helmets-ACC, father-NOM et-out family dogs-
ACC and prepared bicycles-ACC.]The mother went to get the helmets for her daughters,
and the father let the family dogs out and prepared the bicycles.
The dative pronoun si is often added to sentences just to emphasize that the subject was
affected by some event.(mn6.3) In both of the examples below the dative pronoun could
easily be removed and the sentences would be perfectly grammatical. But dative si is there
to provide some extra information, reminding us that the subject was impacted by the event.
(99) Fotbalisté Realu Madrid přijeli do Brazílie na mistrovství světa napravit reputaci,
kterou si zkazili mdlými výkony v lize.
[Soccer-players-NOM Realu Madrid arrived to Brazil-GEN on championship-ACC
world-GEN repair reputation-ACC, which-ACC self-DAT spoiled mediocre per-
formances-INST in league-LOC.]
The Realu Madrid soccer players have come to Brazil for the world championship
to repair the reputation which they spoiled with mediocre performance in the league.
In Czech you can add se to many ordinary verbs and use the DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER to
describe how the subject is experiencing an action.(mn6.4) The grammatical implication
here is that instead of the subject performing the action, the action is something that is
happening to the subject. In the next example it would certainly be possible to say instead
Jak chodíš v těch nových botách? [How walk in those new shoes-LOC?] ‘How do you walk
in those new shoes?, but by adding se to the verb and putting the logical subject in the dative
case, the author of this sentence emphasizes that the experience of walking is being im-
posed on the person by the shoes:
The verb that is used most commonly this way is za-chtít ‘want’, which with the dative case
and se takes on a meaning of ‘feel like’, as we see in these two examples:
The idiom být tomu zvykem [be that-DAT custom-INST] ‘be customary’ also uses the
dative and also falls within the purview of experiencing doing something:
(103)Naše nemocnice vykonávají mnohem větší rozsah a objem péče, než je tomu v
Evropě zvykem.
[Our hospitals-NOM provide much-INST larger range-ACC and scope-ACC care-
GEN, than is that-DAT in Europe-LOC custom-INST.]
Our hospitals provide a much larger range and scope of care than is customary in
Europe.
Louka’s feeling of loneliness has never been experienced by or affected the woman he is
talking to, but he wants her to care about it, and thus in a sense he offers her his story, as if
39
she were participating in it. In another part of the movie, Louka is summoned to Státní
bezpečnost (State Security) in connection with his feigned marriage to a Russian woman,
and his interrogator uses the dative case in this aggressive assertion:
Here the dative nám ‘us’ really means ‘I sympathize with you, I feel your pain.’ can indicate an
equal competi-
On occasion, it is possible to use more than one ethical dative in a sentence. Here is an tor.
example of two ethical datives (ti and mi ), plus one dative used to express possession (si ): 1.4 D A -
T I V E : :
[Let AUX daughter-ACC on mountains-ACC, and she-NOM you-DAT self-DAT can express
matched forces
me-DAT broke leg-ACC!] in association
I let my daughter go to the mountains, and, you know what, she broke her leg on with adjectives.
me! 1.5 D A -
T I V E : :
ACOMPETITOR
The full force of the dative in this sentence might be conveyed this way: she broke her leg
can express
and I’m going to have to take care of her, and I want you to listen to this and feel sorry for matched forces
me! in association
with preposi-
tions.
DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR 1 — MATCHING FORCES
2.1 DATIVE ::
ACOMPETITOR
can indicate a
competitor with
an advantage.
D 3.1 The preposi-
tions k, kvůli,
and vůči de-
scribe a rela-
DATIVE::A COMPETITOR tionship subor-
40 The Dative Case
dinate to DA - Remember that the hallmark of the dative is that a dative item has the potential to do some-
TIVE:: A COMPETI-
thing. Grammatically, this means the dative item can potentially be the subject of a sen-
TOR.
3.2 k + DATIVE::
tence, a role usually marked with the nominative case. The fact that a dative item is poten-
A COMPETITOR tially a nominative item implies a comparison between the dative and the nominative.(mn1.1)
‘to, toward, The uses of the DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR exploit just this comparison, for here we see the dative
for’. item in competition with a nominative item. All possible combinations are realized, so the
3.3 k + DATIVE:: dative and the nominative can either be equal in strength or one can be stronger than the
A COMPETITOR is
used with hu-
other. When the two items are evenly matched they participate in a symmetrical relation-
man destina- ship as equal competitors. If the dative item is more powerful than the nominative, it exerts
tions. a force to which the nominative item submits; here the dative has some kind of advantage
3.4 k + DATIVE:: over the nominative.(mn1.2) If instead the nominative is superior, it dominates the dative.
A COMPETITOR
These three logical outcomes will be termed “matching forces”, “submission”, and “domi-
with non-hu-
man destina-
nation” below.
tions means ‘to- In identifying an equal competitor, the meaning of the DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR overlaps some-
ward, in the di- what with the benefit meaning of DATIVE:: AN EXPERIENCER, particularly if the two parties are
rection of’. equally engaged in some harmonious activity.(mn1.3) Here are some words that typically
3.5 Metaphori- trigger the meaning of roughly equally matched forces, as well as examples of how they are
cal uses of k +
DATIVE:: A COM-
used:
PETITOR to indi-
cate tendencies, Words Expressing Matched Forces
purpose, and re-
lationships. čelit (LCz) ‘face, confront’ rovnat se ‘equal’
3.6 k + DATIVE::
A COMPETITOR
expressing be- kompenzovat ‘compensate’ stačit ‘keep up with’
longing and
adding ‘to’. konkurovat ‘compete against’ vyrovnat/vyrovnávat se
3.7 k + DATIVE:: ‘match, be able to compete’
A COMPETITOR
used with
korespondovat ‘correspond to’ vzdorovat ‘defy’
events.
3.8 k + DATIVE:: odolat/odolávat ‘resist’ vzepřít/vzpírat se ‘oppose’
A COMPETITOR in
phrases and idi- odplatit/odplácet ‘repay, retaliate’ za-/u-bránit se ‘resist’
oms.
3.9 kvůli + DA-
TIVE:: A COMPETI- odpovědět/ odpovídat ‘correspond to; answer’ za-odporovat
TOR ‘because of, ‘oppose’
for the sake of’. podobat se ‘be similar’ za-oponovat ‘oppose’
3.10 vůči + DA-
TIVE:: A COMPETI-
TOR ‘to, to-
po-mstít se ‘take revenge on’ z-protivit se ‘oppose’
wards, in the
face of, for’. překážet ‘be in the way’
4.1 DATIVE ::
ACOMPETITOR
can indicate a
(108)Žádná žena patrně neodolala jeho kouzlu.
weaker com- [No woman-NOM apparently not-resisted his charm-DAT.]
petitor who is Apparently no woman could resist his charm.
taken advantage
of.
41
(109)Státní delegace uctila ve Varšavě památku židovských bojovníků, kteří téměř měsíc
vzdorovali německým okupantům.
[State delegation-NOM honored in Warsaw-LOC memory-ACC Jewish fighters-
GEN, who-NOM nearly month-ACC defied German invaders-DAT.]
In Warsaw the state delegation honored the memory of the Jewish fighters who
defied the German invaders for nearly a month.
(110) *Pokud jde o McDonalda, shodli jsme s Martinem, že jejich hamburgery se řízku
nevyrovnají, ale hranolky mají docela dobré.
[As-long-as goes about McDonald’s-ACC, agreed self-ACC with Martin-INST, that
their hamburgers-NOM self-ACC not-match cutlet-DAT, but french-fries-ACC have
quite good-ACC.]
Concerning McDonald’s, Martin and I agreed that their hamburgers are no match
for a cutlet, but their french fries are pretty good.
Several adjectives express a similar meaning, and also occasion the use of DATIVE:: A COM-
PETITOR, as we see in this small table and the following example: (mn1.4)
In addition to the verbs and adjectives listed above, a number of prepositions and preposi-
tional phrases express relationships of meeting or opposition, and of course these words
occasion the use of DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR: (mn1.5)
(112) Paní starostka nechala vybudovat krásné byty pro staré lidi hned naproti škole, aby
se mohli dívat na děti.
[Madame mayor-NOM let build beautiful apartments-ACC for old people-ACC im-
mediately opposite school-DAT, so-that self-ACC could look at children-ACC.]
The mayor had beautiful apartments built for old people right across from a school
so that they could look at the children.
(113) Našli se i tací, kteří se nebáli veřejně vystoupit proti tomuto násilí a zveřejnit své
názory.
[Found self-ACC even such-NOM, who-NOM self-ACC not-feared publicly speak-
out against this violence-DAT and publicize own opinions-ACC.]
There were even some people who were not afraid to speak out in public against
this violence and to publicize their opinions.
The preposition proti ‘against’ is also frequently seen in combination with other compatible
words, such as ob-hájit se proti ‘defend oneself from’, bojovat; boj proti ‘battle against’,
and protestovat proti ‘protest against’.
(114) Děti školního věku se musí ve třinácti letech podrobit povinné lékařské prohlídce.
[Children-NOM school age-GEN self-ACC must in thirteen years-LOC submit man-
datory medical examination-DAT.]
At age thirteen, school-age children must submit to a mandatory medical exami-
nation.
(115) Vždy se v hloubi duše obdivoval mužům a ženám, kteří přežili koncentrák a dokázali
dále normálně žít.
[Always self-ACC in depth-LOC soul-GEN admired men-DAT and women-DAT,
who-NOM survived concentration-camp-ACC and managed further normally live.]
44 The Dative Case
In the depths of his soul he always admired men and women who had survived the
concentration camp and managed to live normally afterward.
Reciprocal uses are possible for some of these verbs, occasioning the use of si, often in
combination with navzájem ‘mutually’, as we see in these examples:
(118) Když se nad tím zamyslím, musím přiznat, že s mojí sestrou jsme si začali rozumět
až v dospělosti.
[When self-ACC above that-INST think, must admit, that with my sister-INST AUX
self-DAT began understand only in adulthood-LOC.]
When I think about it, I have to admit that my sister and I began to understand each
other only in adulthood.
(119) Podle posledních průzkumů veřejného mínění si ženy častěji než muži myslí, že by
si manželé měli být navzájem věrni.
[According-to latest polls-GEN public opinion-GEN self-DAT women-NOM more-
often than men-NOM think, that AUX self-DAT spouses-NOM had be mutually
faithful.]
According to the latest public opinion polls, more women than men think that spouses
should be faithful to each other.
There is an important preposition that expresses the idea of matching forces, vůči ‘in the
face of, against, to, toward’. Unfortunately we don’t have a similar preposition in English,
so the glosses for vůči are not very helpful or even contradictory. Looking at examples is
probably the only good way to get a sense of what it means. Even though we can translate
all the uses in these sentences using ‘to’, the meaning of vůči is clearly much more specific:
(120)Je zcela přirozené, že v určitém věku jsou děti v opozici vůči svým rodičům.
[Is entirely natural-NOM, that in certain age-LOC are children-NOM in opposition-
LOC to own parents-DAT.]
It is entirely natural for children of a certain age to be opposed to their parents.
(121) Díky nadměrnému užívání antibiotik jsou mnohé bakterie vůči běžným antibiotikům
rezistentní.
[Thanks excessive use-DAT antibiotics-GEN are many bacteria-NOM to common
antibiotics-DAT resistant-NOM.]
45
Due to the excessive use of antibiotics, many bacteria are resistent to common an-
tibiotics.
(122) *Redakce měla tento článek vrátit a velmi takticky podotknout, že některé pasáže
mohou být ofenzivní vůči části obyvatelstva.
[Editorial-board-NOM had that article-ACC return and very tactfully point-out, that
certain passages-NOM can be offensive-NOM to part-DAT population-GEN.]
The editors should have returned the article and very tactfully pointed out that cer-
tain passages might be offensive to some of the population.
Although there are only three prepositions associated with DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR in the
meaning of inclination/submission — k ‘to, toward, for’, kvůli ‘because of, for the sake of’,
and vůči ‘to, towards, in the face of, for’ — they are sufficiently complicated and unlike any
English equivalents to merit their own section. All three prepositions point us toward some-
thing that can exert influence, guiding the nominative subject’s action.(mn3.1) Approach,
as opposed to arrival, implies some level of subordination. When you reach a destination
by means of k + DAT, you will have to interact with it rather than just arriving at it.(mn3.2)
Movement to non-human destinations is achieved via do + GEN or na + ACC, but move-
ment to a human destination requires k + DAT, because a human being exerts forces rather
than just serving as a passive endpoint for movement, as we see in this example, where the
doctor will supposedly do something if someone comes to complain about insomnia: (mn3.3)
(123) Navíc si většina lidí vůbec nemyslí, že by s nespavostí měli chodit k lékaři.
[Furthermore self-DAT majority-NOM people-GEN at-all not-think, that AUX with
insomnia-INST had go to doctor-DAT.]
Furthermore, most people really don’t think that they should go to a doctor for
insomnia.
The same principle applies to metaphorical movement as well. In this next example, no one
really moves; there is instead a transfer of loyalties that is understood as movement to
people, requiring k:
One of the important distinctions between a non-human destination and a human one is that
when we arrive at a person, we do not enter or otherwise physically encroach upon them,
we just come nearer, going in that person’s direction. This idea can be extended to physical
locations in space, especially if the location is a prominent landmark (a role that a window
serves in a room), as the following example attests.(mn3.4) Here, the editor does not enter
46 The Dative Case
(125) Redaktor vítězně přešel k otevřenému oknu, zabubnoval prsty na parapet a roztržitě
vyhlédl na ulici.
[Editor-NOM victoriously walked-over to open window-DAT, drummed fingers-
INST on ledge-ACC and distractedly looked-out on street-ACC.]
The editor walked victoriously over to the open window, drummed his fingers on
the ledge and looked out into the street.
Movement is used metaphorically to understand changes that take place in many domains,
such as that of socio-economic status in the example below. Here the common phrase dostat/
dostávat se k ‘get to’ is used to describe movement toward better employment.
If you are simply moving in the direction of something, then that something is serving as a
landmark guiding your movement (rather than as a mere destination), and this occasions the
use of k both in combination with směrem ‘in the direction’ and by itself, as in the next two
examples:
(127) Mobilizuje veškerou svou inteligenci, vynalézavost a důvtip, vykročil otec směrem
k domu.
[Mobilizing all own intelligence-ACC, resourcefulness-ACC and ingenuity-ACC,
stepped-out father-NOM direction-INST to house-DAT.]
Mobilizing all his intelligence, resourcefulness and ingenuity, father stepped out in
the direction of the house.
K can also appear in the absence of movement, in a situation where the final location ob-
tains, in which case it can describe a fixed spatial relationship. The following quote is from
a woman’s recollections of the Soviet invasion. Here the woman has already reached the
sidewalk, and k describes her feeling of being fastened to it, unable to intervene to save a
man’s life:
In the domain of purpose, directing energies toward some end is often best translated as
having or doing something for something else in English, as we see in the next example,
where the qualifications are present for driving:
Relationships are of course a type of inclination, and a great variety of relationships can be
expressed using the preposition k, just as we use the prepositions to and toward in combina-
tion with words like relation and relationship. The two relationships present in the follow-
ing example both involve forces that order human existence: the first is the relationship of
people (journalists) toward their rights, and the second is their relationship to their employ-
ers:
(134)Novinářská profese podle světových statistik patří z hlediska zdraví a střední délky
života k nejohroženějším profesím vůbec.
[Journalistic profession-NOM according-to world statistics-GEN belongs from view-
point-GEN health-GEN and average length-GEN life-GEN to most-endangered
professions-DAT altogether.]
According to world statistics concerning health and average lifespan, journalism
belongs among the most endangered professions.
48 The Dative Case
When something is added, the item it is added to is generally rather greater in importance,
itself inspiring the addition. The phrase k tomu [to that-DAT] ‘in addition to that, into the
bargain, to go with it’ plays upon this concept. Here’s an example of how it is used:
(135)Řím si sice nadělil grandiózní ohňostroj, ale neposkytl k tomu žádnou veřejnou
toaletu.
[Rome self-DAT admittedly bestowed grandiose fireworks-ACC, but not-provided
to that-DAT any public toilet-ACC.]
It’s true that Rome treated itself to grandiose fireworks, but it didn’t offer any public
toilets to go with it.
Events frequently structure our lives, forcing us to interact with them. In the next pair of
examples, there are two events involved.(mn3.7) One is an anniversary, the birthday of a
political figure, and the other is the successful completion of a task.
The preposition k participates in a number of prepositional and other phrases, among them:
(mn3.8) v poměru k ‘in relation to’, vzhledem k ‘in relation to; due to’, nehledě k ‘ignoring’,
se zřetelem k ‘with regard to’, směrem k ‘heading toward’ (see above), ve směru k ‘in the
direction of’, s přihlédnutím k ‘out of consideration for/of’, ve vztahu k ‘in relation to’,
přijít k sobě ‘regain consciousness’, přiznat se k ‘admit to’, náchylný k ‘having a tendency
to’. The next three sentences illustrate how some of these phrases are used:
(138)On sám se rozhodl ve straně zůstat s přihlédnutím k tomu, že měl dva syny, kteří
studovali.
[He-NOM self-NOM self-ACC decided in party-LOC stay with consideration-INST
to that-DAT, that had two sons-ACC, who-NOM studied.]
He himself decided to stay in the party out of consideration for the fact that he had
two sons in school.
Numerous idioms in Czech include the use of k, among them the expression být k + DATIVE:
A COMPETITOR (e.g., smíchu, nevydržení) ‘be (funny, unbearable; literally ‘be for laughter,
not bearing it)’; and the use of neuter singular verb forms of dojít/docházet k + DATIVE: A
COMPETITOR which really means nothing more than ‘be; happen’. Here are two examples of
each type:
(141)K rozvodu se sestra odhodlala až po třech letech, kdy jejich soužití už bylo k
nevydržení.
[To divorce-DAT self-ACC sister-NOM resolved only after three years-LOC, when
their cohabitation-NOM already was to not-bearing-DAT.]
My sister resolved to get a divorce only after three years, when their cohabitation
had already become unbearable.
(143)K havárii černobylské elektrárny došlo šestadvacátého dubna 1986 v jednu hodinu
a třiadvacet minut.
[To accident-DAT Chernobyl power-plant-GEN happened twenty-sixth-GEN 1986
at one hour-ACC and twenty-three-ACC minutes-GEN.]
The Chernobyl power plant accident took place on April twenty-sixth 1986 at one
twenty-three pm.
Availability is expressed in a similar fashion, using the construction být k mání/sehnání [be
to having-DAT/getting-DAT] ‘be available’, as in these sentences:
(146)Dnes lze již jen stěží uvěřit, že na sklonku osmdesátých let nebyl v socialistickém
Československu k sehnání toaletní papír a že tento problém musela řešit vláda na
mimořádném zasedání.
[Today possible already only with-difficulty believe, that on decline-LOC eightieth
years-GEN was-not in socialist Czechoslovakia to getting-DAT toilet paper-NOM
and that this problem-ACC had solve government-NOM at extraordinary session-
LOC.]
Today it is really hard to believe that toward the end of the 80s there was no toilet
paper available in socialist Czechoslovakia and that the government had to solve
this problem in an extraordinary session.
The preposition kvůli ‘because of, for the sake of’ continues our theme of uniting opposites,
since it combines both a sense of cause and a sense of ultimate aim.(mn3.9) Although this
may seem contradictory, we can understand that if there is an event, a contributing factor
might be either a cause or an intended target, and sometimes it doesn’t matter. I might fall
into a ditch because you pushed me from behind, or I might fall in because you pulled me
from below — either way, you contributed to my fall, and Czech kvůli is an umbrella term
that can cover both situations. Here are two examples of kvůli, one illustrating the “push”
meaning, describing how a scandal can cause job insecurity, and another illustrating the
“pull” meaning, describing a writer’s goal in terms of pleasing himself rather than others.
In both instances kvůli + DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR identifies a force (like a scandal or a goal) to
which an item (like a person) yields:
(147)V roce 1998 se jeho pozice na japonském ministerstvu financí zatřásla kvůli
korupčnímu skandálu.
[In year-LOC 1998 SELF-ACC his position-NOM at Japanese ministry-LOC fi-
nances-GEN shook because-of corruption scandal-DAT.]
In 1998 his position at the Japanese ministry of finances was shaken up because of
a corruption scandal.
(148)A dokonce i toto vše, co píšu, není kvůli tobě, ale kvůli mně.
[And after-all even that everything-NOM, what-ACC write, is-not for-the-sake-of
you-DAT, but for-the-sake-of me-DAT.]
And after all even everything I write is not for your sake, but for mine.
those to match or submit to the influence of others. Here are the verbs you are likely to
encounter, plus a few examples for good measure.
EPILOGUE
Our human capacity to perceive, appreciate, and react to the world around us is the founda-
tion upon which the whole of the dative case is built. It should not surprise you that the
name dative comes from the Latin word for ‘give’, since giving is the defining concept of
52 The Dative Case
human interaction, be it the presentation of gifts, the giving of good and evil, or the give and
take of competition. We are never entirely passive: we take money, understand messages,
interpret dreams, and struggle against the forces imposed upon us, matching them, submit-
ting to them, or prevailing over them. In Czech, as opposed to English, people see them-
selves as subject to atmospheric, temporal, and emotional factors in their environment,
since being hot, twenty years old, and sad are all things that happen to people as DATIVE::
EXPERIENCERS, rather than characteristics of them (as in English). Czech insists on treating
people differently from all other items that serve as destinations, and people require the use
of k + DATIVE:: A COMPETITOR rather than do + GENITIVE:: A GOAL or na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINA-
TION. Surrender can take place on a variety of levels, entailing yielding one’s behavior,
beliefs, intellect, and sense of awe. The dative case unites the concepts of giving and taking,
providing a single grammatically efficient construction for both. Throughout the dative
case the liberal use of the pronoun si reminds us that when we do something, often we do it
for ourselves; this self-indulgent tendency of human nature is therefore manifest in Czech,
although it is usually passed over in silence in English.
53
2 The Accusative Case
Feminine
declension
nouns
Masculine
declension
nouns
Neuter
declension
nouns
Adjectives
Pronouns
Possessives
Numerals
Chapter: a designation 1 3
ACCUSATIVE: A A DESTINATION
A DESTINATION A DIMENSION
PROLOGUE
The accusative case can do two things: it can take you to a place (= ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINA-
TION), or it can take you through a space (= ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION).(mn0.1) Just as run-
ning onto a stage and jumping through a hoop can be all folded into one continuous action,
the two meanings of the accusative are really two halves of a continuum without a precise
boundary between them.
Above all else, the accusative describes a destination, and this is equally true for both of its
meanings. The relationship between the two meanings of the accusative is noticeably dif-
ferent from those that we see in the other cases with multiple meanings (the nominative,
instrumental, dative, and genitive). Rather than being relatively discrete and independent
(but related), the meanings of the accusative are like the two ends of a megaphone. The
basic meaning of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is the biggest, least specific meaning; it does
not analyze its object in any way(mn0.2). An item marked by ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is
just a destination, its structure is of no particular interest. ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION, how-
ever, focuses on a destination extended through space, time, or some other dimension. The
accusative operates on a scale from general to specific, and the boundary between the
submeanings is rather diffuse.
Another hallmark of the accusative case is the way it deploys prepositions(mn0.3). With all
other cases, each preposition is associated with only one submeaning. Not so the accusa-
tive. It is not uncommon for prepositions to be associated with both meanings of the accu-
sative case. An important role of accusative prepositions is to identify the trajectory that is
taken on the way to a destination or along a dimension. The table on the following page will
give you some idea of how versatile prepositions are in the accusative case, and the indi-
vidual uses of each will be discussed in the sections below.
ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION 1 —
Destinations in various domains
ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION operates in four primary A
domains: space, time, action, and purpose. In the spatial do-
main, ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is a destination of physical
motion, the point at which someone or something appears A force (arrow) arrives at an
at the end of a journey. In terms of time, ACCUSATIVE: A DES- ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION
TINATION expresses a temporal destination, the point at which (circle labeled A)
4 The Accusative Case
an event appears in the timeline. In the domain of action, ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is the
destination of an activity — what we usually call the direct object. In the domain of pur-
pose, ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION designates the target of some intention, and its meaning is
roughly equivalent to the English word for.
The use of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION that is easiest for us to grasp is spatial destina-
tions because this is its most concrete meaning. We can think of all the other meanings as
being based on or derived from spatial destinations via metaphor. Some secondary exten-
sions are obviously closely linked to space, such as scales, lists, categorizations, and mea-
surements, since all of these involve ordered arrangements of items, where some are closer
together and others further apart. Evidence from many languages shows that time is usually
understood as a kind of metaphorical space; in fact the timeline is itself a metaphorical
model that uses spatial relations to describe relations in the domain of time. English is
chock-full of expressions that bear witness to how we use space to understand time, in
conventional phrases like on Monday, in two weeks, through next Friday, and in expres-
sions like summer is just around the corner and the holidays are coming up soon. Although
the details of how space is used as a model for time differ between Czech and English, the
basic idea is the same.
Unfortunately we do not share with Czech the extension of the notion of a destina-
tion to the domains of action and purpose, so we have to stretch our imaginations in unfa-
miliar directions in order to understand these applications of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION. In
the domain of action, we can imagine a transfer of energy taking place, such that the energy
goes from the subject to the direct object, its destination. In this sentence, the subject is the
thieves, the action is stealing, and this action is directed toward the automated teller, which
is the direct object expressed as ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION:
In addition to directing an action toward something, one can also direct intention toward
something, thus expressing ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION in the domain of purpose. This usu-
ally happens when we do something for someone, for a purpose, or for a reason.
The most common use of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is the direct object, which is expressed
without a preposition. All other uses of ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION require the presence of a
preposition, and most prepositions are active in more than one domain. The table presents
an overview of the domains the prepositions operate in. Each preposition and its domains
will be discussed in turn below.
(2) Položil se zaklením sluchátko, vrátil se do vyhřáté postele, ale usnout už nemohl.
[Put-down with cursing-INST receiver-ACC, returned self-ACC to warmed bed-
GEN, but fall-asleep already couldn’t.]
He cursed and put down the receiver and went back to his warm bed, but he couldn’t
fall asleep again.
6 The Accusative Case
In addition to directing an action at something that already exists, we can bring something
into existence, directing our energy toward the end product of some creative activity. The
following two sentences contain examples of creation; in the first sentence (describing a
woman’s philanthropic efforts for the benefit of soldiers) the socks are produced by knit-
ting, but of course the soldiers and shirts already exist, as do the snapshots when they are
being sent (though they, too are direct objects here); the second sentence contains an idiom
based on the fact that films are created by winding.
(4) Fotografovala je a snímky posílala rodinám, pletla ponožky a zašívala khaki košile.
[Photographed them-ACC and snapshots-ACC sent families-DAT, knitted socks-
ACC and mended khaki shirts-ACC.]
She photographed them and sent the snapshots to their families, knitted socks, and
mended khaki shirts.
(5) Ona působí nejčastěji jako výtvarnice, ale natáčí také filmy.
[She-NOM works mostly as graphic-artist-NOM, but winds also films-ACC.]
She works mostly as a graphic artist, but she also makes films.
This formula of agent + verb + patient/direct object, where the direct object is ACCUSATIVE: A
DESTINATION will work for just about any verb (except the ones that govern the genitive,
dative, or instrumental for some special reason explained in those chapters), and even for
verbs that don’t involve any real “action”, as we see in these examples:
(7) Nikdy jsem neměla vysokého partnera, ani mě nelákají klasičtí hezouni.
[Never AUX not-had tall partner-ACC, nor me-ACC not-attracted classic good-
looking-men-NOM.]
I’ve never had a tall partner, nor do the classic good-looking men attract me.
Thanks to the fact that the direct object is marked with the accusative case (and thus usually
distinct from the nominative agent/subject), the subject, verb, and direct object can be pre-
sented in just about any order. Here are a couple of examples of word orders that won’t
usually work in English (at least not with active verbs):
The discovery of the transfer of signals between cells earned the Nobel prize.
Even the direct object is not immune to idiomatic constructions. A very common idiom is
modeled after German syntax, the expression mít někoho/něco rád [have someone/some-
thing-ACC glad-NOM] ‘like someone/something’. Here is an example:
(10) Mám ráda čokoládu, naštěstí na mně není znát, kolik jí sním.
[Have glad-NOM chocolate-ACC, fortunately on me-LOC isn’t known, how-much-
ACC it-GEN eat.]
I like chocolate, and fortunately you can’t tell by looking at me how much of it I eat.
The verb mít ‘have’ appears in an idiomatic construction with the neuter singular short form
passive participle of verbs. The most common constructions of this type are mít (něco)
uděláno ‘have (something) done’, mít otevřeno/zavřeno ‘be open/closed (store or build-
ing)’, mít uklizeno ‘be done cleaning up’, mít zakázáno ‘be under orders not to, be for-
bidden to (do something)’.
(11) Pro mnoho žen je stále hlavním cílem mít doma za každou cenu uklizeno.
[For many-ACC women-GEN is still main goal-INST have at-home for any price-
ACC cleaned-ACC.]
Many women still see their most important goal as keeping the house clean at all
costs.
(12) Před Vánoci budou mít naše supermarkety otevřeno stejně jako loni 24 hodin denně.
[Before Christmas-INST will have our supermarkets-NOM opened-ACC same like
last-year 24-ACC hours-GEN daily.]
Just like last year our supermarkets will be open 24 hours a day before Christmas.
(13) Ale znáte děti, nejvíce je láká právě to, co mají zakázáno.
[But know children-ACC, most them-ACC attracts precisely that-NOM, what-NOM
have forbidden-ACC.]
But you know how children are, they are most attracted precisely by what they are
forbidden to do.
The verb dělat can also mean ‘work’, and it is possible to use it with the name of a profes-
sion expressed as ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION to say what kind of job a person has. Here is an
example that shows how this works:
(14) S tak výrazným talentem jsem se za celou dobu, co dělám trenéra, ještě nesetkal.
[With such remarkable talent-INST AUX self-ACC for all time-ACC, what-ACC
work trainer-ACC, still not-encountered.]
8 The Accusative Case
I’ve never before encountered such remarkable talent in all the time I’ve worked as
a trainer.
Bodily pain is usually expressed by saying that a body part hurts a person, marking the
person as ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION; thus the following example literally means ‘the tooth
hurt me’:
In Czech, ideas are said to fall upon people, who are the accusative direct objects of this
experience, conveyed by the verb napadat/napadnout ‘get an idea, occur to’ (literally ‘fall
on; attack’). Here are two examples of how this works:
(16) Pelikána bílého zná každý ze zoo a málokoho napadne, že ho může vidět i ve volné
přírodě.
[Pelican white-ACC knows everyone-NOM from zoo-GEN and hardly-anyone-
ACC falls-on, that it-ACC can see also in free nature-LOC.]
Everyone knows the while pelican from the zoo, and it hardly ever occurs to any-
one that one can see it in the wild too.
There is an unusual construction that has no subject, but uses ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION
following the verbs vidět ‘see’ and slyšet ‘hear’, as in Je vidět horu [Is see mountain-
ACC] ‘The mountain is visible’ or Je slyšet hudbu [Is hear music-ACC] ‘Music can be
heard’. The sense of the direct object is more potential than actual in these sentences (since
there is no mention of the person who actually does the seeing or hearing), and it is possible
to use NOMINATIVE:: AN IDENTITY instead (so one can alternatively say Je vidět hora or Je
slyšet hudba).
(18) Šeřilo se brzy, mraky se spojovaly a za chvíli nebylo vrcholky kopců vůbec vidět.
[Got-dark self-ACC early, clouds-NOM self-ACC joined and in while-ACC not-
was tops-ACC hills-GEN at-all see.]
It got dark early, the clouds came together and in a short time the hilltops could not
be seen.
(19) Nepodařilo se mu určit ani místo, ani směr, odkud bylo slyšet hudbu.
[Not-succeeded self-ACC him-DAT determine neither place-ACC, neither direc-
tion-ACC, from-where was hear music-ACC.]
He wasn’t able to determine the place or the direction from which the music was
heard.
9
Occasionally you will encounter ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION in the absence of any verb at all.
Many greetings are simply words marked with the accusative case, as in the table below.
Because these greetings are used so frequently, there is no need to repeat the entire sentence
they belong in, which would be Přeji Vám/Ti + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION [Wish you-DAT +
…-ACC] ‘I wish you a/the…’. The part that repeats is predictable, so it is deleted, and what
we have left is just the content of the wish, itself always accusative:
Greetings Using ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION
Dobrou chuť! ‘Bon appetit!’ Příjemnou zábavu! ‘Have a good time!’
Dobrou noc! ‘Good night!’ Šťastnou cestu! ‘Bon voyage!’
Dobré ráno/jitro! ‘Good morning!’ Šťastný Nový rok! ‘Happy New Year!’
Dobrý den! ‘Good day!’ Veselé Vánoce! ‘Merry Christmas!’
Dobrý večer! ‘Good evening!’ Všechno nejlepší! ‘All the best!’
(20) “Dobrou noc,” houkla svým hlubokým hlasem a otočila se ke mně zády.
[“Good night-ACC,” boomed own deep voice-INST and turned self-ACC to me-
DAT back-INST.]
“Good night,” she boomed in her deep voice and turned her back on me.
(21) Dobrý večer, vážení diváci, vítám vás v divadle Járy Cimrmana.
[Good evening-ACC, dear viewers-VOC, welcome you-ACC in theatre-LOC Jára
Cimrman-GEN.]
Good evening, dear viewers, I welcome you to the Jára Cimrman theatre.
The interjection na ‘here, take this…’ (not to be confused with the preposition na) is also
frequently followed by ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION even though there is no verb. Thus, if
someone wanted to help you up a steep path they might hold out their hand and say: Na,
ruku! ‘Here, take my hand!’.
place, and it is worth looking at all three of these systems as a group, since they do a lot of
work in Czech. One distinction is fairly easy to make: destinations that are human beings
always use the series of constructions that begins with k + DAT. When a destination is
understood as the upper surface of a solid object, the preposition will be na + ACC. When
the destination is understood as a container that is entered, the preposition is do + ACC.
However, most destinations are not people, the top surfaces of solids, or the interiors of
containers, and this is where the trouble begins. Non-human destinations are either “na
words” or they are “not na words” (meaning that they use do + GEN), and there is no easy
way to tell which is which (though there are some guidelines on how to identify the “na
words” in the chapter on the locative case). There is one thing you can count on: if you
know which preposition is used for an item that is a destination, then you will also know
what preposition is used for a location at the same item, as well as what preposition is used
for movement from that item. So, if you have a “na word”, movement to is na + ACC,
location at is na + LOC, and movement from is z + GEN. If what you have is not a “na
word”, movement to is do + GEN, location at is v + LOC, and movement from is z + GEN.
If your destination is a human being, movement to is k + DAT, location at is u + GEN, and
movement from is od + GEN. This table presents the systematic relationships of preposi-
tions, with pošta ‘post office’ serving as our example of a “na word”, škola ‘school’ as our
example of a non-“na word”, and lékař ‘doctor’ as our example of a human destination:
BEING AT A PLACE
“na words”: pošta non-“na words”: škola human beings: lékař
na + LOC v + LOC u + GEN
Dcera byla na poště. Děti byly ve škole. Otec byl u lékaře.
‘My daughter was at the post ‘The children were at school.’ ‘Father was at the doctor’s.’
office.’
(24) *Na opravenou kupoli věže chrámu svatého Víta se vrátil český lev.
[To renovated cupola-ACC tower-GEN cathedral-GEN St. Vitus-GEN self-ACC
returned Czech lion-NOM.]
The Czech lion has returned to the renovated cupola on the tower of St. Vitus’
cathedral.
Na + ACC is also used for all destinations that are “na words”, as we see in these examples:
(25) Jeli jsme na chalupu, udělali táborák, a náš pes si k němu přitáhl mrtvého králíka.
[Went AUX to cottage-ACC, made bonfire-ACC, and our dog-NOM self-DAT to
it-DAT dragged dead rabbit-ACC.]
We went to our cottage, made a bonfire, and our dog dragged a dead rabbit over to
it.
It doesn’t matter how short the “trip” is; movements over very small distances can occasion
the use of na + ACC, as we see in these examples:
Czechs have grammaticalized the notion of seeing as a kind of virtual journey, understood
as vision reaching out to places, using na + ACC with verbs like dívat se and koukat to
mean ‘look at, watch’, as we see in these sentences:
(29) Dívat se na dva dvacetileté vedoucí se za ruce je poněkud jiné než pohled na dva
šedesátníky, kteří činí totéž.
[Look self-ACC at two twenty-year-olds-ACC leading-ACC self-ACC by hands-
ACC is somewhat other-NOM than view-NOM on two sixty-year-olds-ACC, who-
NOM do the-same-ACC.]
Looking at two twenty-year-olds holding hands is somewhat different than seeing
two sixty-year-olds doing the same thing.
(30) Příští čtyři dni ji nečeká nic jiného, než tady sedět a koukat na televizi.
[Next four days-ACC her-ACC not-waits nothing-NOM other-GEN, than here sit
and look at television-ACC.]
12 The Accusative Case
For the next four days she’ll have nothing to do except to sit here and watch televi-
sion.
Many other kinds of actions can likewise be understood as being directed or focused toward
some item, and a variety of verbs indicating gestures, attention, expectation, and emotion
are commonly associated with na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION, as evidenced in this table:
The concept of being directed toward something can be carried over to the domain of time,
where we see various kinds of evidence of movement in time, as in phrases like odložit/
odkládat něco na zítřek [postpone something-ACC to tomorrow-ACC] ‘put something off
until tomorrow’, táhne na devátou [pulls to ninth-ACC] ‘it will soon be nine o’clock’, and
v noci na dnešek [in night-LOC to today-ACC] ‘last night (literally: in the night that led to
today)’. This logic also applies to the use of na + ACC in telling time, so čtvrt na pět
[quarter-NOM to five-ACC] ‘a quarter past four’ and tři čtvrtě na deset [three quarters-
NOM to ten-ACC] ‘a quarter to ten’ are conceptually motivated as meaning “one quarter
toward five” and “three quarters toward ten”. Parting greetings like Na shledanou!, Na
viděnou!, and Na slyšenou! (all of which can be used to say ‘Goodbye!’) depend on na’s
ability to refer to some future time when we will see or hear each other again. In some time
expressions na simply refers to a given time when something happens (rather than specify-
ing something upcoming), as in: na podzim [to autumn-ACC] ‘in autumn’, na den svatého
Jana [to day-ACC Saint John-GEN] ‘on Saint John’s day’, and na Velikonoce [to Easter-
ACC] ‘at Easter time’.
13
Movement in an direction can be interpreted as a reach toward something, and indeed the
verb sáhnout/sahat (usually pronounced šáhnout/šahat in CCz) ‘reach’ is regularly associ-
ated with na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION. If something is within reach, we can use the
expression být na dosah (ruky)/na dostřel [be to reach-ACC (hand-GEN)/to shooting-
range-ACC] ‘be in reach (arm’s length away)/in shooting range’. This notion of reach
can be applied in the visual domain, producing phrases like vidět (až) na dno [see (up-to) to
bottom-ACC] ‘see (all the way) to the bottom’. If you get rained on, your clothes might
get wet, but if you get caught in a downpour, you will ‘get drenched to the skin’, in Czech
promoknout na kůži [drench to skin-ACC]. Extremely bad financial management can also
‘lead someone to poverty’, přivést někoho na mizinu [lead someone-ACC to poverty-
ACC]. This notion of reaching an extreme limit motivates numerous phrases that can all be
understood as ‘an X on the verge of Y’, for example dům na spadnutí [house-NOM to
collapsing-ACC] ‘a house on the verge of collapse’ and člověk na smrt nemocný [person-
NOM to death-ACC sick-NOM] ‘a sick person on the verge of death’. Taken one step
further, we see utter completion of a trip in a metaphorical domain, as in shořet na prach/
popel [burn-up to dust/ash-ACC] ‘burn to the ground (so that nothing remains)’, and na
vlas stejný [to hair-ACC same-NOM] ‘perfectly identical (literally: the same down to a
hair)’, which can also be used as an adverb written as one word: navlas. Cooking and
coloring can also bring items to final states (here: softness and blackness) as their destina-
tions, as we see in the expressions vejce na měkko [eggs-NOM on soft-ACC] ‘soft-boiled
eggs’ (also written as one word: naměkko) and obarvit na černo [color on black-ACC]
‘color black’. The latter expression, na černo ‘illegally’ can be used idiomatically to de-
scribe shady operations on the black market. Here are some examples of various kinds of
metaphorical reaches:
(34) Kvido zdořile šeptem poděkoval a přesunul se blíže k jevišti, aby na písmena lépe
viděl.
[Guido-NOM politely whisper-INST thanked and moved self-ACC closer to stage-
DAT, so-that to letters-ACC better saw.]
Guido politely whispered his thanks and moved closer to the stage so that he could
see the letters better.
14 The Accusative Case
(35) Stánek, který si pronajal vietnamský obchodník, shořel na popel, nic se nepodařilo
zachránit.
[Stand-NOM, which-ACC self-DAT rented Vietnamese shopkeeper-NOM, burnt to
ash-ACC, nothing-NOM self-ACC not-managed save.]
The stand which the Vietnamese shopkeeper had rented burnt to the ground, noth-
ing could be saved.
People don’t go to destinations only in order to change their location; often there is some-
thing at that destination that they want, something that they go there for. This is certainly the
case when Czechs use phrases like jít na pivo/na houby [go for beer-ACC/for mushrooms-
ACC] ‘go for beer/go mushroom-hunting’. Many items are designated for certain pur-
poses, and this is also often expressed using na + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION, so kartáček na
zuby [brush-NOM for teeth-ACC] ‘toothbrush’ is literally a ‘brush for teeth’, and this
pattern is quite productive, yielding phrases like pytel na uhlí [sack-NOM for coal-ACC]
‘coal sack’, sklenice na víno [glass-NOM for wine-ACC] ‘wine-glass’, hon na lišku [chase-
NOM for fox-ACC] ‘fox hunt’, and šaty na všední den [clothes-NOM for everyday day-
ACC] ‘everyday clothes’. Just like English, if something is available for purchase, in Czech
we say it is na prodej [for sale-ACC] ‘for sale’, and if something is offered as a model, we
say na příklad [for example-ACC] ‘for example’. Also parallel with English is na svůj věk
[for own age-ACC] ‘for his/her age’, as in Je na svůj věk čilý [Is for own age-ACC agile-
NOM] ‘He’s agile for his age’.
(37) Na houby chodím na podzim v každé volné chvilce, ale musím říct, že je nerad jím.
[For mushrooms-ACC go on autumn-ACC in every free moment-LOC, but must
say, that them-ACC not-glad eat.]
I go mushroom-hunting every chance I get in the fall, but I have to say that I don’t
like eating them.
(38) U moře v každém případě musíte použít krém na opalování s vysokým ochranným
faktorem.
[At sea-GEN in every case-LOC must use lotion-ACC for tanning-ACC with high
protection factor-INST.]
At the sea you must always use sun-tan lotion with a high protection factor.
In designating purposes, na can indicate movement of the will to produce a desired effect.
Here we see ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION fleshed out as an object toward which an agent di-
rects its will, its sense of purpose. Usually this takes the form of somebody doing something
for something or somebody (or perhaps for a reason). This kind of ‘for’ is most commonly
expressed by the preposition na, though v, o, pro, and less frequently za are deployed for
this purpose. The stock phrase pít na zdraví někoho [drink for health-ACC someone-GEN]
‘drink to someone’s health’ demonstrates how na operates in the domain of purpose, and
here are some further examples:
(41) Československá obchodní banka poskytne Českým drahám úvěr 900 milionů korun
na nákup kolejových vozidel a na opravy tratí.
[Czechoslovak Commercial Bank-NOM provides Czech Railways-DAT loan-ACC
900 million crowns-GEN for purchase-ACC railroad cars-GEN and for repairs-
ACC rail-lines-GEN.]
The Czechoslovak Commercial Bank will provide the Czech Railways with a 900
million crown loan for the purchase of railroad cars and for repair of the rail lines.
When one attempts to do something, one is directing energies toward something, and na +
ACC can indicate various kinds of attempts, including attempts on someone’s life:
(43) Rusko předalo Spojeným státům složku bývalé sovětské tajné služby KGB o stále
ne zcela vysvětleném atentátu na prezidenta Kennedyho.
[Russian-NOM handed-over United States-DAT file-ACC former Soviet secret ser-
vice-GEN KGB about still not entirely explained assassination-attempt-LOC on
president Kennedy-ACC.]
Russia handed over to the United States a file of the former Soviet secret service
KGB about the assassination attempt on president Kennedy, which still hasn’t been
entirely explained.
druhou stranu [on other side-ACC] ‘on the other hand’ (but note in Czech this expres-
sion stands alone, it is not preceded by anything equivalent to English on the one hand), vzít
na vědomí [take to consciousness-ACC] ‘take into consideration’, přijít na něco [come on
something-ACC] ‘come to … (an idea/realization)’. The domains of emotions and inter-
personal relations exert their powers in phrases like mít vliv na někoho [have influence-
ACC on someone-ACC] ‘have an influence on someone’, mít/nechat si něco na památku
[have/leave self-DAT something-ACC to memory-ACC] ‘have/keep something as a me-
mento’, mít na někoho vztek [have on someone-ACC fury-ACC] ‘be furious with some-
one’, and vy-kašlat se na někoho/něco [cough self-ACC on someone/something-ACC]
‘not give a damn about someone/something’. In the sphere of decision making and mental
capacity we have the phrases vzít si něco na starost [take self-DAT something-ACC to care-
ACC] ‘take responsibility for something’, mít/být na vybranou [have/be to chosen-ACC]
‘have a choice’, and vědět jak na to [know how to that-ACC] ‘know how to do (some-
thing)’.
(45) Měli jsme na vybranou buď přijmout nižší životní úroveň v Londýně, nebo zůstat
na venkově.
[Had AUX to chosen-ACC either accept lower life level-ACC in London-LOC, or
stay at country-LOC.]
We had a choice between accepting a lower standard of living in London or staying
in the country.
(47) Herečka Lída Bárová neupadla v zapomenutí, přestože poslední film natočila v
roce 1956.
[Actress Lída Bárová-NOM not-fell into oblivion-ACC, in-spite-of-the-fact-that
last film-ACC wound in year-LOC 1956.]
The actress Lída Bárová has not fallen into oblivion, in spite of the fact that she
made her last film in 1956.
(48) Vyhláška o novém územním plánu vstoupí v platnost patrně až prvního ledna příštího
roku.
[Decree-NOM about new territorial plan-LOC enters into effect-ACC apparently
only first-GEN January-GEN next year-GEN.]
Apparently the decree about the new territorial plan will not go into effect until
January first of next year.
The direction of hopes and beliefs follows the same pattern, as we see with the verbs doufat
v ‘hope for’ and věřit v ‘believe in’. Also in the domain of mental activity, we can use the
idiom vzít/brát v úvahu [take into consideration-ACC] ‘take into consideration’. And
although the use of v in the domain of purpose is relatively rare, there one common phrase
that operates in this domain, ve prospěch [for benefit-ACC] ‘for the benefit of’, which is
of course followed by GENITIVE:: A WHOLE. Here are a few examples of v + ACCUSATIVE: A
DESTINATION in the domains of mental activity and purpose:
(52) V úvahu je třeba vzít také fakt, že kartáče v automatických myčkách na auto působí
značnou silou.
[Into consideration-ACC is necessary to take also fact-ACC, that brushes-NOM in
automatic washers-LOC for car-ACC operate considerable force-INST.]
It is also necessary to take into consideration the fact that the brushes in automatic
car washes operate with considerable force.
18 The Accusative Case
The bulk of v’s work is done in the domain of time, where it is the most common preposition
used to designate the temporal destinations of events that happen on given days and at given
hours of the day, answering the question Ve který den? [On what day-ACC?] ‘On what
day?’ and V kolik hodin? [At how-many-ACC hours-GEN?] ‘At what time?’. If we are
successful in our race with time, we are včas ‘on time’, an adverb likewise built on the
concept of the temporal destination. In comparison with English, this combination of events
with temporal destinations seems exotic, since we are accustomed to thinking of events as
taking place in temporal locations instead (we say on what day, not into what day and at
what time, not into what time). The presence of verbal aspect (perfective and imperfective
verbs) may play a major role in this conceptualization of the relationship between events
and times. In English we have merely verbs, indicating nothing more than mere action out
of context, whereas in Czech, verbs come complete with aspect, which organizes action
into events. It is as if action does not exist in the raw in Czech, but is always pre-packaged
as events, be they perfective or imperfective. These evets can be understood as metaphori-
cal objects capable of metaphorical movement, objects with an existence prior to the timeline,
which they then enter at given days and hours — their temporal destinations. Here are some
examples of how v + ACC is used in the domain of time:
(54) Havárie se stala v neděli v pět ráno v ulici V zálesí u zastávky městské hromadné
dopravy.
[Accident-NOM self-ACC happened on Sunday-ACC at five-ACC in-morning in
street-LOC V zálesí by stop-GEN municipal mass transit-GEN.]
The accident happened on Sunday at five in the morning on V zálesí street near a
municipal mass transit stop.
Here are a few examples to give you a feel for how this works:
(56) Bezpečnostní ventil na sporáku zajistí, aby děti nemohly omylem pustit plyn či se
popálit o rozžhavené plotýnky.
[Safety valve-NOM on stove-LOC ensures, that children-NOM not-could by-mis-
take turn-on gas-ACC or self-ACC burn against red-hot burners-ACC.]
The safety valve on the stove ensures that children could not turn on the gas by
accident or burn themselves on red-hot burners.
(57) Opírala se o bok dodávkového forda a nastavila obličej paprskům poledního slunce.
[Leaned self-ACC against side-ACC delivery Ford-GEN and set face-ACC rays-DAT
midday sun-GEN.]
She leaned against the side of the Ford truck and turned her face toward the rays of the
midday sun.
In the metaphorical spaces of human endeavors, o indicates items that people seek contact
with, whether by competing, requesting, or simply caring. Here is a list of verbs, followed
by some examples of metaphorical uses of o + ACC:
The construction jít o can be variously translated as ‘concern’, ‘be about’, or even just ‘be’,
as is the case in the following sentence:
(65) Dokument se zabývá vývojem ekologické situace v Čechách v období od roku 1990
po současnost.
[Document-NOM self-ACC concerns development-INST ecological situation-GEN
in Bohemia-LOC in period-LOC from year-GEN 1990 up-to present-time-ACC.]
The document is concerned with the development of the ecological situation in
Bohemia for the period from the year 1990 up to the present.
21
Idiomatically, we use po in the fixed phrases po prvé [for first-ACC] ‘for the first time’, po
druhé [for second-ACC] ‘for the second time’, etc., and po každé [for each-ACC] ‘each
time’ (these phrases can be written as one word: poprvé, podruhé, pokaždé), as we see in
these sentences:
(66) Teprve podruhé v historii Wimbledonu prohrál nasazený muž číslo dvě už v prvním
kole.
[Only for-second-ACC in history-LOC Wimbledon-GEN lost seeded man-NOM
number two-NOM already in first round-LOC.]
It was only the second time in the history of Wimbledon that the number two seeded
man lost in the first round.
(67) Postupně se vloupal do dvou vozů, pokaždé vytrhal kabely a chtěl odjet.
[Consecutively self-ACC broke-into do two cars-GEN, for-each-ACC tore-out
cables-ACC and wanted ride-off.]
He broke into two cars in a row, and each time he tore out the cables and wanted to
ride off.
(69) Armáda spásy provozuje v České Republice sedm azylových domů pro bezdomovce.
[Army-NOM salvation-GEN runs in Czech Republic-LOC seven-ACC asylum
homes-GEN for homeless-people-ACC.]
The Salvation Army runs seven shelters for the homeless in the Czech Republic.
(70) Darovali mu totiž mimo jiné staré rozbité rádio, které se podle jejich vlastních slov
mělo stát “indikátorem synova smyslu pro elektroniku”.
[Gave him-DAT you-see among other-ACC old broken radio-ACC, which-NOM
self-ACC according-to their own words-GEN had become “indicator-INST son’s
sense-GEN for electronics-ACC”.]
Well among other things, they gave him an old broken radio, which they themselves
said was supposed to be an “indicator of our son’s sense for electronics”.
Since things can be done for a reason, the concept of pro can be extended to the domain of
causation, where it means ‘because of’, as in this example:
22 The Accusative Case
(71) Pro jeho zatvrzelost, se kterou se pustí do řešení každého problému, mu přátelé
začali říkat buldok.
[Because-of his obstinacy-ACC, with which-INST self-ACC lets to solution-GEN
every problem-GEN, him-DAT friends-NOM started call bulldog-NOM.]
Because of the obstinacy with which he throws himself into the solution of every
problem, his friends started to call him a bulldog.
(76) Pro dokonalé vylisování vložte čerstvý květ asi na týden mezi stránky starého
telefonního seznamu nebo nějakého katalogu.
[For perfect pressing-GEN lay fresh flower-ACC about for week-ACC between
pages-ACC old telephone list-GEN or some catalog-GEN.]
To do a perfect pressing, lay a fresh flower for about a week between the pages of
an old telephone book or a catalog.
Of these five prepositions, za is the most frequent and most involved in various extensions
and special phrases. Sitting down is of course a movement toward a destination, motivating
23
(77) Měl jsem ho rovnou chytit za límec a nepustit, dokud vše po sobě neuklidí.
[Had AUX him-ACC right-away grab by collar-ACC and not-let-go, until every-
thing-ACC after self-LOC not-cleans-up.]
I should have grabbed him by the collar right away and not let him go until he
cleaned up everything after himself.
The placement of one item behind another is also characterisic of how we accomplish re-
placements and substitutions, so it is no surprise that za + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION turns up
here as well, most frequently with words indicating transactions and exchanges, as in these
two sentences:
(79) Dvacáté století zaplatilo velkou cenu za vyřešení několika historických otázek.
[Twentieth century-NOM paid large price-ACC for solution-ACC several histori-
cal questions-GEN.]
The twentieth century paid a high price for the solution to several historical ques-
tions.
When we can’t exchange money for goods, we might fight for what we want, and here
Czech also uses za + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION:
(80) Pražské matky byly první nezávislou organizací, která bojovala za čistější ovzduší
v hlavním městě.
[Prague mothers-NOM were first independent organization-INST, which-NOM
fought for cleaner air-ACC in capitol city-LOC.]
The Prague mothers were the first independent organization which fought for cleaner
air in the capitol city.
If one person replces another by stepping into their shoes and representing them, we get a
use of za + ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION translatable as on behalf of, or for, as in this sentence:
(81) Za stávkující studenty promluvil při prvním setkání zástupců Občanského fóra
Martin Mejstřík.
[For striking students-ACC spoke at first meeting-LOC representatives-GEN Civic
forum-GEN Martin Mejstřík-NOM.]
At the first meeting of representatives of Civic forum Martin Mejstřík spoke on
behalf of the striking students.
24 The Accusative Case
(83) Děti s lehkou mozkovou dysfunkcí nemohou za své často hyperaktivní chování.
[Children-NOM with mild brain dysfunction-INST cannot for their-ACC often hy-
peractive behavior-ACC.]
Children with mild brain dysfunction cannot help their often hyperactive behav-
ior.
We can mentally categorize people and objects by assigning them to given groups. In Czech
this is metaphorically accomplished by placing people behind designations, as evident in
phrases like pokládat/považovat někoho za + ACC ‘consider someone to be’, prohlásit/
prohlašovat někoho za + ACC ‘declare someone to be’, uznat/uznávat někoho za + ACC
‘recognize someone as’, as we see in these sentences:
Categorizations are essential to idiomatic phrases like jít za svědka [go behind witness-
ACC] ‘serve as a witness’, dát/přijmout za vzor [give/accept behind model-ACC] ‘give/
take as a model’, and vzít si za muže/ženu [take self-DAT behind husband-ACC/wife-
ACC] ‘take to be one’s husband/wife’:
(87) Přicházeli další a další mládenci, kteří si ji chtěli vzít za ženu, ale princezna všem
odpovídala stejně.
[Came more-NOM and more young-men-NOM, who-NOM self-DAT her-ACC
wanted take for wife-ACC, but princess-NOM everyone-DAT answered same.]
There came more and more young men who wanted to marry her, but the princess
gave everyone the same answer.
25
The preposition před ‘before’ is rarely extended to non-spatial uses, though it does appear
in reference to the domain of legal responsibility, parallel to our English concept of respon-
sibility before the law. Here is an example:
(88) Podle důvěryhodných zdrojů bude brzy předvolán před soud a obviněn z korupce a
padělání účetních knih.
[According-to trustworthy sources-GEN will-be soon summoned-NOM before court-
ACC and accused-NOM from corruption-GEN and falsification-GEN accounting
books-GEN.]
According to trustworthy sources, he will soon be summoned to court and accused
of corruption and falsification of accounting books.
When the preposition nad ‘above’ is extended to non-spatial uses, it generally refers to
something that exceeds a limit set by the item marked ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION, as in the
title of a popular fairy tale, Sůl nad zlato [salt above gold-ACC] ‘Salt is more precious than
gold’. Other typical expressions include: to je nad lidské síly [that-NOM is above human
strengths-ACC] ‘that exceeds human strength’, je to nad můj rozum [is that-NOM above
my understanding-ACC] ‘that’s beyond my understanding’, není nad upřímnost [not-is
above honesty-ACC] ‘nothing’s better than honesty’, je nad slunce jasnější [is above sun-
ACC brighter-NOM] ‘it’s brighter than the sun’, nade vší pochybnosti [above all doubts-
ACC] ‘beyond a doubt’.
(89) Stovky hodin ročně odslouží lékaři v Česku nad rámec svého úvazku.
[Hundreds-ACC hours-GEN yearly serve doctors-NOM in Czech-lands-LOC above
scope-ACC own duty-GEN.]
Every year doctors in the Czech lands serve hundreds of hours beyond the scope of
their duty.
The preposition pod ‘under’ is active in the domains of jurisdiction and quantity, both of
which are paralleled by uses of English under, as demonstrated in these examples:
(90) Pod kompetenci členských států spadají rozhodnutí v oblasti mzdové politiky.
[Under jurisdiction-ACC member states-GEN fall decisions-NOM in area-LOC
wage policies-GEN.]
Decisions in the area of wage policies fall under the jurisdiction of the member
states.
(91) Počítejte s tím, že pod sto šilinků oběd či večeři v Rakousku nepořídíte.
[Count with that-INST, that under hundred-ACC shillings-GEN lunch-ACC or din-
ner-ACC in Austria-LOC not-buy.]
You can be sure that you won’t be able to buy lunch or dinner in Austria for under
one hundred shillings.
When extended beyond spatial uses, mezi ‘between’ most frequently refers to the domain of
relationships, as illustrated in this sentence:
26 The Accusative Case
(92) Je v našem zájmu přát ruskému národu co nejrychlejší integraci mezi ostatní
evropské národy.
[Is in our interest-LOC wish Russian nation-DAT EMPH swiftest integration-ACC
among other European nations-ACC.]
It is in our interests to wish the Russian nation the swiftest possible integration with
other European nations.
The use of mimo can be extended to describe non-spatial domains that do not contain an
item, as in phrases like: je mimo nebezpečí [is outside-of danger-ACC] ‘s/he’s out of dan-
ger’, to je mimo diskusi [that-NOM is outside-of discussion-ACC] ‘that’s beyond the scope
of the discussion’. In the domain of time, mimo describes a time when something does not
happen, and corresponds best to English except, as in this example:
When used to describe motion through physical space, přes ‘across’ indicates that some-
thing has reached the opposite side of an item, as in this sentence:
In the domain of time, přes describes a limit that is exceeded, generally in terms of how
long something lasts or how old someone is, as in this sentence:
27
This use of přes to identify a temporal limit has been conventionalized in the adverb přesčas
‘overtime’. Přes can also be used to express competition in the metaphorical construction
jeden přes druhého [one-NOM across another-ACC] ‘each one [more] than the other, as
we see in this sentence:
(97) Skini házeli po policistech kameny a láhve a jeden přes druhého skandovali rasistická
hesla.
[Skinheads-NOM threw at policemen-LOC rocks-ACC and bottles-ACC and one-
NOM across other-ACC chanted racist slogans-ACC.]
The skinheads threw rocks and bottles at the policemen and chanted racist slogans,
each one louder than the other.
Like mimo and přes, ob describes passing something, but with the added meaning that the
item passed is actually skipped in order to proceed to the next item in a series. The best way
to render the meaning of this word in English is with the phrase every other. Here is an
example to demonstrate how this works:
(98) Celý rukopis byl číslován ob stránku, takže v nakladatelství došlo k chybnému
řazení obrázků k příslušným textům.
[Whole manuscript-NOM was numbered-NOM against page-ACC, so in publish-
ing-house-LOC happened to wrong arrangement-DAT pictures-GEN to appropriate
text-DAT.]
The whole manuscript had been numbered only on every other page, so there was
an error in arranging the pictures with the corresponding text at the publishing house.
Ob can be extended to the domain of time, where it indicates an interval of time that is
commonly skipped between two events in a series. The next example illustrates ob den
[every-other day-ACC] , written here as a prepositional phrase; this collocation can also
appear written as one word, obden ‘every other day’, which behaves like an adverb.
(99) Manžel ob den zajede pro nákup a já musím vymyslet, jak všechny nakrmit.
[Husband-NOM against day-ACC goes for shopping-ACC and I-NOM must think,
how everyone-ACC feed.]
My husband does the shopping every other day, and I have to think about how to
feed everyone.
28 The Accusative Case
(100) Obdivuhodná jízda šlapacím autíčkem se podařila muži, který ujel šest set kilometrů
z Mnichova do Drážďan.
[Remarkable trip-NOM pedal car-INST self-ACC succeeded man-DAT, who-NOM
rode six-ACC hundred-GEN kilometers-GEN from Munich-GEN to Dresden-GEN.]
A remarkable pedal car trip was completed by a man who rode six hundred miles
from Munich to Dresden.
(101) Státní delegace uctila ve Varšavě památku židovských bojovníků, kteří téměř měsíc
vzdorovali německým okupantům.
[State delegation-NOM honored in Warsaw-LOC memory-ACC Jewish fighters-
GEN, who-NOM nearly month-ACC defied German invaders-DAT.]
In Warsaw the state delegation honored the memory of the Jewish fighters who
defied the German invaders for nearly a month.
(102) Přiznám se k tomu, že mě nebavilo chodit na povinné schůze a sedět tam celou
hodinu.
[Admit self-ACC to that-DAT, that me-ACC not-pleased go to mandatory meet-
ings-ACC and sit there whole hour-ACC.]
I admit that I didn’t like going to mandatory meetings and sitting there for a whole
hour.
A variety of prepositions are employed with ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION to indicate the units of
measurement or the domains for which something is valid: na, za, po, skrz, and přes, each
of which will be discussed in turn below.
29
The most versatile preposition used for identifying relevant domains is na ‚which might be
variously translated as ‘to, in, for, by, in, on, at, from’. Perhaps its most basic use involves
units of measurement in constructions such as: vážit něco na kila [weigh something-ACC
in kilos-ACC] ‘weigh something in kilos’, prodávat něco na metry/na váhu [sell some-
thing-ACC by meters-ACC/by weight-ACC] ‘sell something by the meter/by weight’, šít
něco na míru [sew something-ACC to measure-ACC] ‘sew something to measure’, práce
na týden [work-NOM for week-ACC] ‘a week’s worth of work’. Thus kilos are the units of
the domain relevant for weighing, meters and weight are the domains of measurement used
for selling goods, measurements provide the domain for sewing, and the time period of one
week is the domain that explains how much work there is. Here are some authentic ex-
amples of how phrases like this are used:
(103) Zákon o podnikání právnických osob byl “šitý na míru” podnikání malých firem.
[Law-NOM about business-activities-LOC legal persons-GEN was “sewn-NOM
on measure-ACC” business-activities-DAT small companies-GEN.]
The law about the business activities of legal persons was tailored to the business
activities of small companies.
(104) Měl jsem práci na týden a kvůli dvoudenní dovolené jsem musel pracovat i po
večerech.
[Had AUX work-ACC for week-ACC and due-to two-day holiday-DAT AUX had
work also during evenings-LOC.]
I had a week’s worth of work and due to the two-day holiday I had to work in the
evenings too.
An idiom that works this way is běžet na plné obrátky [run on full revolutions-ACC] ‘run
at full speed’.
Units of measurement reperesent series of items, and na can be used to indicate other
kinds of serialized domains, such as the mathematical series of numbers taken to various
exponents, the serializing of payments or chapters into installments, and the serializing of
actions that can be done two or more times, as we see in these examples:
(105) Matematický výraz a krát a můžeme vyjádřit jako a na druhou, zapsáno a2.
[Mathematical expression-ACC a times a can state as a to second-ACC, written-
NOM a2.]
We can state the mathematical expression a times a as a to the second power,
written as a2.
(107) Jana Svobodová vydává třetí část románu na pokračování o životě císaře Ferdinanda
I. Štaufského.
[Jana Svobodová-NOM publishes third part-ACC novel-GEN to continuation-ACC
about life-LOC emporer Ferdinand I. Štaufský-GEN.]
Jana Svobodová is publishing the third part of her serialized novel about the life of
emporer Ferdinand I. Štaufský.
(108) Těsto můžete použít na dvakrát, stačí uložíte-li nepoužitou část těsta v pevně
uzavřené nádobě do chladničky.
[Dough-ACC can use to twice, is-enough put-whether unused part-ACC dough-
GEN in firmly closed container-LOC to refrigerator-GEN.]
You can use the dough twice, all you have to do is to put the unused part of the
dough into a firmly closed container in the refrigerator.
The human body provides various domains where characteristics can be realized, such as:
slepý na jedno oko [blind in one eye-ACC] ‘blind in one eye’, kulhat na levou nohu [limp
on left leg-ACC] ‘limp on the left leg’, nemocný na plíce [sick on the lungs-ACC] ‘sick in
the lungs’, nastydnout na ledviny [catch-cold on kidneys-ACC] ‘get chilled in the kid-
neys’, je mi zima na nohy [is me-DAT cold-NOM on legs-ACC] ‘my legs are cold’, padlý
na rozum [fallen on reason-ACC] ‘out of his mind’, vidět na vlastní oči [see on own eyes-
ACC] ‘see with one’s own eyes’, hezký na pohled [pretty on appearance-ACC] ‘pretty to
look at’. Here are some representative examples:
(109) Při chůzi nepatrně kulhal na levou nohu, a když stál na jedné noze, trochu se
předkláněl dopředu.
[At walk-LOC slightly limped on left leg-ACC, and when stood on one leg-LOC, a-
little self-ACC leaned forward.]
When walking he limped slightly on his left leg, and when he stood on one leg, he
leaned forward a bit.
(111) Policie hledá svědky, kteří na vlastní oči viděli dopravní nehodu, která se stala včera
na křižovatce ulic Moskevská a Slovinská.
[Police-NOM looks witnesses-ACC, who-NOM on own eyes-ACC saw traffic ac-
cident-ACC, which-NOM self-ACC happened yesterday at intersection-LOC streets-
GEN Moskevská-NOM and Slovinská-NOM.]
The police are looking for eye-witnesses to the traffic accident that took place yes-
terday at the intersection of Moskevská and Slovinská streets.
In combination with adjectives (usually accompanied by the word příliš ‘too, excessively’),
na can mean ‘too X for Y’, as in this example where the pants are ‘too big for me’:
31
(112) I prodavač nesměle naznačoval mé matce, že ty kalhoty jsou na mě příliš velké, ale
ona jako by neslyšela.
[Even salesman-NOM gingerly hinted my mother-DAT, that those pants-NOM are
for me-ACC too big-NOM, but she-NOM like AUX not-heard.]
Even the salesman gingerly hinted to my mother that those pants were too big for
me, but she acted like she didn’t hear.
The verb hrát ‘play’ can be applied to various domains. When music is involved, na + ACC
identifies the instrument that is played; in conjuction with si, hrát describes imaginative
play, and na + ACC tells us the domain of imaginative characters that is targeted in play.
Here is one example of each use of hrát with na:
(115) Na rozkaz prezidenta může být armáda uvedena do stavu bojové pohotovosti.
[At order-ACC president-GEN can be army-NOM led-NOM to state-GEN battle
readiness-GEN.]
The army can be put in a state of battle readiness at the president’s order.
Diseases are the most common cause of death, and na + ACC is commonly used to mark
causality in this way, in phrases such as zemřít na infarkt/rakovinu [die on heart-attack-
ACC/cancer-ACC] ‘die from a heart attack/cancer’. Here is an example of this usage:
(117) Američanovi nepomohl ani rychlý převoz do nemocnice, kde skonal na krvácení
do mozku.
[American-DAT not-helped even rapid transportation-ACC to hospital-GEN, where
died on hemorrhage-ACC to brain-GEN.]
Not even rapid transportation to the hospital could help the American who died
there from a brain hemorrhage.
The idea of cause-and-effect evokes a transaction, where one item triggers another. There
are numerous give-and-take transactions that play on a similar theme and also use na +
ACC, such as: na stvrzenku [on receipt-ACC] ‘in exchange for a receipt’, na kauci [on
bail-ACC] ‘on bail’, na zástavu [on security-ACC] ‘on security (of)’. The following two
sentences illustrate give-and-take transactions, where the items offered in order to achieve
a goal (the receipt needed to return something at a store, or the bail needed to get out of jail)
are marked by na + ACC:
(119) Žádost jednoho z Francouzů, aby byl propuštěn na kauci dvou milionů korun,
nedávno městský soud zamítl.
[Request-ACC one-GEN of Frenchmen-GEN, so-that was released-NOM on bail-
ACC two million crowns-GEN, recently municipal court-NOM rejected.]
The municipal court recently rejected the request of one of the Frenchmen that he be
released on a bail of two million crowns.
The preposition za continues the theme of exchange, and can be used to express ratios, for
example, how many units of distance can be traveled in a given time, where the time ap-
pears as za + ACC, best translated as ‘per’. Here a number of units in one domain (time in
this example) corresponds to a number of units in another domain (distance):
(120) Po dokončení koridoru Praha-Břeclav budou České dráhy dosahovat vyšší traťové
rychlosti, počítá se až se 160 km za hodinu.
[After completion-LOC corridor-GEN Prague-Břeclav-NOM will Czech railways-
NOM attain higher rail speed-GEN, counts self-ACC up-to with 160 km-INST for
hour-ACC.]
After the completion of the Prague-Břeclav corridor, the Czech railways will attain
a higher rail speed, expected to go as high as 160 km per hour.
Other kinds of measures can be accumulated over time as well, as we see in this example,
where economic indicators are measured for the duration of a month:
33
(121) Obchodní bilance České Republiky vykázala za srpen schodek 15,6 miliardy korun.
[Trade balance-NOM Czech Republic-GEN showed for August-ACC deficit-ACC
15.6 billion crowns-GEN.]
The trade balance for the Czech Republic for August showed a deficit of 15.6 bil-
lion crowns.
The preposition za can also refer to a period of time that must be completed before some-
thing can take place, as in this sentence, where a century must pass before UN representa-
tives can be directly elected:
(122) Václav Havel navrhl, že za sto let by mohlo existovat jakési shromáždění OSN,
přímo volené všemi obyvateli zeměkoule.
[Václav Havel-NOM suggested, that in hundred-ACC years-GEN would could
exist some-sort-of assembly-NOM UN-GEN, directly elected-NOM all inhabitants-
INST globe-GEN.]
Václav Havel suggested that in a hundred years there might exist an assembly of
the UN directly elected by all the globe’s inhabitants.
Like za, the preposition po is frequently used in the domain of time to describe durations,
temporal dimensions that are filled with an activity. In the following two examples, the
duration of a trip is filled with laughter, and the duration of years is filled with puppetry:
(124) V Praze zemřel Luboš Homola, který po léta vodil loutku Špejbla.
[In Prague-LOC died Luboš Homola-NOM, who-NOM during years-ACC led mari-
onette Špejbl-ACC.]
Luboš Homola, who for years performed with the marionette Špejbl, has died in
Prague.
When a dimension has to be negotiated, it can serve as a barrier through which an item
moves, and Czech uses the preposition skrz ‘through’ to describe this sort of interaction
with an intervening object. Physical motion through space can be described this way, as in
expressions like jít skrz les [walk through forest-ACC] ‘walk through the forest’, or the
popular tongue-twister Strč prst skrz krk! [Stick finger-ACC through neck-ACC!] ‘Stick
your finger through your neck!’. Visual voyages can also involve barriers or intervening
objects, as in phrases like dívat se na někoho skrz prsty [look self-ACC on someone-ACC
through fingers-ACC] ‘look at someone through one’s fingers’, and dívat se na něco skrz
brýle/lupu [look self-ACC on something-ACC through glasses-ACC/magnifying glass-
ACC] ‘look at something through one’s glasses/a magnifying glass’. The next two ex-
amples describe a metaphorical journey through the legal domain and a visual journey reach-
ing from a hunter’s eyes to his prey:
34 The Accusative Case
(125) Právníci to nemají lehké, k jejich profesi patří prodírat se skrz houštiny zákonů, z
nichž některé si dokonce protiřečí.
[Lawyers-NOM that-ACC not-have easy-ACC, to their profession-DAT belongs
force-way self-ACC through thickets-ACC laws-GEN, from which-GEN some-
NOM self-DAT even contradict.]
Lawyers don’t have it easy, their profession entails forcing one’s way through thickets
of laws, some of which are even contradictory.
When an item is traversed but not actually penetrated, we use the preposition přes ‘(all)
across’ to indicate that the expanse of a domain is affected by an activity. This preposition
frequently appears when some kind of punishment is delivered to a body part, as in the
common phrase dostat přes ruku [get across hand-ACC] ‘get slapped on the hand’. Here
is an example containing a variation on this theme:
(127) Když si bral již čtvrtý kousek dortu, matka nevydržela a plácla svého cvalíka přes
ruku.
[When self-DAT took already fourth piece-ACC cake-GEN, mother-NOM not-re-
sisted and slapped own tubby-boy-ACC across hand-ACC.]
When he took a fourth piece of cake, mother couldn’t hold off any longer and slapped
her tubby boy’s hand.
The accusative case comes in handy for describing costs, comparisons, and approxima-
tions. Cost is a dimension that is fully engaged (since the full price must be paid), and
similarly, comparisons and approximations require measurement along a domain, rather
than a mere endpoint.
Like distance and duration, cost can be measured without any preposition at all, and the
verb stát ‘cost’ typically appears with the amount marked in the bare accusative case, as in
these two examples:
(129) Nový dům stál Pospíšilovy balík peněz, ale štěstí v něm stejně nenašli.
[New house-NOM cost Pospíšil-family-ACC package-ACC money-GEN, but hap-
piness-ACC in it-LOC still not-found.]
The new house cost the Pospíšil family a heap of money, but they didn’t find happi-
ness in it anyhow.
We can use the same preposition in the domain of time to describe events that are shifted
from one place to another along the timeline, whether forward or backward. Thus, if an
event actually took place a day earlier than expected, one could say that it happened o den
dříve [by day-ACC earlier] ‘a day earlier’. Postponement, which moves planned events in
the opposite direction along the timeline, also uses the preposition o, as in this sentence:
The preposition o ‘by’ can operate in the metaphorical spaces created by scales and mea-
sures, where it describes the amount by which given measurements differ, such as when a
phenomenon increases or decreases. In this example, the amount of criminal activity rises,
and o marks the amount by which the new measurement differs from the previous one:
Two prepositions, mimo and přes, can be used to mean ‘in spite of’. Here the item marked
as ACCUSATIVE:: A DIMENSION has some essential mass, something that must be reckoned with,
a dimension to deal with. One has to overcome this entity in order to arrive at a contrary
outcome, and this implies a comparison between the accusative entity and the actual result.
For mimo ‘in spite of’, the most typical domain is that of anticipation, with the common
phrase mimo očekávání [in-spite-of expectation-ACC] ‘in spite of/contrary to expecta-
tion’, which appears in this example:
The preposition přes ‘in spite of’ tends to operate in domains of limiting factors and prohi-
bitions, motivating uses like přes své stáří je čilý [in-spite-of own age-ACC is agile-NOM]
‘he’s agile in spite of his age’, and přes zákaz [in-spite-of prohibition-ACC] ‘in spite/
defiance of the prohibition’. The prepositional phrase přes to [in-spite-of that-ACC] ‘in
spite of that/anyway’ can also be written as one word: přesto, and can be enlarged in the
phrase přesto přese všecko ‘for all that’. Here is an example of how přes is used:
(135) I přes zákaz používat mobilní telefon při řízení motorového vozidla je stále mnoho
řidičů, kteří telefonují za jízdy
.
[Even in-spite-of prohibition-ACC use mobile telephone-ACC during driving-LOC
motor vehicle-GEN is still many-NOM drivers-GEN, who-NOM telephone during
ride-GEN.]
In spite of the prohibition on using mobile telephones while driving motor ve-
hicles, there are still many people who make telephone calls while driving.
(137) Týden lyžování v Rakousku vás v hlavní sezóně přijde až na deset tisíc.
[Week-NOM skiing-GEN in Austria-LOC you-ACC in main season-LOC comes
up-to approximately ten-ACC thousand-GEN.]
37
A week of skiing in Austria during the peak season will run you up to about ten
thousand.
EPILOGUE
The word accusative is not very helpful in summing up this case, although you can think of
the parallel between the force of an accusation being released upon the accused and the
force of a verb being released upon an object. Accusation is indeed one kind of directed
activity, and the accusative case is all about directed activity, particularly motion. Directed
motion occupies a prominent place in the linguistic imagination of Czechs, and they make
a much crisper distinction between motion and location than we do in English. It doesn’t
matter how short the trip is: even the travel of our backside to a seat or the travel of a book
to the place we lay it on our night table is described as a movement with a destination. Just
looking at something constitutes a visual voyage. Our understanding of time is patterned
after how we perceive space, motivating the conclusion that if a journey has a spatial desti-
nation, then an event has a temporal destination as well. Change to a new state is compre-
hended as movement to a new location. Although one may merely go to a destination,
alternatively one may also travel through a dimension, measuring and comparing the extent
of phenomena in a variety of domains. The accusative case gets us through difficulties, past
obstacles, all the way to our ultimate goals.
2 The Vocative Case
Feminine
declension
nouns
Masculine
declension
nouns
Neuter
declension
nouns
Adjectives
Pronouns
Possessives
Numerals
Vocative: a call 3
VOCATIVE: V A CALL
PROLOGUE
The vocative is by far the simplest case in Czech. It has only one meaning and is not
associated with any prepositions, verbs or other “trigger words”. In fact many people will
argue that the vocative doesn’t even deserve to be called a case at all because it doesn’t
participate in the formation of sentences, but rather stands at the edge of sentences, offset
from actual sentences by a comma. This is because all the other cases give us information
about the relationship of the words they mark to other elements in a sentence (for example,
the nominative case can tell us that an item is the subject of a verb, the genitive can tell us
that one item is a whole of which another item forms a part, the dative can tell us that an
item is an indirect object, the accusative can tell us that an item is a direct object, the loca-
tive can provide adverbial information about the setting of an event, and the instrumental
can tell us about the means used to bring an event about). The vocative doesn’t give us any
information about grammatical relationships of this kind, because its purpose is entirely
pragmatic — it tells us instead about the relationship of the person speaking to someone
else. The purpose of the vocative case is precisely to let someone know that the speaker is
talking to them rather than about them, and its meaning adds up to nothing more than ‘Hey,
you!’. Because calling someone by their name and stating the name of a person or thing are
very similar actions, the vocative can be replaced by NOMINATIVE: A NAME, as mentioned in
the chapter on the nominative case. Thus even in its sole and minimal meaning, the vocative
is dispensable, since the nominative can stand in for it.
VOCATIVE: A CALL
Since the vocative is not a part of a sentence, it often stands
alone, when people call each other’s names to greet them or get
their attention, as in this example: V
(1) “Jiříku!”, uvítala mě maminka.
[“Jiřík-VOC!”, greeted me-ACC mother-NOM.]
VOCATIVE: A CALL
“Jiřík!”, my mother greeted me.
(circle labeled V)
If a person has a messge to deliver after getting someone’s attention, they can insert a brief
pause (signalled by a comma) to separate the vocative form from the sentence that contains
the message, as in this example:
(2) Maminko a tatínku, ať už to mám za sebou, klidně mně můžete nasekat na zadek.
[Mom-VOC and Dad-VOC, may-it-be already that-ACC have behind self-ACC,
4 The Vocative Case
Although the vast majority of vocative forms you are likely to hear or read will involve
names for people, it is entirely possible to create and use vocative forms for nouns that
designate inanimate objects, as evidenced in this sentence, where the writer offers advice to
the World Bank:
You might have noticed that the vocative case has no plural forms. When groups of people
are addressed, as in Vážené dámy a pánové! [Esteemed ladies-NOM and gentlemen-NOM!]
‘Ladies and gentlemen!’, the nominative case forms must be used, even though the context
is expressly vocative. Here is an example of how a plural nominative form is obliged to take
on vocative function:
(4) Vážení posluchači, mám tu čest přivítat mezi námi nám tak vzácného hosta — pana
prezidenta Václava Havla.
[Esteemed listeners-NOM, have that honor-ACC welcome among us-INST us-DAT
such precious guest-ACC — Mr. president Václav Havel-ACC.]
Dear listeners, I have the honor of welcoming a guest who is very special to us —
president Václav Havel.
EPILOGUE
The vocative case is so named because it is merely a vocalization used to evoke a reac-
tion (and the three words vocative, vocal, and evoke are all related to each other through a
common root). The vocative is a defective case both grammatically (it doesn’t refer to any
grammatical relationships at all, unlike other cases) and formally (it doesn’t have any plural
forms and can be replaced by the nominative). But the vocative is very handy for getting
people’s attention, and you’ll never get through a day in the Czech Republic without hear-
ing it many times over. It’s a ubiquitous yet very simple part of Czech that stems from our
human need for verbal interaction, since there’s no point in talking to someone unless you
can get their attention.
Vocative: a call 5
2 The Locative Case
Feminine
declension
nouns
Masculine
declension
nouns
Neuter
declension
nouns
Adjectives
Pronouns
Possessives
Numerals
Locative: a place 3
L
LOCATIVE: A PLACE
PROLOGUE
LOCATIVE: A PLACE is a setting, locating an item in space, time, or a metaphorical domain.
The locative is the only case in Czech that always requires a preposition, and is therefore
sometimes called the “prepositional case”. Five prepositions are associated with LOCATIVE:
A PLACE: na ‘on; at’, v ‘in’, při ‘by, near; during; with’, o ‘about; leaning on; during; with’,
and po ‘after; along, around; for; each’. The meanings of these prepositions are based on
human experience of physical location in the domain of our three-dimensional environ-
ment. However, all of these prepositions are active in other domains, such as time, states of
being, and quantification. We will look at each preposition in turn and discuss how LOCA-
TIVE: A PLACE weaves its web of meaning.
(2) Chlapec stojí na židli, jako stál prve na podlaze, a pozoruje střechy a věže města.
[Little-boy stands on chair-LOC, like stood at-first on floor-LOC, and observes
roofs-ACC and towers-ACC city-GEN.]
The little boy stands on the chair just as he stood before on the floor and observes
the roofs and towers of the city.
Since attachment is something that happens on a surface, na + LOCATIVE: A PLACE can also be
used to express an attachment or connection to something; notice that English ‘on’ shares
this capacity in these examples and their translations below:
(4) Téměř každý návštěvník si z pouti na provázku odnáší balónek plněný plynem.
[Almost every visitor-NOM self-DAT from fair-GEN on string-LOC takes bal-
loon-ACC filled-ACC gas-GEN.]
Almost every visitor takes home from the fair a helium balloon on a string.
The vast majority of locations in Czech are signalled by either na + LOC or v + LOC, but
this distinction does not correlate to our distinction in English between on, at, and in, except
when we are dealing with locations that are obviously surfaces (requiring na) or containers
(requiring v). Unfortunately many locations are neither surfaces nor containers, and stu-
dents are usually told that they will just have to memorize all the “na-words” in Czech.
While it is true that there are no solid rules you can rely on to predict the use of na vs. v with
100% accuracy, we can offer some generalizations that work pretty well, and point out
some glaring exceptions to watch out for.
Locations that can be thought of as surfaces, like islands and mountain ranges tend to use na
+ LOC. Locations that are regions or are associated with the countryside are not thought of
as having tightly defined boundaries, and are used with na + LOC. The suffix -iště forms
neuter nouns describing locations that are conceived of as surfaces, and all words with this
suffix use na + LOC, as do points of embarkation for travel and all sorts of generalized
locations lacking firm boundaries, like the points on a compass. Certain significant build-
ings and locations relating to administration, trade, and education use na + LOC. Na + LOC
is also the norm for most organized events and many significant time junctures as well. The
table below provides a representative sample of “na-words” of these types, plus important
exceptions that use v + LOC instead. It is followed by examples to illustrate each grouping
of “na-words”.
Locative: a place 5
(7) “Moji chlapi” si zajezdili na horských kolech z půjčovny hotelu, já jsem si raději
poležela na sluníčku.
[“My boys-NOM” self-DAT rode on mountain bikes-LOC from rental-office-GEN
hotel-GEN, I-NOM AUX self-DAT rather lay on sun-LOC.]
“My boys” went for a ride on mountain bikes from the hotel rental office, but I
instead lay around in the sun.
Locative: a place 7
(10) Ono je lepší sedět na voze a přitom jet než sedět někde na mezi a přitom být pořád
na jednom místě.
[It-NOM is better-NOM sit on vehicle-LOC and at-the-same-time ride than sit some-
where on boundary-LOC and at-the-same-time be still on one place-LOC.]
It is better to sit in a vehicle and be riding than to sit somewhere on a boundary and
just be in one place.
Cities and countries are thought of as bounded spaces and therefore as metaphorical con-
tainers (remember that both city limits and country borders have been associated with walls
in the past), so cities and countries are not “na-words”; they use v + LOC. Whereas most
cities, and countries use v + locative: a place, some use na: na Buchlově ‘in Buchlov’, na
Kladně ‘in Kladno’, na Dobříši ‘in Dobříš’, na Moravě ‘in Moravia’, na Slovensku ‘in
Slovakia’, na Ukrajině ‘in Ukraine’, na Smíchově ‘in Smíchov’, na Hradčanech ‘on the
Castle grounds’, na Zvíkově ‘in Zvíkov’, na Hané ‘in Haná’. Balconies and attics use na:
na balkóně ‘on the balcony’, na půdě ‘in the attic’. Here are some others that are hard to
explain, but happen to correspond to English ‘on’: na poradě ‘on the agenda’, na cestě ‘on
the way’, na rohu ‘on the corner’.
Na + LOC is also evident in metaphorical uses, where we see that the notion of placement
on a surface is extended to other domains. Buildings stand on foundations fashioned from
stone, and metphorically ideologies stand on conceptual foundations. Events can be under-
stood as consisting of a beginning, middle, and end, each understood as an open spaces
where people experiencing an event may be located. Here are examples of the metaphorical
extension of na + LOC:
Although the vast majority of words designating locations can be used only with na or only
with v, there are a few words that can be used with both prepositions. These words can be
grouped in two categories: for one set of words, the use of na or v seems to make no
discernable difference in the meaning of the phrase; for the second set, although both prepo-
sitions are used, phrases with na are associated with a different meaning than correlated
phrases with v. We will look at each set of words in turn, starting with those that do not show
any significant difference in meaning with the two prepositions, a situation known as “free
variation”.
Words that can use both na and v without Significant Difference in Meaning
na/v horách ‘in the mountains’ na/v poli ‘in the field’
na/v zahradě ‘in the garden’ na/v okrese ‘in the district/county’
na/v koleji ‘in the dormitory’ na/v podniku ‘in the company/at t he
business’
na/ve dvoře ‘in the courtyard’ na/ve vrátnici ‘at the doorman’s post’
na/v závodě ‘at/in the factory’
The following pairs of examples illustrate the synomymous meaning characteristic of “free
variation” for three of these words: na/v horách ‘in the mountains’, na/v zahradě ‘in the
garden’, and na/ve vrátnici ‘at the doorman’s post’. Czechs generally agree that na and v
are interchangeable in these kinds of sentences.
(14) Pamatuji si i na dobrý časy, když jsme bydleli na horách, a na ty špatný se snažím
zapomenout. (CCz)
[Remember self-DAT also on good times-ACC, when AUX lived on mountains-
LOC, an on those bad-ACC self-ACC try forget.]
I remember the good times too, when we lived in the mountains, and I try to forget
the bad ones.
(15) V horách se pohybuji velmi nejistě, zimní radovánky a lyže mi nic neříkají.
[In mountains-LOC self-ACC move very uncertainly, winter festivals-NOM and
skis-NOM me-DAT nothing-ACC not-say.]
I move very awkwardly in the mountains, winter festivals and skis do nothing for
me.
(16) Při práci na zahradě jsou nebezpečná hluboká a úzká poranění kůže.
[At work-LOC at garden-LOC are dangerous-NOM deep-NOM and narrow
wounds-NOM skin-GEN.]
Deep and narrow skin wounds are dangerous when working in the garden.
(17) Svěřte odborné firmě náročnější zásahy, které se v zahradě provádějí na jaře a na
podzim.
Locative: a place 9
(18) Přijde návštěva, na vrátnici se zapíše a pak se může téměř nerušeně pohybovat po
budově.
[Comes visitor-NOM, at front-desk-LOC self-ACC signs and then self-ACC can
almost undisturbed move along building-LOC.]
A visitor comes and, signs in at the front desk and then that person can move about
the building almost undisturbed.
(19) Ve vrátnici byla práce zdánlivě lehčí, i když ji noční služby vysilovaly.
[In front-desk-LOC was work-NOM seemingly easier-NOM, even when it-ACC
night duties-NOM depleted.]
Work at the front desk was seemingly easier, even though the night duties took
much of one’s strength.
For a larger group of words, the choice of na or v is not at all random, but brings with it a
choice between different meanings. This table compares the meanings associated with na
and v. In the case of some of these words, items can physically be either on the surface or
within the confines of the location: země ‘ground’, řeka ‘river’, and moře ‘sea’. However,
the use of na vs. v with the remaining words does not follow any strict logic; it is simply an
idiomatic distinction that must be learned. The table is followed by examples illustrating
the distinct uses of na zemi ‘on land, on the earth, on the ground’ vs. v zemi ‘in a country;
in the ground’ and na ulici ‘outside, in the street’ vs. v ulici ‘on X street’.
Words That Can Use Both na and v , But Show Discernible Difference in Meaning
when used with na when used with v
na ulici vs. v ulici ‘outside, in the street’ ‘on X street’
na světě vs. ve světě ‘(first, best, etc.) in the world’ ‘in the world’
na zemi vs. v zemi ‘on land, on the earth, on the ‘in a country; in the ground’
ground’
na patře vs. v patře ‘on the Xth floor’ ‘on the floor’
na bytě vs. v bytě ‘(tenants) at the apartment’ ‘at home, inside, i n t he
apartment’
na srdci vs. v srdci ‘on one’s conscience’ ‘in one’s heart’
na pokoji vs. v pokoji ‘in one’s room’ ‘in the room’
na řece vs. v řece ‘at/by/on the river’ ‘in the river’
na moři vs. v moři ‘at/by the sea, at sea’ ‘in the sea’
(20) Policisté vyslýchané osoby kromě jiného bili pěstí do břicha, na zemi do nich kopali
a přikládali jim revolver k hlavě.
[Policemen-NOM interrogated persons-ACC except other-GEN beat fist-INST to
stomach-GEN, on ground-LOC to them-GEN kicked and put them-DAT revolver-
ACC to head-DAT.]
10 The Locative Case
Among other things, the policemen beat persons under interrogation in the stomach
with their fists, kicked them on the ground, and put a revolver to their head.
(21) Provozovatelé obou mobilních sítí v zemi se snaží výhodnými nabídkami přilákat
další zákazníky.
[Operators-NOM both mobile networks-GEN in country-LOC self-ACC try ad-
vantageous offers-INST attract further customers-ACC.]
The operators of both mobile telephone networks in the country are trying to attract
more customers with advantageous offers.
(22) Jako každý zahradkář jsem šťastný, mám-li na jaře všechny sazeničky a semínka v
zemi.
[Like every gardener-NOM am happy-NOM have-whether on spring-LOC all seed-
lings-ACC and seeds-ACC in ground-LOC.]
Like every gardener, I’m happy when I have all the seedlings and seeds in the ground
in the spring.
(25) Vyprávěla nám příběh prodavače kol, který neuměl jezdit na kole, protože neudržel
rovnováhu.
[Told us-DAT story-ACC salesman-GEN bicycles-GEN, who-NOM not-knew ride
on bicycle-LOC, because not-kept balance-ACC.]
She told us the story of a bicycle salesman who couldn’t ride a bicycle because he
couldn’t keep his balance.
The verb mít ‘have’ combines with the preposition na + LOC in numerous idiomatic phrases,
one of which is motivated by a physical location, that of clothes on one’s body (note that our
English idiom have on is based on the same logic): mít na sobě (šaty) [have on self-LOC
(clothes-ACC)] ‘have on, be wearing (clothes)’. Other mít na + LOC idioms are meta-
phoric, treating domains such as thought and control as locations: mít něco na paměti [have
something-ACC on memory-LOC] ‘remember something’, mít něco na mysli [have some-
thing-ACC on thought-LOC] ‘be thinking about something’, mít něco na starosti [have
something-ACC on concern-LOC] ‘be responsible for something’, mít něco na háku [have
something-ACC on hook-LOC] ‘find something easy to do, know something well’, mít
podíl na něčem [have share-ACC on something-LOC] ‘have a share of something, take
part in something’ . Here are two examples, one to illustrate each type of idiom:
(30) Ukradli mi novou zimní bundu, kterou jsem měl všeho všudy dvakrát na sobě.
[Stole me-DAT new winter coat-ACC, which-ACC AUX had all-GEN everywhere
twice on self-LOC.]
They stole my new winter coat which I had only worn twice.
12 The Locative Case
(31) Stále mám na paměti, co mi řekl otec při mém odchodu z domova.
[Still have on memory-LOC, what-ACC me-DAT said father-NOM at my depar-
ture-LOC from home-GEN.]
I still remember what my father said to me when I left home.
Another set of idiomatic expressions has the structure být na + LOC and refers primarily to
states of being or times in which items are metaphorically located, such as: být na odchodu
[be on departure-LOC] ‘be on the way out’, být na živu (also spelled as one word: naživu)
[be on living-LOC] ‘be alive’, být na tom dobře/špatně [be on that-LOC well/badly] ‘be
doing well/badly’, být na něčím místě [be on someone’s place-LOC] ‘be in someone’s
shoes’, být/žít na volné noze [be/live on free leg-LOC] ‘be free/freelancing’, být na čase
[be on time-LOC] ‘be the time (for something)’. Here are a few sentences to illustrate the
být na + LOC idioms:
(32) Zápasnických pravidel se tam nedostává, kdo je po boji na živu, ten prostě vyhrává.
[Competition rules-GEN self-ACC there not-gets, who-NOM is after battle-LOC
on life-LOC, that-NOM just wins.]
There aren’t any rules to the game, who ever is alive after the battle is the one who
wins.
(35) Začala na prknech hradeckého divadla, pak dva roky byla na volné noze.
[Started on boards-LOC castle theater-GEN, then two years-ACC was on free leg-
LOC.]
She started on the stage of the castle theater, then did freelance work for two years.
Finally, if you catch someone voicing unjustifiable complaints, you can respond by saying
simply Co na tom? [What-NOM on that-LOC?] ‘What about it?/That doesn’t matter’.
Locative: a place 13
As this next example demonstrates, v + LOC is also the preposition of choice when the
location is an enveloping substance (here it is blood where the lycopene is present):
(38) Při vyšší spotřebě rajčat a račatových výrobků se zvyšuje koncentrace lykopenu v
krvi.
[At higher consumption-LOC tomato products-GEN self-ACC rises concentration-
NOM lycopene-GEN in blood-LOC.]
When large quantities of tomato products are consumed the concentration of lyco-
pene in the blood goes up.
The use of v + LOC is considerably more prevalent than the use of na + LOC, and v is the
preposition of choice for a vast number of locations that are not “na-words”, even though
they may not look like containers to you or me. This includes all kinds of bounded spaces
such as cities, countries, buildings, and forests, as demonstrated in these examples:
(39) Mám sice ve městě nový ateliér, ale tady na Sázavě se snažím být co nejvíce.
[Have though in city-LOC new studio-ACC, but here on Sázava-LOC self-ACC try
be what-NOM most.]
Though I do have a new studio in the city, I try to spend as much time as possible
here in Sázava.
(41) Pro chlapce nejspíš najdou místo v některém dětském domově v Sovětském svazu.
[For boy-ACC most-likely find place-ACC in some orphanage-LOC in Soviet
Union-LOC.]
They will probably find a place for the boy in an orphanage in the Soviet Union.
The last sentence above contains a metaphorical use of v + LOC which has an exact equiva-
lent in English: v případě ‘in case’; other metaphorical uses of this preposition will be
presented below.
Though it may seem counter-intuitive, heights are often expressed using v + LOC; two
examples of this usage appear in the following sentence:
(43) Ve výšce, kam dosahuje vrchol Mont Everestu, tedy v necelých 9.000 metrech nad
mořem, nalévají stevardky šampaňské do plastových pohárků.
[In height-LOC, where reaches summit-NOM Mount Everest-GEN, that-is in not-
whole 9,000 meters-LOC above sea-INST, pour stewardesses-NOM champagne-
ACC to plastic cups-GEN.]
At the height reached by Mount Everest, that is almost 9,000 meters above sea
level, stewardesses pour champagne into plastic cups.
The world is full of metaphorical locations that use the preposition v + LOC, including the
domains of politics, areas of expertise, language, and states of being. As the following
examples attest, there is a great deal of overlap in metaphorical imagination between Czech
and English here, and the correspondence between v + LOC and in is pretty good:
(44) V politických kruzích to sice už vřelo, ale život běžného člověka byl stejný jako
dříve.
[In political circles-LOC that-NOM after-all already boiled, but life-NOM ordi-
nary person-GEN was same-NOM as earlier.]
Yes, things were already cooking along in political circles, but the life of an ordi-
nary person was the same as it had been before.
(45) Vláda chce poskytnout pracovní povolení vysoce kvalifikovaným expertům v oblasti
informatiky.
[Government-NOM wants provide work permit-ACC highly qualified experts-DAT
in area-LOC information-science-GEN.]
The government wants to provide work permits to highly qualified experts in the
area of information science.
(46) Pták zmizí, ozve se klení v andulčí řeči a za pár minut vypochoduje vzteklé zvíře
před nábytek.
[Bird-NOM disappears, resounds self-ACC cursing-NOM in canary language-LOC
and in pair-ACC minutes-GEN marches out furious beast-NOM before furniture-
ACC.]
The bird disappears, one hears some curses in canary language, and in a few min-
utes the angry beast marches out in front of the furniture.
Locative: a place 15
(47) Zeď, která je v havarijním stavu, bude ještě letos opravena na nejnutnějších místech.
[Wall-NOM, which-NOM is in disastrous state-LOC, will-be still this-year re-
paired-NOM on most-necessary places-LOC.]
The wall, which is in a disastrous state, will be repaired in the most necessary
places this year.
A large number of words in Czech are typically followed by the preposition v + LOCATIVE: A
PLACE. Some of them have obvious parallels to English phrases, but many do not, and some
might seem rather surprising. Here is a list of v + LOC phrases you can expect to encounter,
followed by illustrative examples of how they appear in context:
(51) Jen co Bohoušek začne trénovat na zimní turnaj ve vybíjené, půjdou kila dolů.
[Only what-NOM Bohoušek-NOM starts train for winter tournament-ACC in
dodgeball-LOC, go kilograms-NOM down.]
As soon as Bohoušek starts training for the winter dodgeball tournament, his weight
will go down.
16 The Locative Case
When implemented in the domain of time, v + LOCATIVE: A PLACE tends to be associated with
extended periods of time ‘in’ which events can be located, and the use is indeed very similar
to the temporal use of in in English. Here are some representative examples:
(54) Soubor Harmonia Mozartiana Pragensis hraje hudbu, která byla ve své době velice
oblíbená ve šlechtických rezidencích.
[Ensemble-NOM Harmonia Mozartiana Pragensis-NOM plays music-ACC, which-
NOM was in its time-LOC very popular-NOM in aristocratic residences-LOC.]
The Harmonia Mozartiana Pragensis ensemble plays music that was very popular in
its time in aristocratic residences.
(55) Lékaři doporučují výživu s nízkým obsahem alergenů i v druhém půlroce života.
[Doctors-NOM recommend nourishment-ACC with low content-INST allergens-
GEN in second half-year-LOC life-GEN.]
Doctors recommend nourishment with low allergen content in the second six months
of life.
(56) Nikdo dnes neumí spolehlivě říct, zda informační technologie v budoucnu lidstvo
zachrání anebo zničí. (CCz)
[No-one-NOM today not-can dependably say, whether technology-NOM in future-
LOC humanity-ACC saves or destroys.]
Today nobody can say for sure whether technology will save or destroy humanity in
the future.
In the course of a given length of time an action can be repeated numerous times; the Czech
formula X-krát v Y-LOC expresses X times a Y (where Y is a period of time). Here is an
example of how this formula is applied in a real context:
(57) V letošním roce se poprvé hraje třikrát v týdnu a někteří hráči toho mají dost.
[In this-year’s year-LOC self-ACC for-the-first-time plays three-times in week-LOC
and some players-NOM that-GEN have enough-ACC.]
This year is the first time that they are playing three times a week and that’s a lot for
some of the players.
V + LOC can also be used to indicate the age at which a person achieves or experiences
something, as we see in this sentence:
Locative: a place 17
(58) Ve čtyřech letech čtrnáctý tibetský dalajlama byl oficiálně prohlášen vůdcem
tibetského národa.
[In four years-LOC fourteenth Tibetan Dalailama-NOM was officially proclaimed-
NOM leader-INST Tibetan nation-GEN.]
At the age of four the fourteenth Tibetan Dalailama was officially proclaimed the
leader of the Tibetan nation.
A number of adverbial expression and complex prepositions contain v + LOC. Here are the
most common phrases of this type, along with a few examples to illustrate their usage:
There are some fixed phrases that contain v + LOC, notably v tom to vězí [in that-LOC
that-NOM sticks] ‘that’s just the point’ and přijít ve věci [come in thing-LOC] ‘to come in
connection with (and issue)’. Here is an example of how the latter phrase is used:
Like na + LOC, v + LOC plays a role in idioms with the verbs mít ‘have’ and být ‘be’; these
include stock phrases like mít někoho v lásce [have someone-ACC in love-LOC] ‘be fond
of someone’, mít něco v úmyslu [have something-ACC in intention-LOC] ‘intend to’, mít
něco ve zvyku [have something-ACC in habit-LOC] ‘be in the habit of doing something’,
být v dobré náladě [be in good mood-LOC] ‘be in a good mood’, být v plné síle [be in full
strength-LOC] ‘be in one’s prime’, být v teple [be in warmth-LOC] ‘be in a warm place’.
Additionally, být v can be combined with the locative forms of words denoting articles of
clothing to express ‘be wearing’. Here are a few sentences containing idiomatic expressions
built upon the construction v + LOC:
(63) Tehdy jsem studovala na výtvarné škole, měla jsem totiž v úmyslu stát se sochařkou.
[Then AUX at art school-LOC, had AUX since in intention-LOC become self-
ACC sculptor-INST.]
I was studying at an art school at the time because I intended to become an artist.
(64) Má ve zvyku dělat věci podle svého, bez ohledu na názory ostatních.
[Has in habit-LOC do things-ACC according-to own-GEN, without consideration-
GEN for opinions-ACC others-GEN.]
He has a habit of doing things his own way, without consideration for others’ opin-
ions.
(65) A zase hrajou Dvořáka a zpěvačka opět vykročí v lodíčkách na vyšším podpatku ke
svému stanovišti.
[And again play Dvořák-ACC and singer-NOM again steps-out in pumps-LOC on
higher heel-LOC toward own post-DAT.]
And they are playing Dvořák again and the singer steps out again toward her post in
her high-heeled pumps.
(66) Z obou stran stojí při silnici dopravní značky se zákazem vjezdu.
[From both sides-GEN stand by road-LOC traffic signs-NOM with prohibition-
INST entry-GEN.]
Traffic signs prohibiting entry stand on both sides of the road.
(67) Mnozí houbaři neváhají i přes zákaz vjíždět do lesa autem, místo aby ho nechali stát
někde při kraji.
[Many mushroom-hunters-NOM not-hesitate even despite prohibition-ACC ride-in
to forest-GEN car-INST, instead AUX it-ACC left stand somewhere by edge-LOC.]
Many mushroom-hunters don’t hesitate to ride into the forest in their car in defiance
of the prohibition instead of leaving it somewhere near the edge.
Locative: a place 19
As we have seen elsewhere, speakers of both Czech and English can conceive of states of
being as metaphorical spaces where people and other items are located. In these examples,
being při životě and při vědomí, literally ‘in life’ and ‘in consciousness’ means that some-
one is in the state of being alive or conscious:
The central idea of association can be extended to refer to all kinds of accompaniment,
motivating phrases like pracovat při umělém světle/svíčce [work by artificial light-LOC/
candle-LOC] ‘work in artificial light/by candlelight’, mít něco při sobě [have something-
ACC at self-LOC] ‘have something with you’, přísahat při [swear at] ‘swear by’. The next
three sentences give you a flavor for how při + LOC can be used to indicate accompani-
ment:
(70) Sedí při svíčce u stolku spisovatel a za zvuků hudby z Čajkovského Louskáčka
kouří a píše.
[Sits by candle-LOC by desk-GEN writer-NOM an during sounds-GEN music-
GEN from Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker-GEN smokes and writes.]
The writer sits in the candlelight at his desk and smokes and writes to the sounds of
music from Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker.
(71) Nezapomeňte však na to, že při umělém světle vypadají téměř všechny barvy jinak.
[Not-forget however on that-ACC, that by artificial light-LOC look almost all col-
ors-NOM otherwise.]
Don’t forget however that in artificial light almost all colors look different.
Czech commonly uses při + LOC in the domain of time, where this preposition temporally
associates two items, giving us to understand that they are simultaneous. This use of při can
be variously translated as ‘when’, ‘while’ and ‘during’ in English, as we see in these sen-
tences:
20 The Locative Case
(73) Při vyšší spotřebě rajčat a račatových výrobků se zvyšuje koncentrace lykopenu v
krvi.
[At higher consumption-LOC tomato products-GEN self-ACC rises concentra-
tion-NOM lycopene-GEN in blood-LOC.]
When large quantities of tomato products are consumed the concentration of ly-
copene in the blood goes up.
(73) Při používání komerčních výrobků je nutné pozorně číst složení a vybírat si.
[At use-LOC commercial products-GEN is necessary-NOM carefully read compo-
sition-ACC and choose self-DAT.]
When using commercial products it is necessary to read the ingredients carefully
and be selective.
(74) S ruměncem ve tváři přiznal, že je příliš citlivý, než aby mohl asistovat při takové
operaci.
[With blush-INST in cheek-LOC admitted, that is too sensitive-NOM, than so-that
could assist during such operation-LOC.]
With a blush in his cheek he admitted that he is too sensitive to be able to assist
during such an operation.
(75) Když člověk hodně chce, můži si školu dodělat i při zaměstnání.
[When person-NOM much wants, can self-DAT school-ACC finish even during
employment-LOC.]
If a person really wants to, one can finish school while working.
The concept of simultaneity is so salient for this preposition that the phrase při čemž, which
can also be written as one word, přičemž, functions as an adverb meaning‘while’:
Při + LOC has its share of idioms and fixed phrases. Here is a table collecting some of the
most prevalent expressions of this type, followed by a few examples:
(78) Byla z toho láska na první pohled, při první příležitosti spolu uprchli a dali se
oddat.
[Was from that-GEN love-NOM at first sight-ACC, by first opportunity-LOC to-
gether ran-away and gave self-ACC marry.]
It was love at first sight, at the first opportunity they ran away together and got
married.
(79) Včera dostal vysoké teploty a musí přinejmenším tři dny ležet v posteli.
[Yesterday got high temperatures-ACC and must at-least-LOC three days-ACC lie
in bed-LOC.]
He spiked some high temperatures yesterday and must lie in bed for at least three
days.
(80) Byli tam pacienti na vozících, jiní chodili o berlích a další se pohybovali pomocí
chodítek.
[Were there patients-NOM on wheelchairs-LOC, others-NOM walked on crutches-
LOC and others-NOM self-ACC moved help-INST walkers-GEN.]
There were patients there in wheelchairs, others walked on crutches, and still oth-
ers moved with the help of walkers.
(81) Jiný relaxuje při hudbě nebo tím, že udělá třeba stoj o rukou.
[Other-NOM relaxes by music-LOC or that-INST, that does maybe stand on hands-
LOC.]
Someone else relaxes to music or perhaps by doing a handstand.
(82) Skok o tyči jsem zvládl technicky dobře, ale skočil jsem málo.
[Jump on pole-LOC AUX managed technically well, but jumped AUX little.]
Technically I managed the pole-vault well, but I didn’t jump high enough.
22 The Locative Case
Like při, o carries with it a strong sense of accompaniment (note that in English we say that
someone walks with a cane, parallel to Czech o holi, for example). Unlike při, however, o
can refer to composite features of an item, such as how many parts it has or what its weight
or size is, since features can be understood as things that accompany an item. This idea
motivates phrases such as byt o dvou pokojích [apartment-NOM with two rooms-LOC] ‘a
two-room apartment’, hra o pěti jednáních [play with five acts-LOC] ‘a five-act play’,
kniha o váze 5 kg [book-NOM with weight-LOC 5 kg-GEN] ‘a book weighing 5 kg’,
plátno o délce 1m [canvas-NOM with length-LOC 1m-GEN] ‘a canvas 1m long’. Here are
a couple of authentic examples of how o + LOC can designate the features with which
something is endowed:
(83) Měl tehdy byt o pěti pokojích, vysokých a světlých, v pracovně nový psací stůl a
knihovnu plnou knížek.
[Had then apartment-ACC with five rooms-LOC, tall-LOC and light-LOC, in
study-LOC new writing desk-ACC and bookcase-ACC full-ACC books-GEN.]
At the time he had an apartment with five rooms that were light with high ceil-
ings, in his study there was a new desk and a bookcase full of books.
(84) Posbírali mnoho zlatých předmetů o celkové váze asi třiceti tun a odeslali je domů
do Španělska.
[Gathered many-ACC gold objects-GEN with total weight-LOC about thirty tons-
GEN and send them-ACC home to Spain-GEN.]
They gathered many gold objects weighing altogether about thirty tons and sent
them home to Spain.
Occasionally o + LOC identifies accompanying situations rather than features. The two
most common phrases of this type are o hladu [with hunger-LOC] ‘while going hungry’,
and o samotě [with seclusion-LOC] ‘alone’. Here are some examples:
(85) Kubelkovi shánějí krmivo pro dobytek, aby nezůstal přes zimu o hladu.
[Kubelkas-NOM try-to-get fodder-ACC for livestock-ACC, so-that not-remained
across winter-ACC with hunger-LOC.]
The Kubelkas are trying to get fodder for the livestock so that it doesn’t go hungry
over the winter.
An accompanying situation like hunger or seclusion can be understood as part of the setting
of an event. Settings also include times when events take place, and o + LOC is sometimes
used to describe the times that serve as the backdrop for actions, primarily when these times
are either major seasonal landmarks, such as holiday or vacation time, or an hour of the day
(although in the case of times of day the use of v + ACC is much more frequent). Thus we
Locative: a place 23
Perhaps the most common use of the preposition o + LOC is usually translated as ‘about’,
and refers to the domain of topics for oral and written communication and thought. In this
connection o + LOC is associated with a wide variety of words that identify thinking, talk-
ing, reading, and writing. Here is a table of these words, followed by some example sen-
tences:
(91) Legenda vypráví o misce, která byla čirou náhodou nalezena v písku.
[Legend-NOM tells-story about bowl-LOC, which-NOM was sheer chance-INST
found-NOM in sand-LOC.]
The legend tells about a bowl found in the sand by sheer chance.
Alternatively, po + LOC can indicate the part of the body along which motion is realized.
This is particularly common when the motion is somehow atypical (i.e., not walking along
on your feet, bt using other body parts to effect motion). Standard phrases of this type
include: jít po špičkách/kolenou/čtyřech [go along tips-LOC/knees-LOC/four-LOC] ‘go
on tip-toe/one’s knees/all fours’, plazit se po břiše [crawl self-ACC along belly-LOC]
‘crawl along on one’s belly’, skákat po jedné noze [jump along one leg-LOC] ‘hop on one
leg’, skočit po hlavě [jump along head-LOC] ‘dive head-first’.
(97) Neskákejte po hlavě do neznámé vody, nikdy nevíte, co se skrývá pod hladinou.
[Not-jump along head-LOC to unknown water-GEN, never not-know, what-NOM
self-ACC hides under surface-INST.]
Don’t jump head-first into unknown waters, you never know what is hiding be-
neath the surface.
A desired destination likewise determines the path one must take to attain it, and po can be
used to mean that someone is reaching out after an item, going for it. As the table and
following examples show, this can involve both physical reaching as well as the metaphori-
cal equivalents of searching, longing, desire, and demand. Notice that the item sought after
can be either something someone wants or a person or group they are going after in order to
get what they want.
(102) Vyčíslenou předběžnou ztrátu 700 tisíc korun budou ČSA vymáhat po výtržníkovi.
[Calculated anticipated loss-ACC 700 thousand crowns-GEN will ČSA-NOM de-
mand along trouble-maker-LOC.]
ČSA will demand the calculated anticipated loss of 700 thousand crowns from the
trouble-maker.
(103) Nemůžete po úřadech chtít, aby během roku snížily o padesát procent svoje rozpočty.
[Not-can along offices-LOC want, so-that during year-GEN reduced by fifty-ACC
percent-GEN own budgets-ACC.]
You can’t expect the offices to reduce their budgets by fifty percent in the course of
a year.
(104) Netrpělivé volání po změnách může naši společnost vrátit o deset (a více) let zpátky.
[Impatient calling along changes-LOC can our society-ACC return by ten-ACC
(and more) years-GEN backwards.]
Impatient demands for changes can set our society back by ten (or more) years.
(106) Prostějovské domy s prostornou vstupní halou po anglickém vzoru byly zařízeny
kompletně podle jeho návrhu.
[Prostějov houses-NOM with spacious entrance hall-INST according-to English
style-LOC were outfitted-NOM completely according-to his design-GEN.]
The houses of Prostějov with the English-style spacious entrance halls were com-
pletely outfitted according to his design.
Let us return for a moment to the domain of space, in which an item serves as a path for
movement. If instead of just one item, we have several, and they are discontinuous, then we
Locative: a place 27
wind up with movement involving a number of paths from one item to another. In the next
example, the item marked by po + LOC is stores, which are located in various places, thus
determining an overall path consisting of shorter paths from one store to the next. In this
way we get a distributed movement, something like a connect-the-dots pattern:
(108) Zatímco žena chodí po obchodech, čekám v parku na lavičce a v klidu si přečtu
noviny.
[While wife-NOM walks along stores-LOC, wait in park-LOC on bench-LOC and
in peace-LOC self-DAT read newspaper-ACC.]
While my wife is walking from store to store, I wait on a bench in the park and read
the newspaper in peace.
This distributional meaning can be extended to quantitative domains, where a given nu-
meral designates a group of something, and an activity proceeds from one such grouping to
another. Here a phrase like umírat po tisících [die along thousands-LOC] has a meaning
best translated as ‘die by the thousands’; conceptually it is as if we imagine one set of a
thousand dying, then the next, then the next, etc., similar to the stores that were visited in a
series in the preceeding example. The use of po + LOC with numerals is quite common;
here is a sample sentence:
If an activity is performed on a series of items, we can also interpret this as being an activity
that happens ot each item, thus suggesting distributed amounts (generally translated as
‘apiece’) or rates of activity. Here are two examples of this type:
In both spatial and other domains, po + LOC signals an item which has a given shape or
other feature that is used as a pattern, or followed. This sense of following transfers quite
logically to the domain of time, where something that follows an event is something that
takes place after that event. The use of po + LOC to mean ‘after’ in the domain of time is
extremely common; here are some examples:
28 The Locative Case
(114) Po bohoslužbě v místním kostele bude celý den probíhat lidová veselice.
[After service-LOC in local church-LOC will-be all day-ACC take-place folk merry-
making-NOM.]
After the service in a local church, a traditional party will take place, lasting a whole
day.
The meaning of temporal sequencing has become conventionalized in the adverbs potom
and poté, both of which mean ‘afterward; then’ and both of which are built from preposi-
tional phrases which would be literally translated as ‘after that’. Here is an example sen-
tence for each word:
(116) Požár vypukl několik hodin poté, co FBI, která farmu od února obléhala, zaútočila.
[Fire-NOM broke-out several-ACC hours-GEN after-that-LOC, what-NOM FBI-
NOM, which-NOM from February-GEN surrounded, attacked.]
The fire broke out several hours after the FBI, which had surrounded the farm since
February, attacked.
After an event has taken place, we can say that it is over, that we are done with it, and
Czechs can use po + LOC to fill this role as well, motivating idiomatic phrases like: už je po
všem [already is after everything-LOC] ‘it’s all over now’, je po něm [is after him-LOC]
‘he’s done for (dead)’, mít po vojně/zkouškách [have after army-LOC/exams-LOC] ‘be
done with one’s army service/exams’. Here is an example of an idiomatic use of po +
LOC:
Some words are strongly associated with the sequencing of events, particularly with the
notion of one event taking place after or following from another, especially zbýt/zbývat po
‘remain, be left over after’, následovat po ‘follow, happen after’, and nastoupit po ‘succeed
Locative: a place 29
(someone to a post)’. Human beings tend to associate the sequence of events with their
causation, assuming that prior events cause the things that folow them to happen. This fact
motivates the use of po + LOC to identify the cause or source of something, making it
possible to say things like: zhubnout po nemoci, bylo mu špatně po salámu, dolíčky po
neštovicích, smutek po matce, dům po rodičích, zdědit po, jmenovat se po, být po někom.
In phrases like this there is no sharp distinction between the meaning ‘after’, and the sense
of causation — both meanings are present.
(118) Každá návštěva Karlštejna končila stejně, vždycky nám bylo špatně po párcích,
všichni zvraceli.
[Every visit-NOM Karlštejn-GEN ended same, always us-DAT was badly after
hotdogs-LOC, everyone-NOM threw-up.]
Every visit to Karlštejn ended the same way, we always got sick from the hotdogs
and everyone threw up.
(119) Mohlo to být i horší, říkal si. Mohla mít například dolíčky po neštovicích.
[Could that-NOM be even worse-NOM, said self-DAT. Could have for-example
pock-marks-ACC after smallpox-LOC.]
It could be worse, he told himself. She could have pock-marks from smallpox, for
example.
EPILOGUE
Czech tends to view locations as surfaces (with na) or as containers (with v). However,
since even in physical space many locations are not unambiguously either surfaces or con-
tainers, Czech uses conceptual conventions to choose between these two options. Thus any
location that is unbounded and/or has some vertical elevation can be construed as a surface.
Any location that is understood as bounded is a potential container. Time is often under-
stood as a container, whereas events are surfaces (at least when we attend them — however,
we can talk about their contents with v). The nearby location of při suggests a close asso-
ciation, which can involve the duration something occupies or a state of being it is in. The
preposition o reminds us that thinking and talking have their own domain, with topics serv-
ing as locations for pondering and discussing, and Czechs lump this concept together with
the notions of leaning upon an item for support, the constituent parts of something, and the
presence of major landmarks in the calendar. With the preposition po, we take the idea of
motion following the contours of a path and extend that to other activities following the
contours of featuers of sounds, smells, and ways of doing things. Following in the domain
of time of course means happening after, and we tend to presume that a prior state causes
one that follows after, recognizing the former as a source. The locative case demonstrates
very clearly how agile Czech is in taking locational concepts derived from spatial relations
and implementing them in other domains. Indeed, this is a recurrent theme all through the
case system.
2 The InstrumentalCase
Feminine
declension
nouns
Masculine
declension
nouns
Neuter
declension
nouns
Adjectives
Pronouns
Possessives
Numerals
Chapter: a designation 1 3
INSTRUMENTAL: I A MEANS
A LABEL
A MEANS
AN ADJUNCT
A LANDMARK
PROLOGUE
The instrumental is a complex case, but the idea behind it is fairly simple(mn0.1). You
can think of it as an accessory for something else. The instrumental is a peripheral attach-
ment for something else. The peripheral accessory named by the instrumental can be asso-
ciated either with an activity or with another item(mn0.2). When an item in the instrumen-
tal case is associated with an activity, we have INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, and the instrumental
item is a conduit for the activity. When an item in the instrumental case is attached to
another item, it serves as an address for that item; this can be done by tagging it in some
way, in which case we have INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL, by identifying something to which it is
joined, in which case we have INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT (here we use the Czech preposi-
tion s ‘with’), or by locating it in reference to a landmark, in which case we have
INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK (used with the prepositions před ‘in front of’, za ‘behind’, nad
‘over’, pod ‘under’, and mezi ‘between’).
Your first task when confronted with an item in the instrumental case will be to figure
out which part of the network it is using. If any of the prepositions (s, před, za, nad, pod,
mezi) are present, you can put this task behind you, since you will have INSTRUMENTAL::AN
ADJUNCT with the preposition s, and INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK with the remaining preposi-
tions. If not, you will need to think about whether the instrumental is being used to augment
the description of an activity (INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS) or the description of a thing
(INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL). The explanations and examples below should help you get used
to looking for this difference.
the concept of a path as its point of departure (sections 2-7), and the other focuses on the
agents of actions (section 8). The following diagram might help you think about how the
ideas in the first group (the “path” group) are organized:
path >
facilitator/instrument/cause >
item under control >
item appreciated positively/negatively
In a couple of minutes the scream of a newborn of the male sex rang out through the hall.
If there are obstacles that one has to make one’s way through, they can also appear as
INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS to indicate a path, as we see with the crowd in this example:
Obstacles can also stand in one’s visual path, as we see in this sentence:
Ležel v trávě a pozoroval přivřenými víčky hnědozelený svět stébel, kamínků, písku.
[Lay in grass-LOC and observed half-shut eyelids-INST brown-green world-ACC stalks-
GEN, pebbles-GEN, sand-GEN.]
He lay in the grass and observed through half-shut eyelids the brown and green world of
stalks, pebbles, and sand.
A path can have various trajectories, including ones that go off to the side, like in this
sentence:
And while one is on a path, various things can happen as well, just as in English we can say
that someone did something on their way somewhere. Note the parallel between Czech and
English in this example:
A path can lead through an opening, as in the folk verse Kočka leze dírou, pes oknem [Cat-
NOM crawls hole-INST, dog-NOM window-INST] ‘The cat crawls through the hole and
the dog through the window’. As the next two sentences show, sound can also travel through
a window, and merely looking through an opening is treated in the same way as actually
travelling through it:
Uslyšel podivné neznámé hřmění, které se do bytu snášelo oknem odkudsi z temné oblohy.
[Heard strange unfamiliar rumbling-ACC, which-NOM self-ACC to house-GEN carried
window-INST from-somewhere from dark sky-GEN.]
He heard a strange unfamiliar rumbling coming in through the window from somewhere
in the dark sky.
A path can of course be conceived of abstractly, giving us examples like this one(mn2.3):
In both English and Czech we think of life as a journey along a path; this makes it possible
for us to talk of the path of life and life’s obstacles. Because life is a path, a Czech can
substitute life for path to get:
Tvůj otec odjel do Evropy, kde žil životem bohatého mladého muže.
[Your father-NOM left to Europe-GEN, where lived life-INST rich young man-GEN.]
Your father went to Europe, where he lived the life of a rich young man.
In this example, life is the path along which living is realized. Living goes down the path of
life.
Time expressions like časem [time-INST] ‘with time, after a time’, dnem i nocí [day-
INST and night-INST] ‘day and night’ verge on being adverbs:
Ale časem se biskupovi začalo po Španělsku tak stýskat, že sám poprosil král o uvolnění z
funkce.
[But time-INST self-ACC bishop-DAT began along Spain-LOC so miss, that self-NOM
asked king-NOM for release-ACC from function-GEN.]
But in time the bishop became so homesick for Spain that he himself asked the king to
release him from his post.
Expanses of both time and space can appear in the plural, creating locations for objects and
events(mn4.1):
*Nejsem lingvista, ale naučil jsem se v různé dokonalosti šesti jazykům, nepočítaje latinu,
8 The InstrumentalCase
We will start with instruments facilitating action. Examples of concrete physical instru-
ments are fairly common(mn5.2):
These next three examples are fairly typical metaphorical extensions of the idea of a physi-
cal instrument(mn5.3):
Špatnou komunikací mezi ministerstvy vysvětluje prezident, proč česká pomoc obětem
tureckého zemětřesení dorazila tak pozdě.
[Poor communication-INST between ministries-INST explains president-NOM, why Czech
help-NOM victims-DAT Turkish earthquake-GEN arrived so late.]
The president explains why Czech help for Turkish earthquake victims arrived so late by
citing poor communication among the ministries.
NOM.]
Prague is swarming with jokes and cartoons about Dáša Havlová.
In these sentences, Prague is swarming because it is filled with jokes and cartoons, and this
place is swarming because of the abundance of weirdos. The jokes, cartoons and weirdos
produce the action that is perceived as swarming, so we can also understand these sentences
as meaning that Prague is swarming by means of jokes and cartoons or this place is swarm-
ing by means of weirdos. This use of the instrumental is very much parallel to English with
in phrases like the air was buzzing with bees, the yard was crawling with ants, the sky was
glittering with stars.
The instrument used can be very close to home, including a part of one’s own person, like
the mind and the heart:
Sensations of smell and taste are produced by means of various aromatic substances, and it
is common for the source of a smell or taste to appear as an item marked instrumental:a
means in conjunction with verbs like vonět ‘smell (nice)’, být cítit ‘have a smell’, páchnout
‘smell bad’, smrdět ‘stink’, and chutnat ‘taste’. Here is are some examples:
Pravej mužskej je vždycky drobet přivožralej, trošku je nastydlej a kapánek smrdí močůvkou.
(CCz)
[Real male-NOM is always bit drunk-NOM, a-little is sick-with-cold-NOM and trifle stinks
sewer-water-INST.]
A real man is always a trifle drunk, has a bit of a cold, and stinks a little like sewer-water.
Because instruments are used to bring about effects, an instrument can also be conceived of
as a cause for something. For example, in English, if can say Addiction was the instrument
of her destruction, we mean that addiction caused her destruction. This logical extension
applies to the Czech INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS as well, as we see in this example:
Often the instrumental item represents something necessary to the performance of the ac-
tion. The following combinations are standard fare:
lomit rukama ‘wring one’s hands’ mávat rukou ‘wave one’s hand’
mrkat očima ‘blink one’s eyes’ mrštit novinami ‘whack with a newspa-
per’
točit klikou ‘turn a doorknob’ třást hlavou ‘shake one’s head’
vrhat koulí‘put the shot (track & field)’ třepat křidly ‘flap one’s wings’
klátit nohama ‘shake one’s legs’ vrtět ocasem ‘wag one’s tail’
hodit kamenem ‘throw a stone’ pátrat očima ‘search with one’s eyes’
bouchat dveřmi ‘slam a door’
These collocations, many of which involve body parts, function to some extent as fixed
phrases in Czech. Here are a few of them presented in context:
Chlapec ještě pokýval hlavou, ale vzápětí už jím otřásl výbuch osvobozujícího pláče.
[Boy-NOM still nodded head-INST, but suddenly already him-INST shook explosion-
NOM liberating weeping-GEN.]
The boy was still nodding his head when suddenly an explosion of liberating weeping
convulsed him.
The use of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS to mark an item necessary to the performance of an action
is not limited to the standard combinations listed above; it can be used creatively in the
description of all kinds of actions, as we see in this sentence:
The boy licked his index finger expertly, so that he could turn the pages more easily.
Ippolit, který při závěru přednášky usnul na pohovce, najednou procitl, škubl sebou, usedl,
rozhlédl se a zbledl.
[Ippolit-NOM, who-NOM at conclusion-LOC lecture-GEN fell-asleep on couch-LOC, sud-
denly woke-up, shuddered self-INST, sat-up, looked-around self-ACC and paled.]
Ippolit, who had fallen asleep on the couch at the conclusion of the lecture, suddenly woke
up, shuddered, sat up, looked around, and went pale.
Vehicles are the necessary instruments of transportation just as languages are the necessary
instruments of human communication, and both situations can motivate the use of
INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, as these two examples demonstrate:
Čím [What-INST] is not restricted to this fixed expression and can be used more cre-
atively, as in this example:
Questions and answers usually share similar constructions, so it stands to reason that the
answer to Čím? [What-INST] ‘How?’ will also involve INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, even when
it does not specify an item we would recognize as an instrument. Tím [That-INST] ‘By
that means’ can serve as an all-purpose filler here, followed by a že clause containing an
action or item that answers the question of how something is done. In this example, com-
mentary on the narrator’s laziness is used as the means for responding to an inquiry:
Na můj dotaz to komentoval tím, že jsem liknavý v přístupu ke vzniku finanční policie.
[On my inquiry-ACC that-ACC commented that-INST, that am sluggish-NOM in approach-
LOC to development-DAT financial police-GEN.]
In response to my inquiry he commented (by saying) that I am sluggish in my approach to
developing a financial policing system.
The use of tím ‘by that means’ to introduce any event as a means for accomplishing some-
thing opens the gate for a huge range of actions and behaviors to serve as the means for
doing things. Something can be said by using a shout, a whine, whisper, as in the first
example below; and more nebulous forms of action can also be referenced, as we see in the
second example:
The use of the instrumental to describe how an action is performed has become so conven-
tional that for some words the instrumental case form is considered an adverb of manner;
here are some examples(mn7.1):
Poznáte u nás Čecha na ulici podle oblečení? Většinou ano, podle špatných bot.
[Recognize by us-GEN Czech-ACC on street-LOC according-to clothes-GEN? Majority-
INST yes, according-to bad shoes-GEN.]
Can you recognize a Czech by his clothes on our streets? For the most part, yes, by his bad
shoes.
Despite the fact that these words are all listed as adverbs in dictionaries, some of them can
often be found in combination with modifying adjectives, such as čirou náhodou ‘by sheer
coincidence’ and velkou oklikou ‘by means of a big detour’. The presence of adjectives
indicates that the connection between these adverbs and the instrumental case forms of their
corresponding nouns is still alive and productive, as these examples prove:
Rozhodla se zjistit, zda čirou náhodou nebyly v New Yorku ve stejné době a nepotkaly se
někde.
[Decided self-ACC find-out, whether sheer coincidence-INST not-were in New York-LOC
in same time-LOC and not-met self-ACC somewhere.]
She decided to find out whether by sheer coincidence they had not been in New York at the
same time and met somewhere.
A common idiom used as an adverb also makes use of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS: vzhůru nohama
[up legs-INST] ‘upside-down’, literally ‘up by means of the legs’.
The adverb křížem krážem ‘criss-cross; this way and that way’ is likewise a product of the
14 The InstrumentalCase
Margin notes: instrumental case: the first segment, křížem, is the instrumental form of kříž ‘cross’, but the
0.1 An overview second is a pseudo-instrumental form—there is no word *kráž in Czech at all (just like
of the instrumen-
tal case.
English, which doesn’t otherwise have the word criss). The adverbs najednou and pojednou,
0.2 The instru- both of which mean ‘suddenly, all at once’, as well as namátkou ‘at random’ and rovnou
mental case ‘directly’ are also inspired by the instrumental case; but Czech has no *najedna, *pojedna,
marks an item *namátka, or *rovna.
associated with
an activity or an-
other item.
Myslivec chodí křížem krážem, ale žádného zajíce nevidí.
1.1 Overview of [Hunter-NOM walks cross-INST criss-INST, but no rabbit-ACC not-sees.]
conduit mean- The hunter walks about criss-cross, but he doesn’t see a rabbit.
ings of INSTRU-
MENTAL: A MEANS.
A number of prepositions are similarly built from instrumental forms, as cited in the follow-
2.1 I NSTRUMEN-
TAL: A MEANS as a
ing table (mn7.2). Note that kolem is both an adverb and a preposition, since one can say
conduit for an both Šla kolem ‘She was walking around/by’ and Přišla kolem osmé ‘She came at around
activity. eight o’clock’.
2.2 I NSTRUMEN-
TAL: A MEANS as a
Instrumental Forms that Serve as Prepositions
path (conduit)
through space.
během [run-INST] + GEN ‘during’
2.3 I NSTRUMEN- formou [form-INST] + GEN ‘in the form of’
TAL: A MEANS as kolem [circle-INST] + GEN ‘around’
an abstract path. koncem [end-INST] + GEN ‘at the end of’
3.1 I NSTRUMEN- následkem [result-INST] + GEN ‘as a result of, because of’
TAL: A MEANS as a
path through
počátkem [beginning-INST] + GEN ‘at the beginning of’
time. pomocí [help-INST] + GEN ‘with the help of, by means of’
4.1 Plural paths prostřednictvím [intermediary-INST] + GEN ‘by means of, through’
— INSTRUMEN - směrem k [direction-INST to] + DAT ‘in the direction of’
TAL : A MEANS in
vinou [guilt-INST] + GEN ‘due to’
places and at
times.
vlivem [influence-INST] + GEN ‘due to’
5.1 INSTRUMEN - vzhledem k [view-INST to] + DAT ‘in view of’
TAL: A MEANS as a začátkem [beginning-INST] + GEN ‘at the beginning of’
facilitator, instru- zásluhou [merit-INST] + GEN ‘as a result of’
ment, or means.
5.2 INSTRUMEN -
TAL: A MEANS with
In all instances there is a strong and dynamic relationship between these prepositions and
physical instru- the corresponding instrumental case forms, and it would be impossible to overlook the
ments. contibution of the instrumental to their meanings, as we see in these examples:
5.3 INSTRUMEN -
TAL: A MEANS with
*Následkem nízkých sklízní, zaviněných vlivem počasí, hrozí zvýšení ceny chleba.
metaphorical in-
struments.
[Result-INST low harvests-GEN, caused influence-INST weather, threatens rise-NOM
6.1 INSTRUMEN - price-GEN bread-GEN.]
TAL: A MEANS can Because of the small harvest, caused by the weather, there is a threat of a rise in the price of
express the item bread.
necessary for an
action.
7.1 Adverbs ex-
Předtím se osoby se stejným křestným jménem rozlišovaly pomocí tzv. nedědičných příjmení
pressing INSTRU- (Václav, řečený Vácha).
MENTAL: A MEANS. [Earlier self-ACC persons with same given name-INST differentiated help-INST so-called
15
Landmark Dědeček po babiččině odjezdu naplnil lednici uzenými jazyky, telecími játry a vepřovými
1.1 Overview of kotletami.
INSTRUMENTAL:: [Grandfather-NOM after grandmother’s departure-LOC filled refrigerator-ACC smoked
A LANDMARK.
tongue-INST, calf’s liver-INST and pork cutlets-INST.]
1.2 před + IN -
STRUMENTAL:: A
After grandmother left, grandfather filled the refrigerator with smoked tongue, calf’s liver,
LANDMARK ‘in and pork cutlets.
front of, before’
in the domain of Being involved in something can be a cause for joy or woe, and a number of Czech words
space. with these meanings are associated with INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS. Like the control and ma-
1.3 před + IN -
STRUMENTAL:: A
nipulation words above, some of these words can be alternatively used with s ‘with’ +
LANDMARK ‘be- INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT, and some use other cases and/or preposition + case combina-
17
tions, as indicated below. The words that mean ‘be interested in’ are a transitional type, for fore, ago’ in the
they overlap with both lists. domain of time.
1.4 The use of
před + INSTRU-
Words Indicating Enjoyment and Suffering MENTAL:: A LAND-
dojat(ý) ‘touched (emotionally) by’ pohrdat ‘despise’ MARK in the do-
holedbat se (LCz) ‘flaunt’ postižen(ý) ‘afflicted, handicapped with’ main of moral-
honosit se ‘glory in, boast of’ po-těšit se (also DAT; z + GEN; na + ACC) ‘enjoy’ ity and justice.
překypovat ‘be bursting (with emotion)’ 2.1 za + INSTRU-
chlubit se (also s) ‘boast of’ pyšnit se ‘be proud of’ MENTAL:: A LAND-
chvástat se‘brag of’ rozptýlit/rozptylovat se ‘enjoy, distract oneself with’ MARK ‘beyond,
kochat se (also v + LOC) ‘delight in’ rozstonat se (also s; na + ACC) ‘become ill behind’.
with’ 2.2 za + INSTRU-
MENTAL:: A LAND-
ochořet ‘become ill with’ spokojen(ý) (also s) ‘satisfied with” MARK ‘going af-
okouzlit/okouzlovat se ‘be charmed by’ ter’.
onemocnět ‘become ill with’ trpět (also s) ‘suffer’ 2.3 za + INSTRU-
opovrhnout/opovrhovat ‘scorn’ vychloubat se ‘boast of’ MENTAL:: A LAND-
MARK in the do-
po-bavit se‘have a good time with’ zabývat se (also s) ‘be interested in’
main of time.
Matka překypovala dobrou náladou, citovala hojně z divadelných her. 3.1 nad + IN -
[Mother-NOM bursted good mood-INST, recited much from theatrical plays-GEN.] STRUMENTAL:: A
My mother was bursting with good feelings, reciting many lines from theatrical plays. L A N D M A R K
‘above’.
3.2 nad + IN -
Pan Hlavatý, důchodce a astmatik, se rád nechával okouzlit chlapcovou zdvořilostí. STRUMENTAL:: A
[Mr. Hlavatý-NOM, pensioner-NOM and asthmatic-NOM, self-ACC glad-NOM allowed LANDMARK in the
charm boy’s politeness-INST.] domain of emo-
Mr. Hlavatý, a pensioner and an asthmatic, liked to let himself be charmed by the boy’s tions and
politeness. thoughts.
3.3 nad + IN -
STRUMENTAL:: A
Poruchami spánku trpí stále víc lidí. LANDMARK can
[Defects-INST sleep-GEN suffer constantly more-NOM people-GEN.] express control
More and more people suffer from trouble sleeping. ‘over’.
4.1 pod + IN -
INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS 8—The passive agent STRUMENTAL:: A
The examples we have seen of the conduit meaning of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS are based LANDMARK ‘un-
der’.
on this model: a nominative subject + a verb (or adjective) + an instrumental conduit + 4.2 pod + IN -
whatever else is in the sentence. INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS participates in another construc- STRUMENTAL:: A
tion, which looks like this: a nominative subject + (verb být—this item may be missing) + LANDMARK can
passive participle + instrumental passive agent (mn9.1) + whatever else is in the sentence. express subor-
Czech passive participles are words like: u-dělán/u-dělaný ‘done’, sledován/sledovaný ‘fol- dination, pro-
tection, and
lowed’, prominut(ý) ‘forgiven’, začat(ý) ‘begun’, od-souzen(ý) ‘convicted’, vy-pit(ý) ‘drunk both covert and
up’, u-pečen(ý) ‘baked’. Passive participles tell about something being done to an item, by overt identities.
someone or something else, and that someone or something else is the passive agent. Given
what we already know about the instrumental case, it is no surprise that Czechs use it to 5.1 mezi + IN -
STRUMENTAL:: A
mark the passive agent, since it is the someone or something by means of which an action
LANDMARK ‘be-
tween, among’.
18 The InstrumentalCase
takes place.
Often there is an obvious correlation between passive participles and active verb forms
(mn9.2). For example, it is possible to say Jak české, tak slovenské velvyslanectví
spoluorganizovala kongres [How Czech-NOM, thus Slovak embassy-NOM coorganized
congress-ACC] ‘Both the Czech and Slovak embassies coorganized the congress’. Stated
this way, we use an active verb, spoluorganizovala ‘coorganized’, and the agent is ex-
pressed as a nominative subject, Jak české, tak slovenské velvyslanectví ‘Both the Czech
and Slovak embassies’. This might be a normal sentence to find in the context of a discus-
sion of the activities of the embassies, however, in an article describing the congress, we
find the following sentence, which uses byl ‘was’ + the passive participle spoluorganizován
‘coorganized’, and marks the agent as INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS:
Similarly, while one could say Pedagogický úspěch rozradostnil učitelku [Pedagogical
success-NOM delighted teacher-ACC] ‘Pedagogical success delighted the teacher’, in a
sentence like the following one where the focus is already on the teacher, it is more normal
to use a passive participle and instrumental agent. Notice that in this example the verb být
‘be’ is absent:
In the next sentence once again the passive participle and instrumental agent are used to
maintain focus on the topic of discussion, which is the statues, rather than the sculptors who
executed the enlargements:
*Sochy Dvořáka a Masaryka od již zemřelých autorů existovaly v menším měřítku a byly
dodatečně zvětšovány jinými sochaři.
[Statues-NOM Dvořák-GEN and Masaryk-GEN from already deceased artists-GEN ex-
isted in smaller scale-LOC and were subsequently enlarged-NOM other sculptors-INST.]
Statues of Dvořák and Masaryk rendered by already deceased artists existed on a smaller
scale and were subsequently enlarged by other sculptors.
*Smlouva z roku 1927, která zamezovala dvojí občanství, byla vypovězena všemi stranami
před několika lety.
[Treaty-NOM from year-GEN 1927, which-NOM restricted dual citizenship-ACC, was re-
19
*Návrhy podané parlamentem, vládou nebo prezidentem Ústavní soud předřazuje, aby
byly rychle vyřízeny.
[Proposals submitted-ACC parliament-INST, government-INST or prezident-INST
Constitutional Court-NOM prioritizes, so-that were quickly handled-NOM.]
The Constitutional Court prioritizes proposals submitted by the parliament, the govern-
ment, or the president, so that they can be handled quickly.
Note that in the last example above, the passive participle is not nominative, it is accusative,
and the item it refers to (the proposals) is actually the direct object of the sentence. In fact,
a passive participle accompanied by an instrumental agent can appear in any role in a sen-
tence. In the following sentence the participle is marked GENITIVE:: A WHOLE; you can think
of it as deriving from a passive sentence like Tabu byla vyhlášena babičkou [Taboos-NOM
were declared-NOM grandmother-INST] ‘The taboos were declared by Grandmother’
and related to the active version Babička vyhlásila tabu [Grandmother-NOM declared ta-
boos-ACC] ‘Grandmother declared the taboos’:
There are a few ways in which the conduit and passive agent type of instrumental
overlap(mn9.3). For one thing, it is fairly common for adjectives to be used to express
being in a certain state, and this is something that they share with past passive participles
(which are, after all, adjectives derived from verbs). Take an example like:
Is the evening using the band’s performance as a tool to make itself remarkable, or is the
performance the agent in bringing about this state of remarkableness? It probably doesn’t
matter. For another thing, sometimes even when you have a passive verb form, an instru-
mental item can identify either an instrument or an agent, and sometimes you can’t tell for
sure. Take a look at this example:
*Je nežádoucí, aby z české politiky byli novým volebním systémem vyloučeni unionisté a
lidovci.
20 The InstrumentalCase
[Is not-desirable-NOM, so-that from Czech politics-GEN were new electoral system-INST
excluded-NOM unionists-NOM and populists-NOM.]
It is not desirable that unionists and populists be excluded from Czech politics by the new
electoral system.
Is the new electoral system an agent that is actually working to exclude certain people, or
are others using the new system as an instrument to produce this exclusion, or is exclusion
just happening, and the new system is the means by which it is occuring? Once again, it
doesn’t really matter; this sentence can be used to make any of those assertions. One of the
beauties of language is that there is room for ambiguity and overlap.
There are some rare constructions in Czech that contain no subjects, and one of them uses
INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS to identify a raw force that brings about an event. With the “raw
force” use of the instrumental case, you get sentences based on the model of “something
happened by means of X”, where X is the instrumental item, but there is no actual agent in
signt. The effect is rather similar to the ambiguous examples just above, where we see a
blurring of the distinction between the conduit and passive agent uses of INSTRUMENTAL:A
MEANS, and is also similar to the “swarming” use discussed in section 4. However, unlike the
passive agent use, “raw force” uses active (not passive) verb forms that are always neuter
singular, the “default mode” for verbs that have no subject. “Raw force” is typically used to
describe agentless events that are best understood as involuntary sensations, as demon-
strated by these examples:
Roztřáslo ho zimou.
[Shook him-ACC cold-INST.]
He was shaken by the cold.
Polilo ho horkem.
[Poured him-ACC heat-INST.]
A sensation of heat poured over him.
thing, what set of things it belongs to. Very often INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL is used with verbs
like být ‘be’ or stát/stávat se ‘become’ to describe labels with varying degrees of imperma-
nence. The world of politics is a good place to look for unstable nomenclatures, as the next
few examples attest. The first example below is the title of an editorial by a person who had
once admired Václav Klaus, but then wrote an article telling why he changed his mind. In
the second and third examples the items marked with the instrumental are titles associated
with political posts, transitory labels by definition:
In the examples above, INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL is limited in its application over time. A label
may also be limited in its application to a specific context. The following sentence is taken
from an article on suicide, and the claims it makes about Monday and May apply only to
that context, although within that context they may be permanent:
This next example shows both a contextual limitation of INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL, where
Enlgish is official only for aviation, as well as a conventional usage in the phrase být otázkou
života a smrti [be question-INST life-GEN and death-GEN] ‘be a question of life and
death’.
*Angličtina je oficiální řečí v aviatice, kde dokonalé porozumění je otázkou života a smrti.
[English-NOM is official language-INST aviation-GEN, where perfect understanding-NOM
is question-INST life-GEN and death-GEN.]
English is the official language in aviation, where perfect understanding is a question of
life and death.
All kinds of items can be labeled as reasons or causes for something beign the way it is, and
this kind of categorization is conventionalized when the words důvodem [reason-INST]
22 The InstrumentalCase
‘reason’ and příčinou [cause-INST] ‘cause’ are used with the verb být, as illustrated in this
example:
Příčinou zdravotních potíží novinářů jsou trvalý stres, nepravidelná strava, sedavý způsob
zaměstnaní.
[Cause-INST health problems-GEN journalists-GEN are constant stress-NOM, irregular
food-NOM, sedentary means-NOM employment-GEN.]
The causes of journalists’ health problems are constant stress, irregular eating habits, and a
sedentary work style.
Note also that INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL can be used even in the absence of a verb, as in this
newspaper headline for an editorial suggesting a candidate for the presidency:
There are many words that serve more or less as synonyms of být ‘be’ and stát/stávat se
‘become’ and share this construction of NOMINATIVE: A NAME + verb + INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL,
and all roughly mean ‘X is a Y’, where X is a specific item, and Y is the category used to
label it(mn1.3). Here are some of these words:
V mládí jsem se učil hrobařem, jezdit s hlínou, jezdit s trakařem, kopat hroby byl můj
ideál.
[In youth-LOC AUX self-ACC studied grave-digger-INST, drive with dirt-INST, drive
with wheelbarrow-INST, dig graves-ACC was my ideal-NOM.]
When I was young I studied to be a gravedigger, driving a wheelbarrow around with dirt
and digging graves was my ideal.
Vyprávěla jsi mi, že jsi měla známost s policejním detektivem a že zůstal tvým přítelem.
[Told AUX me-DAT, that AUX had aquaintance-ACC with police detective-INST and that
remained your friend-INST.]
You told me that you made the acquaintance of a police detective and that he has remained
your friend.
The two verbs ukázat/ukazovat se ‘show self (to be)’ and zdát se ‘seem (to be)’ don’t just
stand in for být ‘be’, but instead seem to require that být appear in combination with them,
as in this example:
When a label is applied metaphorically, INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL has the power to invoke
a comparison, stating that ‘X is like a Y’, in cases where we know that X cannot literally be
a Y(mn1.4). Of course we know that mother is not literally a picture, nor is Zeman literally
a locomotive, but we can use INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL to make the comparisons present in the
following two sentences:
V tu chvíli se maminka, která jinak byla obrazem tiché pokory, přímo rozběsnila.
[In that time-ACC self-ACC mother-NOM, who-NOM otherwise was image-NOM quiet
submission-GEN, downright got-enraged.]
At that moment mother, who was otherwise the image of quiet submission, became down-
right enraged.
INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL can be applied in the absence of být ‘be’ or any other triggering
word. Note its use in the following two examples, where it has a meaning similar to English
‘like’ or ‘as’:
24 The InstrumentalCase
Jirko, kamaráde, kdo ti stál modelem? Nějakej vzpěrač nebo boxer těžký váhy? (CCz)
[Jirka-VOC, friend-VOC, who-NOM you-DAT stood model-INST? Some weightlifter-
NOM or boxer-NOM heavy weight-GEN?]
Jirka, my friend, who modeled for you? A weightlifter or a heavyweight boxer?
It is also common for verbs with meanings like ‘appoint’, ‘choose’, ‘make’ to apply the
INSTRUMENTAL::A LABEL to the items marked as their accusative direct objects. Here is a table
and a few examples to show you how this works(mn1.5):
*Jeho osobní statečnost, morální autorita, filozofické zaměření a porozumění pro problémy
společnosti i jednotlivce jej činí jedinečným kandidátem.
[His personal courage-NOM, moral authority-NOM, philosophical attitude-NOM and un-
derstanding-NOM for problems-ACC society-GEN and individual-GEN him-ACC make
unique candidate-INST.]
His personal courage, moral authority, philosophical attitude and understanding for the prob-
lems of society and the individual make him a unique candidate.
Ve čtyřech letech čtrnáctý tibetský dalajlama byl oficiálně prohlášen vůdcem tibetského
národa.
[In four years-LOC fourteenth Tibetan Dalailama-NOM was officially proclaimed-NOM
leader-INST Tibetan nation-GEN.]
At the age of four the fourteenth Tibetan Dalailama was officially proclaimed the leader of
the Tibetan nation.
[Honza-NOM cut meat-ACC knife-INST] ‘Honza cut bread with a knife’ is of course an
example of INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS, whereas Honza mluvil s učitelem [Honza-NOM talked
with teacher-INST] ‘Honza was talking with the teacher’ is an example of INSTRUMEN-
TAL::AN ADJUNCT. In Czech the use of the preposition s ‘with’ is generally reserved for
INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT to introduce an accomplice, companion, or other peripheral ad-
junct to an item of more central importance.
Just about any activity a person engages in can become a joint project when there is
someone else to share it with, as we see in these examples(mn1.2):
Many activities that are part of interpersonal relationships require a partner to engage with.
All of the words below can use s ‘with’ to name such a partner(mn1.3):
The following examples illustrate the use of INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT with these words:
Obchody prezentují kolekce tak, aby obleky ladily s košilemi, kravatami i dalšími doplňky
včetně bot.
[Stores-NOM present collections-ACC thus, so-that suits-NOM harmonized with shirts-
INST, ties-INST, and other accessories-INST including shoes-GEN.]
The stores present their collections making sure that the suits go with the shirts, ties, and
other accessories, including shoes.
Several complex prepositions are motivated by the idea of engagement and are combined
with s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT, as evidenced in this table and the following example:
pořádku.
[In connection-LOC with latest scandal-INST Jirásková-NOM stated, that was assured-
NOM, that is everything-NOM in order-LOC.]
In connection with the latest scandal Jirásková stated that she had been assured that every-
thing was ok.
Czech is not entirely fastidious about distinguishing between the meaning of accompani-
ment associated with s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT and the meaning of conduit meaning of
the prepositionless INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS. As a result, there is strong overlap between these
two uses of the instrumental case, evidenced by the extension of the preposition s to con-
texts that include INSTRUMENTAL:A MEANS. This tendency to “overuse” s is particularly strong
in CCz, where s can sometimes be inserted even when the instrumental case marks an
instrument, as in Přijeli jsme s autem (CCz) [Came AUX with car-INST] ‘We came by
car’ (compare this with the LCz version Přijeli jsme autem).
The adjective spokojený ‘satisfied’ can likewise be used either in conjunction with INSTRU-
MENTAL:A MEANS or with s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT.
Bylo to druhý rok, kdy jachta kotvila v přistavu na Sibiři, na území s nekonečnými a pustými
lesními porosty tajgy.
[Was that-NOM second year-NOM, when yacht-NOM anchored in harbor-LOC at Siberia-
28 The InstrumentalCase
The phrase mít něco společného s [have something-ACC common-GEN with] is fairly fre-
quent and transparently patterned after the same idea as its English equivalent ‘have some-
thing in common with, something to do with’; here is an example of how it is used:
A few idiomatic uses of Czech s + INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT lack obvious parallels with
English(mn2.3). For example, the construction zacházet s can mean ‘treat’ when the instru-
mental item is a person who is being treated well or badly, or it can mean ‘use masterfully’
when the instrumental item is an inanimate object which the subject has a special talent for
using. If you are holding something and someone wants to take it out of your hands, the
phrase S dovolením! [With permission-INST!] ‘May I?/Please, allow me!’ is a polite way
to state their request. When talking about the day on which a future event is expected to take
place, it is possible to use s + a day of the week marked INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT, with a
meaning very similar to English come, as in S pondělkem vyrazíme na pláž [With Monday-
INST take-off for beach-ACC] ‘Come Monday we’ll take off for the beach’. If someone is
exaggerating, Czechs will say that the person is speaking (using a verb like mluvit orříkat)
s nadsázkou [with exaggeration-INST].
The farewell greeting spánembohem ‘goodbye’ is built from the phrase s Pánem Bohem
[with Lord God-INST], meaning ‘(May you go) with the Lord God’.
An even more peculiar construction teams the instrumental up with the dative case to
describe something that happens to two people who are thought of as a couple(mn2.4). One
member of the pair is either the speaker (‘I’) or the hearer (‘you’) and is referred to as plural
(even though this person is obviously singular) using the dative pronouns nám or vám. The
other member of the pair (usually a spouse or significant other) appears as s +
INSTRUMENTAL::AN ADJUNCT. Thus one could ask Jak se vám se ženou daří? [How self-ACC
you-DAT with wife-INST thrives?] ‘How are you and your wife doing?’, and in response
you might hear something like:
This use of the instrumental to indicate the second person of a couple is also possible when
the speaker is the first person of the couple and is also the subject of the sentence, provided
that the subject pronoun is not used. In this construction, the verb appears in the my ‘we’
form, as we see with the verb Jdeme ‘go’ in this example:
If a human being serves as a landmark in this way, they are often understood as a witness to
whatever event is placed before them, so Czechs will say things like Nebudeme se hádat
před dětmi [Will-not argue self-ACC in-front-of children-INST] ‘We aren’t going to argue
in front of the children’. Here’s another example:
Před nimi živá skutečná zvířata skákala, plazila se a létala tak blízko, že cítili jejch pach a
viděli každý jejich chlup.
[In-front-of them-INST live real animals-NOM jumped, crawled and flew so close that
they smelled their scent-ACC and saw every their hair-ACC.]
Real live animals jumped, crawled, and flew so close in front of them that they could smell
their scent and see every hair on their bodies.
In the domain of time, před means ‘before’ when referring to events, as in před odjezdem
[before departure-INST] ‘before leaving’, or ‘ago’ when referring to periods of time, as in
před rokem [before year-INST] ‘a year ago’, or can appear in the fixed phrase před tím,
než [before that-INST, than] ‘before’, as illustrated in these two examples, where the land-
ing of a plane serves as a temporal landmark for a crash, and a week is a period of time prior
to which some boasting took place (mn1.3):
Trosky Airbusu A320 ční z mělké vody u pobřeží Bahrajnu, kam se letoun společnosti Gulf
31
The idiomatic construction mít něco před sebou [have something-ACC before self-
INST] ‘have something before oneself/have yet to deal with something’ describes a future
event (often an upcoming challenge) by conflating the domains of space and time. Here the
subject stands on an imaginary time line facing the future and sees something that is coming
up. Alternatively, the instrumental item can be the event itself, and the meaning is very
similar, as in mít před svatbou [have before wedding-INST] which might be translated as
‘have a wedding coming up’. Here are examples of how these constructions are used:
Mám před sebou stěhování do nového bytu, moc se na to těším, ale současně se obávám
všech komplikací s tím spojených.
[Have before self-INST moving-ACC to new apartment-GEN, much self-ACC on that-
ACC look-forward, but at-the-same-time self-ACC fear all complications-GEN with that-
INST connected-GEN.]
I have the move into the new apartment coming up, I’m really looking forward to it, but at
the same time I’m afraid of all the complications connected with it.
Mají před svatbou, ale chovají se, jakoby spolu byli alespoň dvacet let.
[Have before wedding-INST, but behave self-ACC, as-if together were at-least twenty-
ACC years-GEN.]
Their wedding is coming up, but they behave as if they had been together at least twenty
years.
Preferences invoke an imaginary space where some items are placed before others,
indeed the Czech word přednost ‘preference’ is even built from the preposition před. The
positioning of items in this metaphorical space is evident in the construction dát/dávat
někomu/něčemu přednost před někým/něčím [give someone/something-DAT preference-
ACC before someone/something-INST] ‘prefer someone/something over someone/some-
thing’. Here is an example of how this construction is used:
In the metaphorical space of confrontation, před is often used to describe what a person
does in the face of a given challenge. Here are some common phrases involving před: utéci/
utíkat před nepřítelem [flee before enemy-INST] ‘flee from an enemy’, chránit/schovat se
před zimou [protect/hide self-ACC before cold-INST] ‘protect oneself from/get out of the
cold’, mít před někým strach [have before someone-INST fear-ACC] ‘be afraid of some-
one’, ostýchat se před někým [be-shy self-ACC before someone-INST] ‘be shy of some-
one’, mít před někým respekt [have before someone-INST respect] ‘respect someone’,
stydět se sám před sebou [shame self-ACC self-NOM before self-INST] ‘be ashamed of
oneself’, stát v úžasu před něčím [stand in amazement-LOC before something-INST] ‘be
amazed at something’.
Na moje doporučení, že by se měly schovat před zimou do auta, odpověděly: “Přežily jsme
vězení, přežijeme všechno…” a smály se.
[On my recommendation-ACC, that AUX self-ACC had hide before cold-INST to car-
GEN, answered: “Lived-through prison-ACC, live-through everything-ACC…” and laughed
self-ACC.]
In response to my recommendation that they go in the car to get out of the cold, they
answered: “We lived through prison, we can live through everything…” and laughed.
Všichni stojí v úžasu před rychlostí, s jakou Vladimir Putin zdánlivě nezadržitelně míří
směrem vzhůru.
[Everyone-NOM stands in amazement-LOC before speed-INST, with which-INST Vladimir
Putin-NOM apparently unstoppably aims direction-INST upward.]
Everyone is amazed at the speed with which Vladimir Putin is apparently unstoppably
aiming upward.
Při přistání letoun zachytil křídlem o přistávací plochu a po několika kotrmelcích skončil
jako obří ohnivá koule v kukuřičném poli za letištěm.
[During landing-LOC plane-NOM knocked wing-INST against landing surface-ACC and
after several somersaults-LOC ended like giant fiery ball-NOM in corn field-LOC behind
airport-INST.]
During landing the plane knocked its wing against the airstrip and after several somersaults
33
Pracoval venku za domem, a když jsem ho chtěla zavolat k obědu, už tam nebyl.
[Worked outside behind house-INST, but when AUX him-ACC wanted call to lunch-DAT,
already there not-was.]
He was working outside behind the house, but when I wanted to call him to lunch, he
wasn’t there anymore.
Stopoval jsem za Sušicí, nikdo mě nebral, tak jsem si lehl do trávy a pozoroval mraky.
[Hitchiked AUX behind Sušice-INST, noone-NOM me-ACC not-took, so AUX self-DAT
lay to grass-GEN and watched clouds-ACC.]
I was hitchiking outside of Sušice and nobody picked me up, so I lay down in the grass and
watched the clouds.
The notion that za identifies a barrier between us and another item is capitalized on in the
Czech idiomatic construction mít něco za lubem [have something-ACC behind strip-of-
wood-INST] ‘have something up one’s sleeve/be up to no good (literally: ‘have something
behind a piece of wood’)’.
There are three spatial uses of za that are especially worth noting because they serve not
only to describe where a person is, but also what they are doing. One is za volantem
[behind wheel-INST] ‘behind the wheel of a car (acting as the driver)’, another is za stolem
[behind table-INST] ‘at the table (while working on something or eating a meal)’. In the
case of the third expression, za školou [behind school-INST] ‘playing hookey’, the loca-
tion is actually irrelevant—the person may be anywhere (except in school, of course).
Seděla za volantem nablýskaného auta z dovozu, značkové kalhoty a svetřík obepínaly její
udržovanou postavu.
[Sat behind wheel-INST polished car-GEN from import-GEN, designer pants-NOM and
sweater-NOM enclosed her well-maintained figure-ACC.]
34 The InstrumentalCase
She sat behind the wheel of a polished imported car, designer pants and a sweater enclosed
her well-maintained figure.
Just as we use ‘behind’ with the word ‘follow’, so do Czechs associate za + INSTRUMEN-
TAL::A LANDMARK with following and going to(mn2.2). The following examples demon-
strate this use in physical movement through space, in sequential action along the dimen-
sion of time, and in the domain of adventures, respectively:
Turisté zas vytáhli zpod sedadel vaky a láhve a odešli za novými dobrodružstvími.
[Tourists-NOM again pulled-out from-beneath seats-GEN baguettes-ACC and bottles-ACC
and left after new adventures-INST.]
The tourists got their baguettes and bottles out from under the seats again and left in pursuit
of new adventures.
Za is the antonym of před not only in the domain of space, but also in the domain of
time(mn2.3). Whereas mít něco před sebou [have something-ACC before self-INST] ‘have
something before oneself/have yet to deal with something’ describes a future event that has
to be faced, mít něco za sebou [have something-ACC behind self-INST] ‘have something
behind oneself/be done with something’ describes a past event that one has survived. Here
is an example for good measure:
Když už dívka reprezentuje USA, má za sebou nejméně deset podobných soutěží doma.
[If already girl-NOM represents USA-ACC, has behind self at-least ten-ACC similar con-
tests-ACC at-home.]
If a girl is representing the USA, she has at least ten similar contests behind her at home.
35
Because we often think of causes as being hidden, they can also be expressed with this
preposition. In the following example, the narrator is looking for whatever it is that has
brought about political success, the reason hiding behind the obvious result:
Cities are frequently built on waterways, and a number of Czech cities are named using the
construction X(city)-NOM nad Y(river)-INST, for example Ústí nad Labem, literally ‘Ústí
above the Elbe’, and Jablonec na Jizerou, literally ‘Jablonec above the Jizera’.
We imagine graphs and scales as having a vertical dimension, so if one item is more or
better than another, it will be higher on the scale. Excellence and victory depend on exceed-
ing a norm, on reaching a higher point on a scale, and this concept has found its expression
in the Czech use of nad + INST with words like vynikat ‘excel’, z-vítězit ‘conquer, be
victorious’ , and vítězství ‘victory’. Here is an example:
As with English ‘over’, nad identifies a vantage point that has certain implications(mn3.2).
It is a location from which one can experience certain emotions, as well as the emotional
distance that gives us space to think about things, motivating phrases like radovat se nad
‘rejoice over’, lítost nad ‘regret concerning’, zamyslet se nad ‘meditate on’. A position
‘above’ an item facilitates manipulation and control(mn3.3). Control over an item can be
wielded by legal or governmental authority, as in the following example:
V koruně nejbližší jabloně se pod narůžovělými květy už zřetelně rýsovala příští letní
jablka.
[In crown-LOC nearest apple-tree-GEN self-ACC under rosy blossoms-INST already clearly
foreshadowed next summer apples-NOM.]
The next crop of summer apples was already clearly foreshadowed beneath the rosy blos-
soms in the crown of the nearest apple tree.
The metaphorical space of numbers and statistics motivates using pod to indicate amounts
that are lower than others, as in this example:
*Růst hrubého domácího produktu České republiky je pod průměrem kandidátských zemí
Evropské Unie.
[Growth-NOM gross domestic product-GEN Czech Republic-GEN is below average-INST
candidate countries-GEN European Union-GEN.]
The growth of the gross domestic product of the Czech Republic is below the average of
coutries that are candidates for the European Union.
Just as nad gave us the perspective of control ‘over’, pod can conversely describe being
‘under’ control(4.2):
Čtyřicet minut se budou noví kandidáti na řidičský průkaz potit pod dohledem zkušebního
komisaře u praktického testu jízdy.
[Forty-ACC minutes-GEN self-ACC will new candidates-NOM for driver’s license-ACC
sweat under supervision-INST testing officer-GEN at pratical test-GEN ride-GEN.]
New candidates for driver’s licenses will have to sweat for forty minutes under the super-
vision of the testing officer at their road tests.
Restrictions, threats, and punishments are understood of as being imposed from on high;
37
they are the conditions under which we are forced act, and the use of pod + INST is well
motivated to describe such situations, as these three sentences demonstrate:
Se zbraní a pod pohrůžkou násilí donutil zatím nezámý pachatel pokladní, aby mu vydala
peníze.
[With weapon-INST and under threat-INST violence-GEN forced still unknown criminal-
NOM teller-ACC, so-that him-DAT issued money-ACC.]
With a weapon and under threat of violence an unknown criminal forced a teller to issue
him money.
Léčba drogově závislého může být úspěšná pouze pod podmínkou, přizná-li si on sám, že
lécení potřebuje.
[Treatment-NOM by-drugs dependent-GEN can be successful-NOM only under condition-
INST, admits-if self-DAT he-NOM self-NOM, that treating-ACC needs.]
The treatment of a person dependent on drugs can be successful only under the condition
that the person himself admits that he needs to be treated.
Vstup na trávníky v areálu zahrady je zakázán pod pokutou dvou set korun.
[Entrance-NOM on lawns-ACC in complex-LOC garden-GEN is prohibited-NOM under
fine-INST two hundred crowns-GEN.]
Entrance to the lawns in the garden complex is prohibited and carries a fine of two hun-
dred crowns.
Strikingly similar to Engish is the stock phrase řízení auta pod vlivem alkoholu [driv-
ing-NOM car-GEN under influence-INST alcohol-GEN] ‘driving a car under the influ-
ence of alcohol’, which is equally disastrous in both cultures. Czech also shares with En-
glish the concept under pressure, as we see in this example:
Producenti jsou pod stále větším tlakem konkurence a musejí spojovat své síly, aby obstáli.
[Producers-NOM are under constantly greater pressure-INST competition-GEN and must
join own forces-ACC, so-that survive.]
The producers are under ever increasing pressure due to competition and they must join
forces in order to survive.
Since a name or title typically goes on top of something, pod can indicate the name
given to companies, products, and people, as in these examples:
Fúzí obou bank vznikne nový subjekt, který bude působit podobchodním jménem Bank
Austria Creditanstalt jako univerzální banka.
[Fusion-INST both banks-GEN appears new entity-NOM, which-NOM will function under
commercial name-INST Bank Austria Creditanstalt as universal bank-NOM.]
Due to the fusion of both banks, a new entity will appear which will function under the
commercial name of Bank Austria Creditanstalt as a universal bank.
Populární dívčí skupinu Spice Girls opustila jedna ze zpěvaček vystupující pod
pseudonymem Ginger Spice.
[Popular female group-ACC Spice Girls left one-NOM from singers-GEN performing-NOM
under pseudonym-INST Ginger Spice.]
One of the singers, who performed under the pseudonym of Ginger Spice, has left the
popular female group, the Spice Girls.
Kvůli opravě trati nebudou jezdit vlaky mezi Masarykovým nádražím a Dejvicemi.
[Due-to repair-DAT rails-GEN not-will ride trains-NOM between Masaryk station-INST
and Dejvice-INST.]
Due to repairs on the rails, there will not be any trains running between Masaryk station
and Dejvice.
Bloudil jsem mezi šedivými paneláky, marně jsem hledal, v kterém domě vlastně bydlí.
[Wandered AUX among gray pre-fab-buildings-INST, in-vain AUX searched, in which
building-LOC actually lives.]
I wandered among the gray pre-fab apartment houses, searching in vain for the one she
lived in.
Like all the other prepositions associated with INSTRUMENTAL::A LANDMARK, mezi can be
used in metaphorical domains. In the following two sentences economic competition is
understood as a battle takng place between producers, and alienation is understood as a
fungus growing between two people, thus the domains of money and emotion are under-
stood as metaphorical spaces where items can be placed:
The alienation between me and my mother is growing like a toadstool after a substantial
rain.
Difference implies some separation between two or more items, a conpcept used by the
phrase rozdíl mezi ‘difference between’:
When we move to the metaphoical space of time, mezi + INST can be used to describe the
sequencing of a time or event relative to two other temporal landmarks. Here a morning
meeting is scheduled to begin between two times:
Mezi + INST participates in its share of idiomatic expressions. Ones you are likely to
endcounter include mezi dveřmi [between door-INST] ‘in the doorway’, zůstane to mezi
námi [remains that-NOM between us-INST] ‘let’s keep this to ourselves’, mezi čtyřma
očima [between four eyes-INST] ‘between the two of them/us (a private conversation)’,
prohodit mezi řečí [toss between speech-INST] ‘mention in passing’, mezi jiným [between
other-INST] ‘among other things’, číst mezi řádky [read between lines-INST] ‘read be-
tween the lines’, and procedit mezi zuby [strain between teeth-INST] ‘say through clenched
teeth (in anger)’.
Here are some sentences to demonstrate how these adverbs behave in context:
EPILOGUE
The meaning of the word instrumental is transparent to us, and it’s a good name for this
case because Czechs use it not only for instruments, but for a variety of items instrumental
to whatever a sentence describes: a path for motion, a way to do something, a time to do it,
the agent or cause of an event, the category something falls in, a companion or opponent, a
landmark for locating something. This survey of the instrumental case has also given us a
peek into the conceptual world of Czech. It is a world where vehicles are the instruments of
transportation and languages are the instruments of speech, a world where we walk a fine
line between wielding control of our surroundings and falling prey to their ability to give us
delight or suffering, a world where appearances can behave the same as what actually ex-
ists, a world where we can stand on a timeline and consider the things we’ve been through
and the things we still have to look forward to, a world where power is up and submission is
down. It is also a world where we can engage with others in a great variety of activities, be
they harmonious or not. Overall, the instrumental case is a coherent whole, a well-function-
ing unit with a logic of its own, and part of the greater case system of Czech. Hopefully this
chapter and this book will offer you a way to navigate this system, giving you the land-
marks you need to further explore it on your own and become a confident, masterful user of
case.
41
Can be used at any level of study All examples in the text and exercises are drawn
from elementary to advanced Russian from a database of naturally occurring Russian
sentences
Can be used in conjunction with
any textbook or other course materials Examples represent a variety of
genres and topics
Can be used for independent study by anyone
who is interested in Focus is on Case usage, not endings, but tables
maintaining and improving their Russian of case endings are included at the beginning of
each chapter and in a comprehensive Appendix
Individual chapters on each case
with major case usages Accompanying CD-ROM for both Windows and
explained in a use-by-use fashion Macintosh platforms
The book may be read through Exercises for each chapter are presented in
from beginning to end three difficulty levels to facilitate the
or in sections or used as a reference use of the book and CD-ROM
with different years of study
Future projects include
The Aspect Book for Russian CD-ROM contains male and female native-
as well as Case and Aspect Books speaker recordings of all examples
for other Slavic languages
Publication expected in late 2000 or early 2001
uses, in turn. ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION is also used when the motion is more imaginary than actual, as in metaphorical
points and state ◊ + ACCUSATIVE: A
DESTINATION in
Physical movement through space in the direction of or entering something is the most
basic use of ◊ expressing ACCUSATIVE: A DESTINATION.
the following to examples: motion.