FRONT END AC-DC BIDIRECTIONAL CONVERTERS

A PROJECT REPORT

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

by

P SHRISRINIVAS 19BEE1055

P SHYAM SUNDAR 19BEE1060

SAMBIT PATRA 19BEE1109

under the guidance of

Dr. Kanimozhi G

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

VIT CHENNAI

APRIL 2023
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work titled “FRONT END AC-DC
CONVERTERS” submitted by NAME OF THE CANDIDATE is in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY, is a record of bona fide work done under my guidance. The
contents of this project work, in full or in parts, have neither been taken from any
other source nor have been submitted to any other Institute or University for award
of any degree or diploma and the same is certified.

Signature (Only for External Projects) <<Signature>>

<<Name of the External Guide>> <<Name of the Internal Guide>>
External Project Supervisor Project Supervisor
(Name of the Organization)
(Organization stamp)

The thesis is satisfactory / unsatisfactory

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Approved by

Program Chair
B.Tech Electrical and Electronics Engineering

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Student is free to acknowledge all those he feels he should acknowledge on the
basis of the guidance and help provided during the implementation of the project. If
the student has conducted his project elsewhere (viz. outside VIT) appropriate
acknowledgement should be given to all concerned.

It is customary to acknowledge the University Management / respective School

Director for giving the candidate an opportunity to carry out his /her studies at the
University.

(Signature of the student)

Name of the Student
(Reg. Number)

3
ABSTRACT

In this paper, a novel solution is proposed for electric vehicle (EV) charging systems.
Specifically, a wide range bidirectional dc-dc converter is presented, which boasts an
improved voltage gain transfer ratio that is especially suitable for use in EV
applications. One of the key advantages of this converter is that it preserves the
common electrical ground between input and output terminals, thereby simplifying
the system and reducing costs. In addition, the converter features low voltage stress
of switches, high utilization factor, and high efficiency, making it an ideal solution
for EV charging systems. To evaluate the performance of the proposed EV charger,
bidirectional power flow modes are employed, namely Grid connected Vehicle to
Grid (V2G) and Grid to Vehicle (G2V) modes. The converter employs a dead-beat
current controller in the dc-dc and dc-ac stages, which is known for its smooth,
accurate, and fast response. This ensures optimal efficiency of the converter under
varying loading conditions. To substantiate the theoretical analysis, experimental
results for a 500 W, 40 V to 200 V prototype are provided under bidirectional power
flow in a closed-loop system in the presence of the proposed dead-beat controllers.
The obtained results validate the theoretical analysis and demonstrate the
applicability of this structure. Importantly, the converter exhibits the capability for
EV battery charging and discharging, while demonstrating a peak efficiency in the
step-down and the step-up mode of operation, respectively. In conclusion, the
proposed converter presents a cost-effective and efficient solution for EV charging
systems. The advantages of the converter, including the improved voltage gain
transfer ratio, low voltage stress of switches, high utilization factor, and high
efficiency, make it an attractive choice for grid-connected V2G and G2V
applications. The dead-beat current controller ensures smooth and fast response,
rendering it an optimal solution for high-performance EV charging systems. The
experimental results validate the theoretical analysis, and the converter's capabilities
demonstrate its applicability in practical EV charging systems. This paper thus
contributes to the growing body of research aimed at improving the efficiency and
effectiveness of EV charging systems.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

ABBREVIATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE xi

CHAPTER I 1

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1.1 Motivation 1

1.1.2 Objectives 1

1.1.3 Scope of the Work 1

1.2 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS 2

CHAPTER II 3

2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION 3

2.1 OVERVIEW OF PROJECT 3

2.2. MODULES OF THE PROJECT 3

2.1.1 Module 1 3

2.1.2 Module 2 3

2.2 TASKS AND MILESTONES 4

CHAPTER III 5

3. DESIGN OF <<PROJECT NAME>> 5

3.1 DESIGN APPROACH 5

3.1.1 Codes and Standards 5

3.1.2 Realistic Constraints 5

3.1.3 Alternatives and Tradeoffs 5

3.2 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 5

CHAPTER IV 6

5
4. PROJECT DEMONSTRATION 6

4.1 INTRODUCTION 6

4.2 ANALYTICAL RESULTS 6

4.3 SIMULATION RESULTS 6

4.4 HARWARE RESULTS 6

CHAPTER V 7

5. CONCLUSION 7

5.1 COST ANALYSIS 7

5.2 SCOPE OF WORK 7

5.3 SUMMARY 7

REFERENCES 8

PUBLICATIONS BASED ON THESIS 9

APPENDICES 10

Appendix 1: Smart Grid 10

Appendix 2: Simulation 11

CURRICULUM VITAE 12

6
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Design Specifications 2

7
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Performance Validation 2

Figure 1: Performance Validation 4

8
ABBREVIATIONS AND NOMENCLATURE

SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

PLC Programmable Logic Controller

9
 CHAPTER I

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Around the world, policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions from the energy sector are encouraging
2
The proposed structure is presented in section II. Section III is devoted to the
practical considerations and design of the proposed converter calculation.
Comparisons to the previous state of art converters are presented in section IV, the
deadbeat current controller implementation is given in section V and the
experimental verification is provided in section VI. Finally, section VII concludes the
paper.

[3] J. R. Pillai and B. Bak-Jensen, “Integration of vehicle-to-grid in the western

danish power system,” IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 12–19,
Jan. 2011.
The Danish power system heavily relies on wind power which is unpredictable,
requiring more balancing power to maintain stability and reliability. Currently,
balancing power is mostly provided by central power plants, decentralized combined
heat and power units, and foreign connections. Denmark aims to integrate 50% wind
power capacity in the future, which will replace conventional power plants.
However, this requires new balancing solutions like vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems.
This study models aggregated EV-based battery storage as a V2G system for long-
term dynamic power system simulations. The results show that the EV battery

3
storage can significantly minimize power deviations and regulation needs from
conventional generators, particularly during high and low wind production days in
the Western Danish power system.

[2] Z. Wang and S. Wang, “Grid power peak shaving and valley filling using
vehicle-to-grid systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 1822–1829,
Jul. 2013.

A proposed method for managing grid power peak and valley periods is to utilize
vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems. This paper describes the V2G system architecture
and the interconnection between its sub-systems. The authors introduce an objective
function for V2G peak-shaving control and outline the primary constraints. They also
analyze the impact of the number of connected electric vehicles (EVs) and the target
curve's average value. To assess the alignment between the target and planned
curves, the authors propose using the rms and standard deviation of the difference.
Through simulations, the study finds that V2G can effectively manage peak shaving,
and the control algorithm is feasible.

[5] L.-S. Yang and T.-J. Liang, “Analysis and implementation of a novel
bidirectional dc-dc converter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 59, no. 1, pp.
422–434, Jan. 2012.
This paper introduces a simple bidirectional dc-dc converter that uses a coupled
inductor with the same winding turns in the primary and secondary sides. By
operating the primary and secondary windings in different ways, the proposed
converter achieves higher step-up and step-down voltage gains than conventional
bidirectional boost/buck converters. The converter also has a lower average switch
current than the conventional converter under the same electric specifications. The
paper provides a detailed discussion of the operating principle and steady-state
analysis. The proposed converter's performance is verified through a 14/42-V
prototype circuit designed for automobile dual-battery systems.

[23] Zhang, Y., Gao, Y., Zhou, L. and Sumner, M., 2018. A switched-capacitor
bidirectional DC–DC converter with wide voltage gain range for electric

4
vehicles with hybrid energy sources. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics,
33(11), pp.9459-9469.

To improve electric vehicles with a hybrid energy source system, this paper proposes
a switched-capacitor bidirectional dc-dc converter with a high step-up/step-down
voltage gain. The converter is straightforward, has a low number of components, a
broad voltage-gain range, low voltage stress, and a common ground. Additionally,
the synchronous rectifiers allow for zero voltage switching turn-on and turn-off,
improving the converter's efficiency. The authors developed a 300 W prototype to
validate the converter's broad voltage-gain range (40-100 V on the low-voltage side
and 300 V on the high-voltage side) and achieved a maximum efficiency of 94.45%
in step-down mode and 94.39% in step-up mode. The experimental results support
the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed topology.

[9] H. Ardi, A. Ajami, F. Kardan, and S. N. Avilagh, “Analysis and

implementation of a nonisolated bidirectional dc-dc converter with high voltage
gain,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 63, no. 8, pp. 4878–4888, Aug. 2016.

This paper presents a non isolated bidirectional dc-dc converter that employs two
boost converters to increase the voltage gain. The proposed converter utilizes four
power switches along with their body diodes and incorporates two inductors and a
capacitor as passive components. By dividing the input current between the
inductors, the efficiency of the converter is optimized. The proposed converter
achieves a higher voltage gain in step-up mode than the conventional cascaded
bidirectional buck/boost converter (CCBC), while the voltage gain in step-down
mode is lower than the CCBC. Additionally, the proposed converter has a higher
efficiency than the CCBC, while maintaining the same total stress on active switches.
Due to its simple structure, the proposed converter is easy to control. The paper
thoroughly discusses the steady-state analysis of the proposed converter, and the
stress on the converter's devices and efficiency are compared with the CCBC.
Finally, the validity of the analysis is justified through implementation of a prototype
circuit of the proposed converter.

5
[6] C.-C. Lin, L.-S. Yang, and G. Wu, “Study of a non-isolated bidirectional dc-
dc converter,” IET Power Electron., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 30–37, Jan. 2013.

This paper presents a simple non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter with a

control strategy that is easy to implement. The converter utilizes synchronous
rectifier technique to minimize losses and can operate in a wide-voltage-conversion
range. Compared to conventional bidirectional DC-DC buck/boost converters, the
proposed converter has a voltage gain that is half and double in the step-down and
step-up modes, respectively, and voltage stresses on the switches are reduced. The
operating principle, steady-state analysis, and performance of a prototype circuit are
also discussed.

[7] D. Flores Cortez, G. Waltrich, J. Fraigneaud, H. Miranda, and I. Barbi, “Dc-

dc converter for dual-voltage automotive systems based on bidirectional hybrid
switched-capacitor architectures,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 62, no. 5, pp.
3296–3304, May. 2015.

Advanced power electronic converters are increasingly required for automotive

embedded electronic systems due to their rising power and complexity. Despite
several proposed dual-voltage (42 V/14 V) bidirectional converter architectures,
most of them have a low efficiency or a large number of components. This paper
proposes a hybrid topology that combines a switched-capacitor converter and a
conventional bidirectional converter, resulting in a bidirectional high-efficiency
converter with a lower number of components. The semiconductors' voltage across
the proposed converter is half of the highest voltage source value, and only one
inductor is used to control power flow between the two voltage sources. The
prototype was experimentally implemented, achieving a maximum efficiency of
97.5%.

[8] H. Ardi, R. Reza Ahrabi, and S. Najafi Ravadanegh, “Non-isolated

bidirectional dc-dc converter analysis and implementation,” IET Power
Electron., vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 3033–3044, Dec. 2014.

6
This study introduces a simple non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter with
better voltage gain compared to the conventional bidirectional buck/boost converter
in step-up mode and lower gain in step-down mode. The proposed converter can
operate over a wider voltage range, making it more applicable than conventional
converters. Control of the converter is also easy due to its simple structure. The paper
discusses the operating principle and steady-state analyses of the proposed converter
in both modes, and a laboratory prototype circuit is presented to verify the theoretical
analysis.

[11] Zhang, W. Zhang, F. Gao, S. Gao, and D. J. Rogers, “A switchedcapacitor

interleaved bidirectional converter with wide voltage-gain range for super
capacitors in EVs,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 1536–1547,
Feb. 2020.

This study proposes a three-phase interleaved structure with switched-capacitor cells

for a switched-capacitor interleaved bidirectional dc-dc converter. The converter has
a wide voltage-gain range, low-current ripple, and low voltage stresses across power
switches. It also has an absolute common ground between input and output and can
be easily extended into a topology family. Detailed analyses are conducted on the
operating principle and power switch voltage and current stresses. An 800 W
prototype is described with a wide voltage-gain range (U high = 400 V, U low = 30-
100 V) and demonstrated maximum efficiencies of 95.8% in the step-up mode and
95.9% in the step-down mode.

[13] Zhang, Q. Liu, J. Li, and M. Sumner, “A common ground switchedquasi-z-

source bidirectional dc-dc converter with wide-voltage-gain range for EVs with
hybrid energy sources,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 5188–
5200, Jun. 2018.

The paper proposes a switched-quasi- Z -source bidirectional dc-dc converter

with a common ground for electric vehicles with hybrid energy sources. The
converter is based on the conventional two-level quasi- Z -source bidirectional
dc-dc converter but with a change in the position of the main power switch. The

7
proposed converter offers several benefits, including a wide range of voltage
gain, lower voltage stress on power switches, and an absolute common ground.
The paper provides details on the operating principle, voltage and current
stresses on the power switches, comparisons with other converters, small signal
analysis, and controller design. Additionally, the paper discusses the
development of a 300 W prototype with Uhigh=240 V and Ulow=40∼120 V,
and presents experimental results to validate the performance and feasibility of
the proposed converter.

1.1.1 Motivation

The motivation for a project based on bidirectional converters in electric vehicles

includes improving energy efficiency, reducing operating costs, enhancing grid
stability, and integrating renewable energy sources. Bidirectional converters enable
energy to be stored and reused, transferred back and forth between the vehicle's
battery and other devices or systems, and flowed back into the grid during times of
high demand or low supply.

1.1.2 Objectives

• To implement a high voltage gain bidirectional AC-DC converter for V2G and
G2V.

8
 • To reduce input current ripples from the input side and to improve the
efficiency of the converter in step down and step up mode using current/voltage
controller.

• To regulate output battery voltage across HV/LV side.

1.1.2 Scope of the Work

The scope of a project based on bidirectional converters in electric vehicles could

include designing and implementing a bidirectional converter system for an electric
vehicle, evaluating its performance in terms of energy efficiency, cost savings, and
grid stability, and exploring the potential for integrating renewable energy sources.
The project could also involve optimizing the control algorithms and hardware
design of the bidirectional converter to improve its overall effectiveness and
efficiency.

1.2 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS

1. Introduction: The introduction provides a background on the need for

efficient and reliable bidirectional converter technology for electric and
hybrid vehicles. It discusses the current state-of-the-art technology, identifies
the gaps in the literature, and presents the research questions that the paper
aims to address.
2. Literature Review: This section presents a comprehensive review of the
related literature on bidirectional DC-DC converters for electric and hybrid
vehicles. It discusses the existing technology and the challenges that need to
be addressed to improve the efficiency and reliability of the converters.
3. Proposed Bidirectional DC-DC Converter: This section presents the design
and working principle of the proposed bidirectional DC-DC converter. It
describes the key features and advantages of the converter, including the

9
 high-voltage gain transfer ratio, low voltage stress of switches, and high
efficiency.
4. Experimental Setup and Results: This section presents the experimental setup
and results of the proposed bidirectional DC-DC converter. It describes the
dead-beat current controller used in the DC-DC and DC-AC stages and
presents the experimental results for a 500W prototype.
5. Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the research
paper and discusses the implications of the proposed bidirectional DC-DC
converter for electric and hybrid vehicle applications. It also highlights the
limitations of the study and provides directions for future research.

CHAPTER II

2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION

2.0.1 PROPOSED BIDIRECTIONAL CONVERTERS

The proposed converter structure is illustrated in Figure 2, where the low voltage and
high voltage sides are denoted as V LV and V HV , respectively. This dc-dc converter is
composed of two inductors (L1 and L2), four capacitors ( C a, C b, and C o (1,2)), and
five switches ( Sa , Sb , Qa , Qb , and Qc ), which conduct alternatively with their body
diodes during a complete switching period ( T s). To interface the bidirectional dc-dc
converter to the ac grid, a conventional single-phase full-bridge dc-ac converter
utilizing unipolar PWM modulation is employed, as shown in Figure 2. The
operation of the dc-ac converter follows conventional principles and is carried out

10
 using four switches ( S A , S B, SC , and S D) without any additional details provided here.
An inductive filter (Lg) is implemented on the grid side of the dc-ac converter. The
step-down and step-up modes of the dc-dc converter in continuous conduction mode
(CCM) and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) are illustrated in Figures 3 and 4,
respectively. The analysis of each mode is explained in detail.

FIGURE.2

2.0.2 STEP-DOWN MODE

The load is connected to the V LV side while the V HV side is connected to the dc
source. Two operation states are defined for continuous conduction mode (CCM) and
four for discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) and are as follows: During the
interval of [0-t1] in State 1 CCM and DCM, as shown in Figure 3(a), Qa, Qb , and Qc
are turned on while Sa and Sb are turned off. In this phase, the energy from the input
dc source and the discharged energy from C a charge Lb, leading to an increase in the
current flowing through Lb. Meanwhile, the energy stored in C b raises the energy
Bidirectional DC-DC Converter Lb Qc DC-AC Converter
level of La.
d i La VLb d i Lb
Qa
( 1 )−−−{v La =La =−V LV + v Ca=−V LV + v Cb v Lb=Lb =+V HV −v Ca=+V HV −v Cb
dtCb + dt S1 S2 Lg
step-up VCb Sb
11 P vPQ
Q
+ VLa + +
VCa Ca + Vg
Coa
S4 S3 -
During State 2 CCM [T 1 - T S ] and DCM [T 1 - T 2], as depicted in Figure 3(b), Qa , Qb,
and Qc are turned off, while the body diodes of S1 and S2 conduct in contrast to
State 1. At this time, L2 discharges its energy into the capacitors C 1 and C 2, and the
energy stored in L1 is transferred to the V LV side.
d i La d i Lb
( 2 )−−−{v La =La =−V LV v Lb= Lb =−v Ca−v Cb
dt dt

By applying volt-second balance on L1 and L2, we have

D (−V LV +V Ca ) + (1−D ) (−V LV )=0−−−−−−−(3) D ( V HV −V Ca ) + ( 1−D ) (−V Ca−V Cb )=0−−−−−−−( 4

V Ca =V Ca =V LV /D−−−−−−(5)

From (4) and (5),

V LV D
2
M step−down( DCM)= = −−−−−−−(6)
V HV (2−D )

During State 3 DCM [t 2-t 3], as shown in Figure 3(c), the current flowing through
inductor L2 reaches zero at time t 2, while the current passing through L1 becomes
zero at time t3, both before the switching period's conclusion.
State 4 DCM [t 3-T S]: During this mode, all power switches are turned off, and the
current passing through the inductors reaches zero. At the conclusion of this interval,
a complete period of T S has elapsed. Based on these intervals, one can define D1 and
D2 as duty cycles at which the current flowing through L1 and L2, respectively,
becomes zero. Referring to a typical DCM waveform shown in output, the voltage
across the inductors can be determined.
V La={−V LV + v Ca/Cb 0 ≤ t< DT s−V LV D T s ≤ t< ( D+ Da ) T s 0 ( D+ Da ) T s ≤ t<T s −−−−−−(7)

V Lb={V HV −vCa 0≤ t< DT s −v Ca −v Cb D T s ≤t < ( D+ Db ) T s 0 ( D+ Db ) T s ≤ t <T s−−−−−−−(8)

As a result, the DCM voltage gain transfer ratio during the step-down mode can be
obtained as:
( D+ D a ) V LV
V Ca =V Cb = −−−−−−−(9)
D

V LV D
2
M step−down( DCM)= = −−−−−−−(10)
V HV ( D+ D a ) ( D+2 D b )

12
1st Mode: Fig.3(a)

2nd mode: Fig.3(b)

13
3rd Mode: Fig3(c)

4th Mode:Fig.4(a)

14
5th mode: Fig.4(b)

6th Mode: Fig.4(c)

2.0.3 STEP-UP MODE

During the time interval of 0 to t 1in State 1 CCM and DCM, as shown in Figure 4(a),
both S1, and S2, are activated, while Q1, Q2, and Q3 are deactivated. At this point, the
input dc source charges L1, resulting in an increase in the current through L2and an
increase in the energy of L2 from C 1and C 2. The current and voltage equations for
this state are obtained from the typical time-domain waveforms shown in output.
d i La d i Lb
{v La =La =−V LV v Lb =Lb =v Ca + v Cb−−−−−−−(11)
dt dt

During the interval of t 1to T S in State 2 CCM and DCM, depicted in Figure 4(b), S1,
and S2 are deactivated, while the body diodes of Q1, Q2, and Q3 are in a conducting

15
state, which is opposite to State 1. In this scenario, the capacitors C 2receive energy
released by the inductor L1, while the energy of L2 is released to the V HV side.
d i La d i Lb
{v La =La =+ V LV −v Ca =V LV −v Cb v Lb=L b =−V HV + v Ca=−V HV + v Cb−−−−−−−(12)
dt dt

D (−V LV ) + ( 1−D ) ( V LV −V Ca )=0−−−−−−−(13) D ( V Ca +V Cb ) + ( 1−D ) (−V HV +V Ca ) =0−−−−−−−(14

From (14) and (15), the voltage conversion ratio of the proposed converter during
CCM operation for step-up mode can be calculated as follows
V HV 1+ D
M step−up(CCM )= = −−−−−−−(16)
V LV (1−D)2

During State 3 DCM, which is shown in Figure 4(c), the current passing through
inductor L1 becomes zero. In State 4 DCM, all the power switches are deactivated,
and the current through the inductors also becomes zero. At the conclusion of this
interval, a full switching period of T S has been accomplished.

V La={−V LV 0 ≤ t< D T s V LV −v Ca ∨v cb D T s ≤t < ( D+ Da ) T s−−−−−−−(17)0 ( D+ D a ) T s ≤ t<T s

V Lb={v Ca + v cb 0 ≤ t< D T s−v HV + v Ca D T s ≤ t< ( D+ Db ) T s 0 ( D+ D b ) T s ≤ t<T s −−−−−−−(18)

V LV
V Ca =V Cb =( D+ Da ) ( )−−−−−−−(19)
Db

As a result, the DCM voltage gain transfer ratio in the stepup mode can be obtained
as:
V HV (D+ Da )(2 D+ D b)
M step−up(DCM )= = −−−−−−−(20)
V LV D a Db

It must be mentioned that for CCM operation it is possible to operate S1, and S2 as
synchronous rectifiers during stepdown mode and to operate Q1, Q2, and Q3 as
synchronous rectifiers during step-up mode.

2.1 OVERVIEW OF PROJECT

The research paper proposes a new bidirectional DC-DC converter for hybrid electric
vehicle applications. It offers a high-voltage gain transfer ratio and is evaluated for
bidirectional power flow in grid-connected vehicle-to-grid and grid-to-vehicle

16
modes. Experimental results for a 500W prototype demonstrate high efficiency in
both step-down and step-up modes of operation. The paper contributes to the
development of efficient and reliable bidirectional converter technology for electric
and hybrid vehicles.

2.2. MODULES OF THE PROJECT

The project can be divided into the following modules:

1. Converter Topology Design: The first module involves designing the

topology of the bidirectional DC-DC converter, which includes selecting the
appropriate circuit components and parameters to achieve high efficiency,
low voltage stress of switches, and high voltage gain transfer ratio.
2. Control System Design: The second module involves designing the control
system for the bidirectional DC-DC converter. This includes designing the
dead-beat current controller used in the DC-DC and DC-AC stages, which
provides a smooth, accurate, and fast response.
3. Prototype Development: The third module involves developing a 500W
prototype of the bidirectional DC-DC converter, which includes building the
hardware, integrating the control system, and testing the performance of the
converter.
4. Experimental Evaluation: The fourth module involves evaluating the
performance of the bidirectional DC-DC converter under different conditions,
including bidirectional power flow in grid-connected Vehicle to Grid (V2G)
and Grid to Vehicle (G2V) modes. This includes measuring the efficiency,
voltage gain transfer ratio, and voltage stress of switches.
5. Analysis and Optimization: The final module involves analyzing the
experimental results and optimizing the design of the bidirectional DC-DC
converter to further improve its performance in terms of efficiency, voltage
gain transfer ratio, and voltage stress of switches.

17
 CHAPTER III

3. DESIGN OF THE CONVERTER

3.1 DESIGN APPROACH

3.1.1 DUTY CYCLE CALCULATION

One can calculate the duty cycle for both step-down and step-up modes as well as

CCM and DCM modes based on the voltages on the V LV and V HV sides.
Dstep−down=0.5 ¿

Dstep−UP=0.5 ¿

The current ripple of inductors La and Lb can be obtained as follows

1−D 2(1−D)
Δ i La= V LV , Δ i Lb= V −−−−−−−(23)
La f s Lb f s (1−D) LV
D 2D
Δ i La= V LV , Δ i Lb= V LV −−−−−−−(24)
La f s Lb f s (a−D)

Under DCM operation, the average current of La and Lb and duty cycles can be
obtained as

I La =I LV =Δ i La ( D+ D a ) /2

I Lb =¿

2
2 La f s I LV D Lb f s I LV
step−down :{D a= −D D b= −D−−−−−−−(26)
(a−D)L LV (2−D)(1−D)V LV

2
2L f I ( 1+ D ) Lb f s I LV
step−up :{D a= a s LV −D D b= −D−−−−−−−(27)
D LLV D ( 1+ D ) V LV

3.1.2 SEMICONDUCTORS RATING

The average on-current and average off-voltage across the switches:

step−down :{I S 1=2 I LV /(2−D) I S 2 ,Qc =D I LV /(2−D) I Qa=2 I LV /(2−D)I Qb=(1−D)I LV /(2−D)

2 I HV I HV I HV D I HV
step−up :{I S 1= 2
I S 2 ,Qc = I Qa= I =
2 Qb
−−−−−−−(28)
( 1−D ) 1−D ( 1−D ) ( 1−D )2

18
 step−down :{V S 1 ,Qa ,Qb=D V HV /(2−D)V S 2=V HV V Qc=2V HV /(2−D)

( 1−D ) V HV 2 V HV
step−up :{V S 1 ,Qa ,Qb = V S 2=V HV V Qc = −−−−−−−(29)
1+ D 1+ D

3.1.3 PASSIVE COMPONENTS DEDIGN

From (1) and (11),
1−D 2 ( 1−D )
step−down : La ≥ V LV , Lb ≥ V −−−−−−−(30)
Δ i La f s Δ i Lb f s D LV

D V LV 2 D V LV
step−up : La ≥ , Lb ≥ −−−−−−−(31)
Δ i La f s Δ i Lb f s ( 1−D )

By utilizing equations (30) and (31) and taking into account the allowable current
ripples Δ i La and Δ i Lb, it is possible to compute the values of the inductors. It is
important to ensure that the minimum inductor currents are positive for CCM. The
critical values of La and Lb can be represented as follows:
( 1−D ) V LV ( 2−D )( 1−D )
tep−down: La ≥ , Lb ≥ V LV −−−−−−−(32)
2 f s I LV D 2 f s I LV

D V LV D ( 1+ D ) V LV
step−up : La ≥ , Lb ≥ −−−−−−−(33)
2 f s I LV ( 1−D )2 f s I LV

D ( 1−D ) I LV (1−D ) V LV
step−down :C a ,b ≥ ,C oa ≥ −−−−−−−(34)
Δ v Ca, b f s ( 2−D ) 8 Δ v oa f s ( 1+ D )

2
D ( 1−D ) I LV D (1−D ) V LV
step−up :C a ,b ≥ ,C ob ≥ −−−−−−−(35)
Δ v Ca, b f s ( 1+ D ) Δ v ob f s ( 1+ D )

In a similar fashion, it is possible to select capacitor values by using equations (34)

and (35) and taking into account the permissible range of voltage ripples Δ v Ca, Δ v Cb,
and Δ v co (a ,b) .
Assuming a switching frequency of 50 kHz, V LV = 40 V, V HV = 200 V, and a
maximum current ripple of 1 A and 2 A for L1 and L2, respectively, the maximum
voltage ripple for C a ,b is 4 V and the output voltage ripple is 1 V. Based on these
considerations, the critical passive components are determined to be La = 368 µH, Lb

19
= 681 µH, C a = C b = 10 µF, and C o(a , b)= 23 µF. It should be noted that the maximum
critical inductor values for operating in DCM mode for both step-down and step-up
modes are La = 14.71 µH and Lb = 147.10 µH.

3.1.4 COMPARISON OF PROPOSED CONVERTER TO THE STATE OF

ART
The proposed converter is compared to other bidirectional DC-DC structures in terms
of voltage gain. It is observed that the proposed converter has the lowest step-down
voltage gain due to its voltage gain relationship ( D2/(2+D)), which results in a
limited voltage gain range of 0 to 1/3. Consequently, the proposed converter has the
lowest wide-range voltage gain in the step-down mode when compared to the other
structures. Conversely, in the step-up mode, the proposed converter has the highest
wide-range voltage gain among the structures due to its voltage gain relationship ((3-
D)/(1−D)2) which yields a voltage gain of 1. The quadratic voltage gain converters
in the references are identified as the main competitors to the proposed converter in
terms of voltage gain. Additionally, a comparison is made between the proposed
converter and its competitors based on the normalized total voltage of semiconductor
devices ( Σ j V Sj /V HV ) and normalized total voltage of capacitors ( Σ j V Cj/V HV ). The
proposed converter exhibits lower Σ j V Cj/V HV and Σ j V Cj/V HV than existing
converters for voltage gains higher than 6. The semiconductor utilization factor
(SUF) is also considered as an important factor for reducing the cost of
semiconductor devices. In a good converter design, the voltage and current imposed
on a semiconductor device are minimized while the output power ( Po ) is maximized.
Thus, a higher SUF is desirable, and a comparison between the proposed converter
and main competitor approaches is made.
SU F=¿ ¿

where n is number of semiconductor devices, V Sj and I Sj is the peak voltage and the
peak current of semiconductor device j, respectively.
The SUF curves of the main compared converters and the proposed converter are
plotted against the voltage gain, and it is evident that the proposed converter exhibits
the highest SUF among the bidirectional converters. Additionally, the measured
maximum efficiencies during the step-down and step-up modes are reported to be
97.2% and 96.8%, respectively, for the proposed converter. This indicates that the

20
proposed converter achieves a good balance of component count, voltage gain range,
semiconductor device ratings, common ground between input and output terminals,
and efficiency. As a result, it is deemed a highly practical solution for an EV power
converter unit.

3.1.5 CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN

The proposed converter is controlled by a current control loop for LV side during
constant current (CC) and a voltage control loop for LV side during constant voltage
(CV). A digital dead-beat current control concept is used for both directions, which is
¿
fast and efficient. The LV side voltage reference V LV is typically set to the full-
charge voltage of the battery, and when the battery is not fully charged, the LV side
¿
current reference I LV is determined. The output of the PI compensator in the CC/CV
control loop is saturated by the limiter when the battery is not fully charged, and the
¿
battery current reference I bat is determined by the upper limit value of the limiter.
The voltage control loop is activated by the PI compensator to regulate the battery
voltage when V LV reaches the full-charge voltage. The inverter used to interface with
the grid is controlled to regulate its dc side voltage, V HV , with an outer PI based dc
voltage control loop and an inner current control loop based on dead-beat control.
The outputs of the PI compensator and limiter serve as the reference for the dead-
beat current control loop. The proposed dead-beat current controller can determine
the optimal duty cycle for the step-down and step-up modes from the measured V LV
and C a voltage and the measured and reference current through the V a inductance.
In the step-down mode, when Qa . b .c are ON, the voltage across V a can be determined
as
di La
v La =(L¿¿ a) =v Ca−V LV −−−−−−−(37)¿
dt

di La
v La =(L¿¿ a) =−V LV −−−−−−−(38)¿
dt

d i La v Ca −V LV d i La −V LV
δ Q ,ON = = , δ Q ,OFF = = −−−−−−−(39)
dt La dt La

di La
v La =(L¿¿ a) =V LV −−−−−−−(40) ¿
dt

21
 di La
v La =(L¿¿ a) =V LV −v Ca −−−−−−−(41)¿
dt

The current slope of L1 during S1 ,2 ON state (δ S , ON ) and OFF state (δ S , OFF ) can be
expressed as
d i La V LV d i La V LV −v Ca
δ Q ,ON = = , δ S ,OFF = = −−−−−−−(42)
dt La dt La

Based on battery current variations,

I La [ k +1 ]=I La [ k ] + δ Q ,ON ON + δ Q ,OFF OFF −−−−−−−(43)

t t

¿ ¿
I e =I LV −I La [ k +1 ] =I LV −I La [ k ] −δ Q /¿ ¿

Then, t ON and consequently, optimal D can be obtained as,

¿
D=(I ¿ ¿ LV −I La [ k ] )−δ Q /¿¿ ¿ ¿

The objective of the current controller of the inverter on the grid side is to transform
the current passing through Lg , identified as i g , into a pure sinusoid. To achieve this
goal, a straightforward dead-beat current controller is developed to accommodate for
changes in the charging and discharging states of the inverter and grid current. The
inverter stage is represented by a simple equivalent circuit during charging and
discharging states. When S A is switched ON, the voltage across Lg can be computed
as:
di g
v Lg =(L¿¿ ag) =V HV −V g−−−−−−−(46)¿
dt

di g
v Lg =(L¿¿ ag) =−V g−−−−−−−(47)¿
dt

di g V HV −v g di g −v g
δ inv ,ON = = , δ inv ,OFF = = −−−−−−−(48)
dt Lg dt Lg

i g [ k +1 ] =i g [ k ] +δ inv , ON inv ,ON + δ inv ,OFF inv ,OFF−−−−−−−( 49)

t t

¿ ¿
i e =i g−i g [ k +1 ] =i g−i g [ k ]−δ inv ,ON inv , ON −δ inv ,OFF inv , OFF =0−−−−−−−(50)
t t

Then, t inv ,ON and consequently the optimal modulation index can be determined as:

22
 L g ( i ¿g−i g [ k ] ) + v g [k ]T s
mininv = −−−−−−−(51)
V HV T s

3.2 DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Give the design in a table and explain

S. Component name Specification

No.
1. Data acquisition system Overall operating voltage Maximum current
For GCS connected rating for the Data
controller: 5V Acquisition System:
For plant based controller: 1A
5V
2. Arduino uno specification Operating voltage: 5 V
(microcontroller: Recommended input voltage: 7- 12 V
atmega328) Operating current: 0.04 A per pin

23
 CHAPTER IV

4. PROJECT DEMONSTRATION

4.1 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION

For the purpose of simplicity in the prototype, only one type of switch is utilized to
find a high efficiency solution in terms of switch selection, despite the fact that,
theoretically, not all switches in the converter require the same voltage rating, and a
cost optimal design may use various switches with different voltage ratings. The
selected CoolMOSTM has main features that include very low values of on-state
resistance (RDS,on), drain-source output capacitance C OSS, rise time, fall time, gate-
source charge (QGS), gate drain charge (QGD), and reverse recovery charge, which are
relatively unique characteristics leading to improved energy conversion efficiency.
This section examines two operation modes: dc and grid connected modes.

4.1.1 PROPOSED DC-DC CONVERTER OPERATION

The performance of the step-down mode of the CCM operation is analyzed under
steady-state operation and with a step change in the LV side current reference from 6
A to 12.5 A. The input HV side voltage remains constant at 200 V, and the voltage
across the load changes from 18.2 V to 40 V with the change in LV side current
reference. The duty cycle D varies stepwise from 0.38 to 0.54 as the LV side current
varies from 6 A to 12.5 A. The voltage and current of switches and inductors are
analyzed, which validates the equations presented in the earlier section. The
performance of the step-up mode in DCM mode is also examined under steady-state
operation and in response to a step change in the LV side current command from 6 A
to 12.5 A. The input LV side voltage is 40 V, and the output voltage steps from 140
V to 200 V with the increase in current. The duty cycle D increases stepwise from
0.37 to 0.45. These results demonstrate the proper performance of the proposed
current controller under the change of LV side current reference, which is essential
for a smooth behavior of the converter when grid connected. The voltage and current
of switches during step-up mode are demonstrated in the step-up mode by voltage
and current of switches and inductors. The response of the converter to a step change

24
in current direction from charging to discharging in bidirectional charging and
discharging operation is also examined. The DCM operation of the proposed
converter during step-down and step-up modes is analyzed in voltage and current of
inductors during DCM mode (both step-up and step-down). The values of V LV and
V HV with respect to D, D1, and D2 confirm the DCM voltage gains.

4.1.2 GRID CONNECTED RESULTS

The experimental outcomes of the proposed EV charger for the grid connected mode
are presented here, with respect to its G2V and V2G performance during grid
connected operation. The LV side current reference (or battery current I b) and the
HV side voltage reference are set to 12.5 A and 200 V, respectively. The step change
in V HV and V LV during grid operation simply signifies the activation point of the
inverter side dc link voltage control. The battery voltage and grid voltage are 40 V
and 110 V, respectively. As observed in the results, sinusoidal grid current facilitates
the charging (G2V) and discharging (V2G) of the battery.

4.1.3 PROPOSED CONVERTER EVALUATION

To demonstrate the performance of the proposed converter, efficiency curves and
loss breakdowns are presented for step-down and step-up modes. The efficiency
curves show the measured efficiency of the converter under different modes of
operation, with the maximum efficiency during G2V and V2G modes being 97.2%
and 96.8% respectively. The input and output powers were determined using math
functions of the RIGOL DS4024 digital oscilloscope to analyze the voltage and
current waveforms. Additionally, a breakdown of the losses of the DC converter is
provided in the calculated loss breakdown for step-down and step-up modes. It is
observed that a significant proportion of the losses are caused by conduction losses.

4.2 SIMULATION RESULTS

4.3 HARWARE RESULTS

25
 CHAPTER V

5. CONCLUSION

This project introduces a bidirectional dc-dc converter designed specifically for V2G
(Vehicle-to-Grid) and G2V (Grid-to-Vehicle) applications. The proposed converter
boasts high step-up and high step-down voltage gains, high efficiency, low switch
rating, common ground, and bidirectional capability. The use of a dead-beat
controller ensures accurate and smooth current control in both directions of
operation. The prototype has been successfully demonstrated to charge and discharge
the battery in both directions. The converter achieves a maximum efficiency of
97.2% under specific conditions. The measured waveforms from the prototype
confirm the analysis and operation of the converter. The converter's wider voltage
range and higher SUF (Step-Up Factor) make it a more practical and versatile
topology than previously published converters. Overall, this research presents a
promising solution for bidirectional power flow in V2G and G2V applications with
improved efficiency and practicality.

26
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30
31
PUBLICATIONS BASED ON THESIS

Journals

1. Authors, “Title of the paper”, Journal of Parallel and Distributed

Computing, Elsevier, Vol 72, No. 8, pp 936 - 943, Aug 2012.

2. Second.....

Conferences

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32
APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Smart Grid

33
Appendix 2: Simulation

34
 CURRICULUM VITAE
(Short Bio-data of the student)

1. Name :
2. Date of Birth :
3. Email :
4. Address for Communication :
5. Education :
6. Interests :

35