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Contents
Part I
Foundations of American Democracy

1 PEO PLE , POLITI CS, AN D

PAR TI CI PATION 2

y shd u stdy am dem now? Or, Why Should You Study

2 TH E CONSTITUTION

What Is a Constitution? 34
32

■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Is It Time for a

American Democracy Now? 4 Second Constitutional Convention? 35

How Technology Has Changed Politics 5 The Creation of the United States of America 36
The Political Context Now 5 British Policies Incite Revolution in the Colonies 36
Civic Engagement: Acting on Your Views 7 The Common Sense of Declaring Independence 39
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Does the Youth ■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : The Theories of Locke and
Vote Matter? 8 Rousseau as Applied by Jefferson 40
What Government Does 9 The State Constitutions 40
The Articles of Confederation (1781–1789) 41
Types of Government 10
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : Legitimacy and Instability in Egypt 11 Crafting the Constitution: Compromise, Ratification, and
Quick Amendment 42
The Origins of American Democracy 11
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : The “Pots and Pans” Revolution Leads to
Democracy’s Origins in Popular Protest: The Influence
Crowdsourcing a Proposed Constitution 43
of the Reformation and the Enlightenment 12
Areas of Consensus 43
The Modern Political Philosophy of Hobbes and Locke 13
Conflict and Compromise Over Representative
The Creation of the United States as an Experiment in
Democracy 46
Representative Democracy 14
Conflict and Compromise Over Slavery 47
Political Culture and American Values 14 What About a Bill of Rights? 48
Liberty 14 Congress Sends the Constitution to the States for
Equality 15 Ratification 48
Capitalism 16 The Federalist–Anti-Federalist Debate 50
Consent of the Governed 16 Ratification (1788) and Amendment with the Bill of Rights
Individual, Family, and Community 16 (1791) 52
Ideology: A Prism for Viewing American Democracy 17 The Constitution as a Living, Evolving Document 52
Liberalism 17 Formal Amendment of the Constitution 53
Conservatism 18 Interpretation by the U.S. Supreme Court 55
Other Ideologies on a Traditional Spectrum: Socialism and
Libertarianism 18
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Ideology by Age 19 TH E CONSTITUTI ON O F TH E
A Three-Dimensional Political Model 19 U N ITE D STATE S O F AM E R I CA 61
The Changing Face of American Democracy 20
A Population That Is Growing—and on
the Move 20
An Aging Population 22
A Changing Complexion: Race and Ethnicity
in the United States Today 22
Changing Households: American Families
Today 25
Why the Changing Population Matters for
Politics and Government 26

Contents vii
3
Centralized Federalism 98
F E D E R ALISM 84 Conflicted Federalism 99
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : A Worldwide Intergovernmental Problem:
Conflicting National and Regional Pot Policies 100
Constitutional Amendments and the Evolution of
An Overview of the U.S. Federal System 86 Federalism 101
Unitary System 87 Tools of Intergovernmental Relations: Grants, Mandates,
Confederal System 87 and Preemption 102
Federal System 87 ■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Fiscal
What a Federal System Means for Citizens 88 Federalism Be Limited? 103
Constitutional Distribution of Authority 90 ■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Madison’s Vision of the U.S.
Concurrent Powers 90 Federal System Compared to the Federal
National Sovereignty 91 System Today 106
State Sovereignty 92 IGR: U.S. Federalism Now 106
Supreme Court Interpretation of the Constitution’s Educational Policy Statements 106
Distribution of Authority 93 Educational Policy Financing 107
State-to-State Obligations: Horizontal Federalism 95 Educational Policy Implementation 108
Judicial Federalism 96 An Assessment of the Advantages and
Evolution of Intergovernmental Relations in the Federal Disadvantages of Today’s Federal
System 97 System 108
Dual Federalism 98
Cooperative Federalism 98

Part II
Fundamental Principles
The Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth

4 CIVIL LI BE R TI ES 116

Civil Liberties in the American Legal System 118

The Freedoms Protected in the American System 119
Amendments: Ensuring Criminal
Due Process 140
Civil Liberties in Post–September 11 America 144
Perceived Intrusions on Free Speech and Assembly
Perceived Intrusions on Criminal Due Process 145
Drones and Privacy Rights 146
144

■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Balancing the Constitutional

Tension 120
The Historical Basis for American Civil Liberties: The Bill of
Rights 120
Incorporation of the Bill of Rights to Apply to the States 121
Freedoms in Practice: Controversy Over the Second
Amendment and the Right to Bear Arms 123
Changing Interpretations of the Second Amendment 123
Citizens Engaged: Fighting for a Safer Nation 124
Freedoms of Speech, Assembly, and the Press: First
Amendment Freedoms Supporting Civic Discourse 125
5 CIVIL R I G HTS 152

The Meaning of Equality Under the Law 154

The First Amendment and Political Instability 125
■ GLOBAL CONTEXT: Civil Liberties in the Post–Arab Spring
Egypt 127
Freedom of Speech 129
Freedom of Assembly and Redress of Grievances 131
Freedom of the Press 132
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Was Edward
Snowden’s Release of Classified Security Documents the
Act of a Patriot? 133
Freedoms of Religion, Privacy, and Criminal Due Process:
Encouraging Community and Civic Engagement 134
The First Amendment and the Freedom of Religion 134
The Right to Privacy 138
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgendered Citizens 156
Same-Sex Marriage 157
Gay Pride Movement 157
Backlash Against LGBT Civil Rights 158
Slavery and Its Aftermath 158
Slavery in the United States 158
Reconstruction and the First Civil Rights Acts 161
Backlash: Jim Crow Laws 161
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : Human Trafficking 162
Governmental Acceptance of Discrimination 163
The Civil Rights Movement 164
Fighting Back: Early Civil Rights Organizations 164
The End of Separate but Equal 164
The Movement Gains National Visibility 165

viii Contents
 Local Organizing and the Strategies of Civil
Disobedience 165
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : A Famous Image from the Civil
Rights Era 166
The Government’s Response to the Civil Rights
Movement 167
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 167
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 168
Impact of the Civil Rights Movement 168
The Movement for Women’s Civil Rights 169
The First Wave of the Women’s Rights Movement 169
The Second Wave of the Women’s Rights Movement 171
Part III
Linkages Between the People and Government
6
POLITI CAL SO CIALI Z ATION
AN D PU BLIC OPINION 18 8
Political Socialization and Civic Participation 190
The Process of Political Socialization 191
Participating in Civic Life 191
Agents of Socialization 192
Family Influences on Activism and Attitudes 192
The Media’s Ever-Increasing Role in Socialization 193
Schools, Patriotism, and Civic Participation 193
Churches: The Role of Religion 194
Peers and Group Norms 194
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Abortion
Be Legal? 195
Political and Community Leaders: Opinion Shapers 196
Demographic Characteristics: Our Politics Are a Reflection
of Us 196
Measuring Public Opinion 201
The Origins of Public Opinion Polls 201
How Public Opinion Polls Are Conducted 202
The Third Wave of the Women’s Rights Movement 174
Other Civil Rights Movements 174
Native Americans’ Rights 175
Citizens of Latin American Descent 176
Citizens of Asian Descent 178
Citizens with Disabilities 179
Affirmative Action: Is It Constitutional? 180
How Affirmative Action Works 180
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should We Offer
Paths to Citizenship for Undocumented Workers? 181
Opposition to Affirmative Action 181
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : International Opinion of Women’s
Equality 203
■ A NALYZING THE S OURCES : Examining Americans’ Ideology 205
Types of Political Polls 206
What Americans Think About Politics 207
The Most Important Problem 207
Public Opinion About Government 207
7
I NTE R EST G RO U PS 216
The Value of Interest Groups 218
Interest Groups and Civic Participation 219
Pluralist Theory versus Elite Theory 219
Key Functions of Interest Groups 221
The Downside of Interest Groups 222
Who Joins Interest Groups, and Why? 222
Patterns of Membership 223
Motivations for Joining Interest Groups 224
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : Using the Internet for Change.org 225
How Interest Groups Succeed 226
Organizational Resources 226
Organizational Environment 227
Types of Interest Groups 228
Economic Interest Groups 228
Public and Ideological Interest Groups 230
Foreign Policy Interests 232
Interest Group Strategies 233
Direct Strategies to Advance Interests 233
Indirect Strategies to Advance Interests 234
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Rating Texas’s Congress Members
on Immigration 236
Interest Groups, Politics, and Money: The Influence of Political
Action Committees 237
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Super PACs
Enjoy Unlimited Free Speech? 238
Contents ix
8 POLITI CAL PAR TI ES
Are Political Parties Today in Crisis? 246
Parties Today and Their Functions 247
24 4
How Parties Engage Individuals 248
What Political Parties Do 248
The Three Faces of Parties 250
The Party in the Electorate 250
The Party Organization 251
The Party in Government 253
Political Parties in U.S. History 254
The First Party System: The Development of Parties,
1789–1828 254
The Second Party System: The Democrats’ Rise to Power,
1828–1860 255
The Third Party System: The Republicans’ Rise to Power,
1860–1896 256
The Fourth Party System: Republican Dominance,
1896–1932 256
The Fifth Party System: Democratic Dominance,
1932–1968 257
A New Party System? 257
The Party System Today: In Decline, in Resurgence, or a
Post-Party Era? 258
The Party’s Over 258
The Party’s Just Begun 259
A Post-Party Era? 260
Two-Party Domination in U.S. Politics 260
The Dualist Nature of Most Conflicts 260
The Winner-Take-All Electoral System 261
Continued Socialization to the Two-Party System 261
■ GLOBAL CONTEXT: The Rise of Eurosceptic Parties in
Europe 262
Election Laws That Favor the Two-Party System 262
Third Parties in the United States 263
Types of Third Parties 263
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Is a Third Party Needed?
The Impact of Third Parties 265
New Ideologies, New Technologies: The Parties in the
Twenty-First Century 265
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Are Third Parties
Bad for the United States? 266
A Battle for the Soul of the Republican Party Today 266
Democrats Today 268
Changing Both Parties: New Technologies 268
9
E LECTIONS, CAM PAI G NS,
AN D VOTIN G 274
Political Participation: Engaging Individuals, Shaping
Politics 276
Elections in the United States 277
Nominations and Primary Elections 277
x Contents
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should the United
States Have a National Primary? 279
General Elections 280
Referendum, Initiative, and Recall 280
The Act of Voting 281
The 2000 Election and Its Impact 281
Types of Ballots 282
Why Ballot Design Matters 282
Voting by Mail 283
Running for Office: The Choice to Run 284
Formal Eligibility Requirements 284
Informal Eligibility Requirements 285
The Nature of Political Campaigns Today 286
The Professionalization of Political Campaigns 286
Media and New Technologies: Transforming Political
264 Campaigns 287
Revolutionizing the Campaign: New Technologies 287
Money and Politics 288
Early Efforts to Regulate Campaign Finance 289
The Court Weighs In: Money 5 Speech 289
The Growth of PACs 290
Independent Expenditures 291
The Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002 291
Circumventing the Rules: 527s and 501(c)4s 292
The Court Weighs In (Again): The Birth of Super PACs 293
Presidential Campaigns 293
Party Conventions and the General Election
Campaign 294
The Electoral College 294
Who Votes? Factors in Voter Participation 295
Education Level—the Number One Predictor of
Voting 295
The Age Factor 296
Race and Voter Participation 296
Income—A Reliable Predictor of Voting 296
■ A NALYZING THE SOURCES: Exploring Race and Voting 297
Party Competitiveness and Voter Turnout 297
How Voters Decide 298
Major Factors in Voter Decision Making 298
Campaign Influences on Voter Choice 299
Why Some People Do Not Vote 299
Lack of Efficacy 300
Voter Fatigue and Negative Campaigns 300
The Structure of Elections 300
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : Elections in South Africa 301
The Rational Abstention Thesis 301
The Consequences of Nonvoting 302

10 TH E M E D IA

The Modern Media 310

308

The Political Functions of the Media 311

■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : Bassem Youssef: Egypt’s Jon
Stewart 312
Providing Information 312
Interpreting Matters of Public Interest and Setting the
Public Agenda 313
Providing a Forum for Conversations About Politics 313
Socializing Children to Political Culture 313
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Confidence in the Media 314 Technology Now: Changing How Candidates Campaign and
The Press and Politics: A Historical View 315 Citizens Participate 338
The Early Role of the Press 315 Politics on Demand 338
Yellow Journalism and Muckraking 315 Technological Tools: Paving the Two-Way Communication
A Widening War for Readership 316 Street 339
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : Blogging for Reform in
The Media Go Electronic: The Radio and Television
Ukraine 340
Revolutions 317
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Posting and Tweeting about
How Radio Opened Up Political Communication 318
Politics 342
Television and the Transformation of Campaigns and
New Campaign Strategies and Modes of Political
Elections 319
Participation 343
Convergence and Consolidation 321
Technology Now: Revolutionizing How Governments
The Proliferation of News Sources and Greater
Work 346
Scrutiny 322
Blogs: The New Penny Papers? 322 What Is the Impact of Technology on Political Life? 348
Technology Is a Powerful Tool for Protestors and
Biased Media? 323
Activists 348
Regulation of the Media: Is It Necessary? 324 Technology Increases the Amount of Political Information
■ THINKING CRITICALLY A BOUT DEMOCRACY: Should Television
Available 348
Be Subject to Stricter Regulations Than Other Media What’s Next: How Technology Will Continue to Transform
Are? 325 the Political Landscape 349
The Downside of Technology in Politics 349
Domestic Surveillance and Other Privacy

11
Issues 350
POLITI CS AN D The Issue of Accuracy 352
Fomenting Polarized Partisanship and
TECH NOLO GY 3 32 Extremism 352
The Internet and Free Speech 352
Regulation of the Internet: Is It Necessary? 353
The Modern Technological Revolution: The Internet and ■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Congress
Cellular Technology 335 Regulate the Internet Infrastructure? 354
The Digital Divide 335
Who Uses the Internet? 336
New Forms of Community 337

Contents xi
 Part IV
Institutions of Government

12
CON G R ESS 360
The Origins of Congress 362
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : India’s Sansad 363
Congressional Elections 364
Incumbency 364
Reapportionment and Redistricting 365
Powers of Congress 367
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Congressional
Apportionment 368
Functions of Congress 369
Representation Comes in Many Forms 369
Policy Making: A Central Responsibility 371
Oversight: A Check on the Executive Branch 371
Agenda Setting and Civic Engagement 371
Managing Societal Conflict 372
The House and the Senate Compared 372
The Legislative Process 373
Introducing a Bill 374
The Bill in Committee 374
Debate on the House and Senate Floor 376
Presidential Action 377
Congressional Leadership 377
Leadership in the House of Representatives 378
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Congress
Repeal the Affordable Care Act? 379
Leadership in the Senate 379
Decision Making in Congress: The Legislative Context 380
Political Parties and Partisanship in Decision Making 380
Colleagues and Staff: Trading Votes and Information 383
Interest Groups: Influence Through Organization 383
The President’s Effect on Decision Making 384
Constituents: The Last Word 384
The People and Their Elected Representatives 384
■ GLOBAL CONTEXT: Examining World Opinion of U.S.
Leadership 400
Overlap in the Domestic and Foreign Policy Roles: Chief
Executive and Chief of State 400
Chief Executive 400
Chief of State 401
The President and the Executive Branch 401
The Vice President’s Role 401
The Cabinet 402
The Executive Office of the President 405
Presidential Succession 406
When the President Dies in Office 406
When the President Cannot Serve: The Twenty-Fifth
Amendment 407
Sources of Presidential Power 407
The Constitution: Expressed Powers 408
The Constitution: Inherent Powers 408
Statutory Powers 409
Special Presidential Powers 409
The People as a Source of Presidential Power 411
The President and the Bully Pulpit 411
The President and Public Approval 412
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Ranking the Presidents 413
Technology and the Media as a Tool of Presidential
Influence 414
The Evolution of Presidential Power 415
Early Presidents and the Scope of Presidential Power 415
The Watershed 1970s: The Pentagon Papers, Watergate,
and the “Imperial Presidency” 416
The Post-Watergate Presidency 417
Impeachment: A Check on Abuses of Presidential Power 418
Women in the White House 418
The First Lady 419
When a Woman Is Elected President 419

13 TH E PR ESI D E N CY

Presidential Elections 394

392

■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should We Abolish

the Electoral College? 395
Presidential Roles in the Domestic Sphere 395
Chief Legislator 396
Chief Economist 398
Party Leader 398
Presidential Roles in the Foreign Policy Sphere 399
Chief Diplomat 399
Commander in Chief 399

xii Contents
14 TH E BUR E AU CR ACY

Bureaucrats and Bureaucracy 428

Who Are the Bureaucrats? 429
426

The Bureaucratic Structure 430

Federal Bureaucrats 430
Political Appointees 431
Senior Executives 431
Civil Servants 431
State, Local, and Shadow Bureaucrats 435
The Evolution of the Federal Bureaucracy 435
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Evolution of Federal
Government Departments 437
Departments 438
Independent Administrative Agencies 438
Independent Regulatory Commissions 438
Government Corporations 439
Executive Office of the President 439
Federal Bureaucrats’ Roles in Public Policy 439
Agenda Setting 441
Policy Formulation 441
Policy Approval 442
Appropriation Approval 443 Legislation 461
Policy Implementation 443 Executive Orders 461
Policy Evaluation 443 Administrative Rules and Regulations: Administrative
Federal Bureaucratic Accountability 444 Law 462
Accountability to the People 444 Types of Lawsuits 462
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : Freedom-of-Information Laws Criminal Law and Trials 462
Worldwide 445 Civil Law and Trials 463
Accountability to the Courts 446 ■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Jury
Accountability to Congress 446 Trials Be Eliminated? 464
Accountability to the President 446 Trials versus Appeals 464
Internal Accountability 447 The Federal Court System 466
Can Bureaucratic Performance Be Improved? 448 Jurisdiction of Federal Courts 466
The Best-Performing Bureaucracies 448 The Structure of the Federal Courts 467
Does Contracting-Out Improve Performance? 448 Appointing Federal Judges 468
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Does Selection Criteria 469
Contracting-Out Save Taxpayer Dollars? 449 The Senate’s Role: Judicial Confirmation 471
Citizens’ Role in Bureaucratic Performance 450
How the U.S. Supreme Court Functions 472
Choosing Cases for Review 472
Considering Legal Briefs and Oral Arguments 472
Resolving the Legal Dispute: Deciding
How to Vote 473
Legal Reasoning: Writing the Opinions 474

15 TH E J U D I CIA RY

What Do Courts Do? 458

4 56

■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : Mexican Courts Transitioning to the

Judges as Policy Makers 475
From Judicial Review to Judicial Policy Making 475
Judicial Activism versus Judicial Restraint 476
Constraints on Judicial Policy Making 477
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : The Roberts Court 479

The Supreme Court Today: The Roberts Court 479

Adversarial System of Justice 459
Sources of Laws in the United States 460
Judicial Decisions: Common Law 460
Constitutions: Constitutional Law 461

Contents xiii
 Part V
Public Policy

16
Trade Policy in the Global Economy 507
ECONO MI C POLI CY 4 86 Trade Policy: Protectionist or Free Trade? 507
International Trade Agreements 507
The U.S. Economy and the American Dream Today 509
Economic Health and the American Dream 488

17
The American Economy 489
Economic Theories That Shape Economic Policy 490 D O M ESTI C POLI CY 516
Laissez-Faire Economics: An Unrealized Policy 490
Keynesian Economics 491
Supply-Side Economics 492 Citizen Engagement and Domestic Policy 518
Monetarism 492 ■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Differences in Top Policy
Should One Economic Theory Predominate? 493 Priorities of U.S. Citizens Yield Policy Debates 519
Measuring Economic Health 493 Tools of Domestic Policy 520
Traditional Measures of Economic Health 493 Laws and Regulations 520
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : How Is the U.S. Economy
Direct Provision of Public Goods 521
Doing? 494 Cash Transfers 521
Other Measures of Economic Health 494 Loans, Loan Guarantees, and Insurance 522
Fiscal Policy and Economic Health 496 Grants-in-Aid and Contracting Out 523
Tax Policy 496 Environmental Policy 523
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : A New Tax in Mexico: 16 Percent Sales
Environmental Degradation 523
Tax on Pet Food 497 Environmental Protection 524
Spending Policy 498
Energy Policy 526
Creating Fiscal Policy Through the National Budget
Evolution of U.S. Energy Policy 526
Process 498
Energy Policy Today 527
Deficit Spending and Debt 501
Income Security Programs 529
Monetary Policy and the Federal Reserve System 502
Social Security 529
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should We
Unemployment Compensation 530
Demand a Balanced National Budget? 503
Minimum Wage 530
Regulatory Policy 504 Earned Income Tax Credit 531
Business Regulation 504 Temporary Assistance for Needy Families 531
Social Regulation 505 ■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should
The Costs of Regulation 506 There Be a Federal Minimum Wage? 532
Government Definitions of Poverty 533
Health Care Policy 534
Medicaid 534
Medicare 535
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act 535
Homeland Security 536
Immigration Policy 537
Authorized and Unauthorized Immigration 537
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : Americans Immigrate Too! 539
Proposed Immigration Policy Reforms 540

18 FO R E I G N POLI CY AN D
NATI ONAL SECU R IT Y 54 6

The Tools of U.S. Foreign Policy 548

Diplomacy 548
Trade and Economic Policies 548
■ G LOBAL C ONTEX T : The United States and Iran—A Complex
History 550
The Military Option 551

xiv Contents
Who Decides? The Creators and Shapers of Foreign Policy 552
The President and the Executive Branch 552
Congress 553
The Military-Industrial Complex 554
The Media and New Technologies 554
Public Opinion 555
Private Citizens 556
U.S. Foreign Policy in Historical Context 556
The Constitutional Framework and Early Foreign
Policy Making 556
Hegemony and National Expansion: From the Monroe
Doctrine to the Roosevelt Corollary 557
World War I and the End of U.S. Isolationism 558
Internationalism and the League of Nations 559
World War II: U.S. Foreign Policy at a Crossroads 560
The Postwar Era: The United States as Superpower 560
International Agreements and Organizations 560
The Cold War: Superpowers in Collision 563
U.S. Efforts to Contain Communism: Korea, Cuba, and
Vietnam 564
Détente: A Thaw in the Cold War Chill 565
The Reagan Years and Soviet Collapse 566
Post-Soviet Times: The United States as Solo Superpower in
an Era of Wars 566
U.S. Foreign Policy After 9/11 568
The Bush Doctrine: A Clash of Civilizations 568
■ THINKING C RITIC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Do the Geneva
Conventions Apply When Terrorists Have So Drastically
Altered the Rules of War? 570
The Obama Doctrine: A New Tone in U.S. Foreign Policy 571
Future Challenges in American Foreign Policy 571
Russian Expansion 571
■ A NALY ZING THE S OURCES : Americans’ Views About the
Return of a Cold War 572
Nuclear Proliferation 572
The Ongoing Threat of Terrorism 572
Environmental and Health Issues 573
Technology’s Potential in Foreign Affairs 573

Part VI
State and Local Government
C H A P T E R 19 STATE AN D LO CAL G OV E R N M E NT

APPENDIXES
A: The Declaration of
Independence A-1
B: Federalist No. 10 B-1
C: Federalist No. 51 C-1
D: The Declaration of
Sentiments D-1

G LO SSA RY G -1
REFERENCES R -1
CREDITS C R -1
INDEX I -1

Contents xv
 American Democracy Now—built by
American Democracy Now was built by master teachers intent on giving today’s
students the critical thinking skills needed to actively and critically engage in the
American government course. Now, guided by student data, the fourth edition
focuses more than ever on helping students interact with the material, perform
better during the course, and become more active, engaged citizens in the
world.

Students Study More Effectively with SmartBook

LearnSmart is an adaptive learning program designed to help students learn faster,
study smarter, and retain more knowledge for greater success. Distinguishing what
students know from what they don’t, and focusing on concepts they are most likely
to forget, LearnSmart continuously adapts to each student’s needs by building
an individualized learning path. Millions of students have answered over a billion
questions in LearnSmart since 2009, making it the most widely used and intelligent
adaptive study tool that’s proven to strengthen memory recall, keep students in
class, and boost grades.
Fueled by LearnSmart, SmartBook is the first and only adaptive reading experience
currently available.
■ Make It Effective. SmartBook creates a personalized reading experience by
highlighting the most impactful concepts a student needs to learn at that
moment in time. This ensures that every minute spent with SmartBook is
returned to the student as the most value-added minute possible.
■ Make It Informed. The reading experience continuously adapts by highlighting
content based on what the student knows and doesn’t know. Real-time reports
quickly identify the concepts that require more attention from individual
students—or the entire class. SmartBook detects the content a student is most
likely to forget and brings it back to improve long-term knowledge retention.

The Power of Student Data

Students helped inform the revision strategy:
STEP 1. Over the course of two years, data points showing concepts that
caused students the most difficulty were collected anonymously from Connect
American Government’s LearnSmart for American Democracy Now.
STEP 2. The data from LearnSmart were provided to the authors in the form of
a Heat Map, which graphically illustrated “hot spots” in the text that impacted
student learning (see image to left).

xvi Preface
master teachers, informed by student data
STEP 3. The authors used the Heat Map data to refine the content and reinforce
student comprehension in the new edition. Additional quiz questions and
assignable activities were created for use in Connect American Government to
further support student success.
RESULT: Because the Heat Map gave the authors empirically based feedback at
the paragraph and even sentence level, they were able to develop the new edition
using precise student data that pinpointed concepts that caused students the most
difficulty.

Student Performance Reports Show You Their Progress

The first and only analytics tool of its kind, Connect Insight is a series of visual
data displays—each framed by an intuitive question—to provide at-a-glance
information regarding how your class is doing.
■ Make It Intuitive. You receive an instant, at-a-glance view of student
performance matched with each student activity.
■ Make It Dynamic. Connect Insight puts real-time analytics in your hands so you
can take action early and keep struggling students from falling behind.
■ Make It Mobile. Connect Insight travels from office to classroom, available on
demand wherever and whenever it’s needed.

Preface xvii
Critical Thinking
At the heart of American Democracy Now is a rich set of instructional tools that
move students along the path to critical thinking.

CHA P TER
12 Congress
THEN
The framers granted to Congress both explicit
powers and implied powers, by which the
national government strengthened and
broadened its authority.

NOW
A much more demographically diverse but
ideologically polarized Congress exercises
wide powers, its decision making influenced
by shifting constituencies in a changing
nation.

onfirming Pages
NEXT
Will increased polarization of Republicans and
ns as a Democrats in Congress continue to define the
se and congressional agenda?
sena-
Then Will the composition and policy making of
ct the
Now Congress more broadly reflect the changing

Next
ctives.
face of the United States?
their
nd to Will technology significantly affect the
with Partisanship in ability of “average” citizens to influence
sues, Congress
Congress?
ngly Then (1980s)
Now
Congress wa
s divided; De
trolled the Ho mocrats con-
use of Repres Republicans
and Republica entatives, control both
ns controlled House and Sen the
the Senate. ate. 361
Although inc
umbents enj
erable advant oye d a consid-
age, many con Fewer congre
m- distric ts were gressional ssional distric
ts are
a mix of con competitive.
on both major par stituents of Many distric
ties. more homog ts are
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of ries can be dra

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WHAT’S NEXT
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students to understand > Has the outcome of the
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historical contexts and > In recent years,vieparw?tisa
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par ty and a Con reased when
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precedents, so that they can today? What
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weigh them against current Increases in tec
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political events and actions, e on par tisansh
ip in

begin to formulate an informed logrollin

islatio
judgment about politics, and
consider how the past and
present might shape the future.

xviii Preface
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presented in the program.
har24781_
ch07_216-
243.indd
238

The accompanying Instructor’s Resources contain a wealth of materials: an Instructor’s Manual that goes beyond lecture topics and
outlines—tying all text features to individual and group projects in and out of class; a full Test Bank tied to Bloom’s taxonomy; 11/11/14
6:08 PM
har24781_ch04_116-151.indd 146 11/11/14 7:49 PM
PowerPoint slides; and an Image Gallery. See more information about specific assets below.
■ The Instructor’s Manual includes chapter summaries, chapter outlines, lecture outlines with integrated PowerPoints, and
abundant class activities.
■ The Test Bank includes more than 1,000 multiple-choice and short-answer questions to accompany the chapters in American
Democracy Now, along with questions to be used in class (with PowerPoints) and student self-check questions.

Preface xix
Staying Current
This edition reflects the November 2014 midterm election results. C H A P T E R 4 CIVIL LIBERTIES
■ Updated coverage of Second Amendment rights in light of the
C H A P T E R 1 PEOPLE, POLITICS, AND revitalized debate about gun laws and “Stand Your Ground” laws
PARTICIPATION ■ An introduction to the privacy issue related to the domestic
■ An exploration of the importance of the Millennial generation use of drones
in American democracy today
■ An investigation into recent trends in voter turnout by age group C H A P T E R 5 CIVIL RIGHTS
■ Updated analysis of Egypt’s movement toward or away from ■ New in-depth coverage of same-sex marriage and LGBT rights
democratic practices ■ New coverage of the recent court decisions and their impact
■ Updates based on the November 2014 elections on the Voting Rights Act
■ Updated coverage of immigration policy
CHAPTER 2 THE CONSTITUTION
■ New material about the evolution of the constitutional C H A P T E R 6 POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION AND
structures of the United States PUBLIC OPINION
■ New coverage of the constitutional movement in Iceland that ■ New and updated figures and coverage of the latest trends in
resulted from the financial crisis public opinion

CHAPTER 3 FEDERALISM C H A P T E R 7 INTEREST GROUPS

■ A new feature investigating intergovernmental conflict over
marijuana policies
■ New coverage of the Supreme Court ruling on the Affordable
Care Act
■ A new Figure 3.1, to clarify the differences among unitary,
confederal, and federal systems, a concept that students
struggle with, based on our analysis of test data
■ Added in-depth analysis of the role of PACs and Super PACs
in recent elections
■ A look into the achievements of Change.org and Project Vote
Smart
C H A P T E R 8 POLITICAL PARTIES
■ New in-depth coverage of the partisanship crisis
■ Updated analysis of the impact of the Tea Party within the
Republican Party
■ Updated tables and figures
■ Updates based on the November 2014 elections

C H A P T E R 9 ELECTIONS, CAMPAIGNS, AND

VOTING
■ An added section investigating new trends in voting by mail
and early voting
■ A look at the recent elections in South Africa
■ A new Then/Now photo pairing to help clarify the changing
role of the party and campaign professionals in electoral
races, a concept that students struggle with, based on our
analysis of test data
■ Updates based on the November 2014 elections

C H A P T E R 10 THE MEDIA
■ An investigation of the use of infotainment by President
Obama to push enrollment in the Affordable Care Act
■ An updated analysis of the response of traditional media to its
shrinking market
■ An analysis of the media focus on same-sex marriage to
explain priming, a concept students that struggle with, based
on our analysis of test data
■ Updates based on the November 2014 elections

xx Preface
CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER CHANGES

C H A P T E R 11 POLITICS AND TECHNOLOGY C H A P T E R 16 ECONOMIC POLICY

■ Updated coverage of the role social media is playing in
campaigns and political action
■ An examination of NSA surveillance and other emerging
privacy concerns
■ A new “Global Context” feature, exploring the role of blogger
Tetyana Chornovol in eliminating corruption in Ukraine
C H A P T E R 12 CONGRESS
■ An investigation into the 2013 introduction of the “nuclear
option”
■ Updated coverage of the partisan divide
■ A comparison of the U.S. legislature to the Indian parliament
■ Updates based on the November 2014 elections
C H A P T E R 13 THE PRESIDENCY
■ Updated coverage of President Obama’s use of presidential
powers to pursue his agenda
■ A new exploration of presidential ranking
C H A P T E R 14 THE BUREAUCRACY
■ A new look at what bureaucrats do and what opportunities are
open to students in public service
■ An exploration of the impact of the government shutdown
■ Updated data on the federal workforce and budget
■ New Figure 14.5, portraying the formation and
implementation of the Affordable Care Act to clarify the role
of the federal bureaucracy in public policy, a concept that
students struggle with, based on our analysis of test data
■ Updates based on the November 2014 elections
■ An analysis of how partisan gridlock in recent years has
transformed the budget-making process
■ The latest data illustrating the health of the U.S. economy
C H A P T E R 17 DOMESTIC POLICY
■ An updated analysis of the energy policy and current issues
such as fracking
■ An in-depth look into the minimum wage debate
■ An analysis of the policy priorities of Republicans,
Democrats, and Independents
C H A P T E R 18 FOREIGN POLICY AND
NATIONAL SECURITY
■ An exploration of recent tensions between Russia and the
West and the historical basis of this conflict
■ Coverage of the recent negotiations among Iran, the United
States, and other Western nations to halt Iran’s nuclear
enrichment
■ Historical analysis to clarify the meanings of balance of
power and hegemony, two concepts students struggle with,
based on our analysis of test data

C H A P T E R 15 THE JUDICIARY
■ Updated analysis of the Roberts Court
■ A comparison of the U.S. and Mexican judiciary systems
■ A look into the efficacy of the jury system
■ Updates based on the November 2014 elections

Preface xxi
Acknowledgments
We owe a debt of thanks to all of the people who contributed their thoughts and
suggestions to the development of American Democracy Now.
Manuscript Reviewers
Stephen Anthony, Georgia State University
Stephen Baker, Jacksonville University
Michael Baranowski, Northern Kentucky University
Kyle Barbieri, Georgia Perimeter College
Donna Bennett, Trinity Valley Community College
Amy Brandon, El Paso CC–Valle Verde
Wendell Broadwell, Georgia Perimeter College
Monique Bruner, Rose State College
Joseph Campbell, Rose State College
Kathleen Collihan, American River College
Joe Corrado, Clayton State University
Vida Davoudi, Lone Star College–Kingwood
Julia Decker, Texas State University–San Marcos
William Delehanty, Missouri Southern State University
Jacqueline DeMerritt, University of North Texas
Kevin Dockerty, Kalamazoo Valley Community College
Cecil Dorsey, San Jacinto College
Walle Engedayehu, Prairie View A&M University
Matthew Eshabaugh-Soha, University of North Texas
Heather Evans, Sam Houston State University
Glen Findley, Odessa College
David Fistein, Gulf Coast Community College
John Forshee, San Jacinto College
Myrtle Freeman, Tarrant County College–South
Crystal Garrett, Georgia Perimeter College
Sandra Gieseler, Palo Alto College
Dana Glencross, Oklahoma City Community College
James Michael Greig, University of North Texas
Alexander Hogan, Lone Star College–CyFair
xxii Acknowledgments
Richard Kiefer, Waubonsee Community College
Robert King, Georgia Perimeter College–Dunwoody
Melinda Kovacs, Sam Houston State University
Nancy Kral, Lone Star College–Tomball
Fred Lokken, Truckee Meadows
Becky Lubbers, Saint Clair County Community College
Joseph Mancos, Lenoir-Rhyne University
Roger Marietta, Darton College
Vinette Meikle-Harris, Houston Community College–Central
Brooke Miller, Middle Georgia State College
Shea Mize, Georgia Highlands College
Fran Moran, New Jersey City University
Joseph Moskowitz, New Jersey City University
Yamini Munipalli, Florida State College
Kathleen Murnan, Ozarks Technical Community College
Martha Musgrove, Tarrant County College–South
Glynn Newman, Eastfield College
John Osterman, San Jacinto College-Pasadena
Cecil Larry Pool, El Centro College
Robert K. Postic, University of Findlay
Sean Reed, Wharton County Junior College
Shauna Reilly, Northern Kentucky University
Elizabeth Rexford, Wharton County Junior College
Sonja M. Siler, Cuyahoga Community College
Shyam Sriram, Georgia Perimeter College
Adam Stone, Georgia Perimeter College
Steve Tran, Houston Community College
Dennis Toombs, San Jacinto College–North
David Uranga, Pasadena City College
Ron Vardy, University of Houston
Ronald Vardy, University of Houston–Houston
Sarah Velasquez, Fresno Community College
Peter Wielhouwer, Western Michigan University–Kalamazoo
Robert Wilkes, Atlanta Metropolitan State College
American Government
Symposia
Since 2006, McGraw-Hill has conducted several symposia in
American Government for instructors from across the country.
These events offered a forum for instructors to exchange ideas and
experiences with colleagues they might not have met otherwise.
They also provided an opportunity for editors from McGraw-Hill to
gather information about what instructors of American Government
need and the challenges they face. The feedback we have received
has been invaluable and has contributed—directly and indirectly—
to the development of American Democracy Now. We would like to
thank the participants for their insights:
Melvin Aaron, Los Angeles City College
Yan Bai, Grand Rapids Community College
Robert Ballinger, South Texas College
Nancy Bednar, Antelope Valley College
Jeffrey Birdsong, Northeastern Oklahoma A&M College
Amy Brandon, San Jacinto College-North
Jane Bryant, John A. Logan College
Dan R. Brown, Southwestern Oklahoma State University
Monique Bruner, Rose State College
Anita Chadha, University of Houston–Downtown
John Clark, Western Michigan University–Kalamazoo
Kathleen Collihan, American River College
Steven Collins, Oklahoma State University–Oklahoma City
John Davis, Howard University
Kevin Davis, North Central Texas College
Paul Davis, Truckee Meadows Community College
Vida Davoudi, Lone Star College–Kingwood
Robert De Luna, Saint Philips College
Jeff DeWitt, Kennesaw State University
Kevin Dockerty, Kalamazoo Valley Community College
Cecil Dorsey, San Jacinto College–South
Hien Do, San Jose State University
Jay Dow, University of Missouri–Columbia
Manar Elkhaldi, University of Central Florida
Karry Evans, Austin Community College
Pearl Ford, University of Arkansas–Fayetteville
John Forshee, San Jacinto College–Central
Ben Riesner Fraser, San Jacinto College
Daniel Fuerstman, Dutchess Community College
Marilyn Gaar, Johnson County Community College
Jarvis T. Gamble, Owens Community College
Michael Gattis, Gulf Coast Community College
William Gillespie, Kennesaw State University
Dana K. Glencross, Oklahoma City Community College
Larry Gonzalez, Houston Community College–Southwest
Nirmal Goswami, Texas A&M University–Kingsville
Daniel Gutierrez, El Paso Community College
Richard Gutierrez, University of Texas, El Paso
Michelle Kukoleca Hammes, St. Cloud State University
Cathy Hanks, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Wanda Hill, Tarrant County Community College
Joseph Hinchliffe, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
John Hitt, North Lake College
Mark Jendrysik, University of North Dakota
Brenda Jones, Houston Community College–Central
Franklin Jones, Texas Southern University
Lynn Jones, Collin County Community College
James Joseph, Fresno City College
Jason Kassel, Valdosta State University
Manoucher Khosrowshahi, Tyler Junior College
Rich Kiefer, Waubonsee Community College
Robert J. King, Georgia Perimeter College
Melinda Kovacs, Sam Houston State University
Chien-Pin Li, Kennesaw State University
Fred Lokken, Truckee Meadows Community College
John Mercurio, San Diego State University
Janna Merrick, University of South Florida
Joe Meyer, Los Angeles City College
Eric Miller, Blinn College
Kent Miller, Weatherford College
Charles Moore, Georgia State University
Eduardo Munoz, El Camino College
Kay Murnan, Ozarks Technical Community College
Carolyn Myers, Southwestern Illinois College
Blaine Nelson, El Paso Community College
Theresa Nevarez, El Paso Community College
James A. Norris, Texas A&M International University
Kent Park, U.S. Military Academy at West Point
Eric Rader, Henry Ford Community College
Elizabeth Rexford, Wharton County Junior College
Tara Ross, Keiser University
Carlos Rovelo, Tarrant Community College–South
Ryan Rynbrandt, Collin County Community College
Ray Sandoval, Richland College
Craig Scarpelli, California State University–Chico
Louis Schubert, City College of San Francisco
Edward Senu-Oke, Joliet Junior College
Mark Shomaker, Blinn College
Thomas Simpson, Missouri Southern University
Henry Sirgo, McNeese State University
Amy Smith, North Lake College
Daniel Smith, Northwest Missouri State University
John Speer, Houston Community College–Southwest
Jim Startin, University of Texas at San Antonio
Sharon Sykora, Slippery Rock University
Tressa Tabares, American River College
Beatrice Talpos, Wayne County Community College
Alec Thomson, Schoolcraft College
Judy Tobler, Northwest Arkansas Community College
Steve Tran, Houston Community College
Beth Traxler, Greenville Technical College
William Turk, University of Texas–Pan American
Ron Vardy, University of Houston
Sarah Velasquez, Fresno City College
Ron VonBehren, Valencia Community College–Osceola
Albert C. Waite, Central Texas College
Van Allen Wigginton, San Jacinto College–Central
Charlotte Williams, Pasadena City College
Ike Wilson, U.S. Military Academy
Paul Wilson, San Antonio College
John Wood, University of Central Oklahoma
Robert Wood, University of North Dakota
Larry Wright, Florida A&M University
Ann Wyman, Missouri Southern State University
Kathryn Yates, Richland College
Acknowledgments xxiii
 John and Rosemary Callahan, Jim and Audrey Wahl, and Earl
Personal Acknowledgments and Fonda Donaldson first began the conversation of democracy
We must thank our team at McGraw-Hill: Laura Wilk, brand with us, and we thank them and all of the students and colleagues,
manager; Dawn Groundwater, lead product developer; Naomi friends and family members, who continue that conversation now.
Friedman, product developer; April Cole, marketing manager; and
David Tietz, photo researcher. We are extraordinarily grateful to BRIGID CALLAHAN HARRISON
all of you.
JEAN WAHL HARRIS
We would also like to thank the contributors to our previous MICHELLE D. DEARDORFF
editions: Susan Tolchin at George Mason University, Suzanne
U. Samuels at Ramapo College, and Elizabeth Bennion at Indiana
University.
For their patience, understanding, and support, the authors also wish
to thank: Paul Meilak; Caroline, Alexandra, and John Harrison;
Rosemary Fitzgerald; Patricia Jillard; Kathleen Cain; John Callahan;
Teresa Biebel; Thomas Callahan; Michael Harris; Jim and Audrey
Wahl and the Wahl “girls”—Eileen Choynowski, Laura McAlpine,
Audrey Messina, and Jaimee Conner; David Deardorff; Amy
Donaldson; and Michael, Kelly, Logan, and Lauren Donaldson.

xxiv Acknowledgments
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
ship, engined with suitable machinery. Built in London, and installed
with engines by Robert Napier (by the courtesy of whose kinsman,
Mr. James Napier, the illustration is here given), the British Queen
was considered a wonder in her day, and even exceeded the
dimensions of the famous Great Western, costing as much as
£60,000 to build. As will be seen, she is neither brig- nor ship-rigged,
but is a barque. In spite of the hideous old stern of those times and
the old-fashioned square ports, and the medieval custom of stowing
one of her anchors abreast of the fore-mast—a practice which
survived until well into the nineteenth century—her appearance
shows that she was an advance on what had gone before. She had
about seven beams to her length, and her bow gives evidence that
the old Dutch influence was at last being forsaken: it is, in fact, the
transition stage before the clippers modified it still more. The same
long space which we noted in an earlier ship, extending between the
fore- and main-mast to afford room for the engines, will here be
recognised, and the paddle-wheels, unlike those of the early river
craft, are placed about amidships. In designing her with about 40
feet greater length than the Great Western had possessed, the aim
was no doubt to attain not merely sufficient space for passengers,
cargo, engines and ample fuel, but also to be able to wrestle with the
long Atlantic waves, whose average length has been computed at
about 200 feet. Seventy years ago this British Queen was designed
to be 275 feet over all; to-day, the Lusitania is 760 feet thus
measured, and it is this appreciation of the value of length which has
a good deal to do with the evolution of the modern liner from being a
moderate-sized vessel to one of enormous proportions. In her first
voyage from Portsmouth to New York, the British Queen kept up an
average speed for one day of over ten knots, whereas the Great
Western had on her maiden voyage outward-bound averaged about
two knots less. Leaving Portsmouth on April 2nd, 1839, the British
Queen arrived in New York on April 16th, or three days quicker than
the first Royal William had done the journey in the opposite direction
under sail and steam. The British Queen consumed about 613 tons
of coal on the way.
Thus we have seen the steamship arrive at a stage very far from
being merely experimental. We have watched her gradually grow
from her infancy, when she was good only as a tug or river craft, until
now she has shown in the enthusiasm of her youth that she can
stride across the Atlantic. It will be our duty in the following chapter
to indicate how she came to be treated with entire confidence, and to
take her part in the regular routine of the world’s work.
 CHAPTER IV
THE INAUGURATION OF THE LINER

It was not to be thought that the achievements which we

chronicled at the end of the preceding chapter would remain without
their immediate results. If such small vessels as the Sirius, propelled
by steam, could cross the Atlantic and return safe and sound; if still
more easily the Great Western had been able to perform the feat
and to show a substantial return on the capital laid out, surely there
was an assured future for steamship enterprise. “What man has
done, man can do,” is an old proverb, the application of which has
led to the founding of those mighty, excellently equipped fleets which
have transformed the trackless, desolate North Atlantic into a busy
thoroughfare, along whose fixed routes every day of the year are
carried thousands of passengers and tons of merchandise from one
continent to the other. Although nowadays there is scarcely a corner
of the world to which a regular line of steamships does not run, yet it
is the North Atlantic that has always been the scene of the greatest
enterprise in steamship development. We could find plenty of
reasons for this if we cared to inquire into the matter. It was not until
the advent of the transatlantic steamship that all the possibilities of
the Tudor voyages and discoveries began to be appreciated fully. A
continent, like a single country, flourishes not merely by its produce
of wealth, but by its exchange thereof. So long as it is separated by
thousands of miles, every fathom of which is fraught with danger and
has to be traversed by sailing ships whose arrival may be weeks or
months late, which may, in fact, never arrive at all, a tight restriction
is kept on the exchange of wealth; stagnation ensues, people travel
as little as possible, and remain ignorant in their own narrow
provincialism. Whereas, to-day, they take every possible advantage
of travel, of voyaging the world over, not merely to exchange wealth
but to exchange ideas, to add to their knowledge, to wipe out their
provincialism.
For this we must thank the coming of the liner.
It was that memorable year of 1838 that set all this going.
Impressed by the obvious advantages which the steamship now
showed for speed and reliability, the Lords Commissioners of the
Admiralty, to whose care was then entrusted the arrangement of
postal contracts, saw that those ancient “coffin brigs” were doomed.
Their lordships forthwith issued circulars inviting tenders for the
carrying of the American mails by steamers. It happened that one of
these circulars fell into the hands of Samuel Cunard, a prominent
merchant of Halifax, Nova Scotia. He had been anything but
disconnected with shipping, for he was the owner of a number of
sailing ships trading between Boston, Newfoundland and Bermuda,
and was agent at Halifax for the East India Company, who in their
time owned some of the very finest sailing fleets that ever put to sea.
And this Samuel Cunard had been one of the shareholders of that
first Royal William which crossed in 1833 from Pictou, Nova Scotia,
to the Isle of Wight. A man of energy and enterprise, he had already
realised that a line of steamers connecting the two continents ought
to become something real, and he had sufficient foresight to see that
this was an opportunity which does not occur many times in a
generation.
Having made up his mind, after reading this circular, the next
thing was to find the money. In Halifax it was not possible to raise the
required capital, so he crossed forthwith to London. But London is
not always ahead of the provinces, and the wealthy merchants
declined to show their financial interest in the scheme. Therefore,
armed with a letter of introduction from the secretary of the East
India Company, Mr. Cunard travelled north to Glasgow, to Mr. Robert
Napier, whose name we have already mentioned as a great Clyde
shipbuilder and engineer. Napier promised to give him all the
assistance possible, and introduced him to Mr. George Burns, and
the latter, in turn, to Mr. David MacIver. Both had an expert
knowledge of the shipping business, and to a Scotch shrewdness
united wide experience and ability to look ahead. As a result, within a
few days the necessary capital of £270,000 had been subscribed,
and an offer was made to the Admiralty for the conveyance of Her
Majesty’s mails once a fortnight between Liverpool and Halifax and
Boston. But the owners of the Great Western, with a ship all ready
for the work, were not going to let so fine a chance slip by without an
effort. They, too, competed for the privilege, though eventually the
organisation with which Cunard was connected was considered to
have made the more favourable tender. This was accepted by the
Government, and a contract for seven years was signed. The three
enterprisers went to their posts—Cunard to London, Burns to
Glasgow, and MacIver to Liverpool, but before matters had taken a
final shape the Government required that the service was to be
carried on by four ships instead of three, that fixed dates of sailings
should be adhered to, and in consideration of all this a subsidy was
eventually granted to the steamship owners of the sum of £81,000
per year. The corporation which we now know as the Cunard
Company was then called the British and North American Royal Mail
Steam Packet Company, and they proceeded to get in hand the
building of those first four steamers of which the Mauretania and
Lusitania to-day are the lineal descendants. These four, then, were
respectively the Britannia, the Acadia, the Caledonia, and the
Columbia. They were all built of wood, all propelled by paddle-
wheels, specially adapted for the transport of troops and stores in
the event of war, with an indicated horse-power of 740,
accommodation for 115 cabin passengers, a cargo capacity of 225
tons, while their dimensions and tonnage differed but slightly the one
ship from the other. Their speed averaged 8½ knots per hour on a
coal consumption of thirty-eight tons a day, the engines in each case
being not unnaturally made by that Robert Napier who had by his
introduction done so much to bring the formation of this company to
a practical conclusion. These vessels were built on the Clyde by four
different builders in the year 1840, but the Britannia was the first that
was ready for service, her measurements being 207 feet long, 34
feet 4 inches wide, and 22 feet 6 inches deep, with a tonnage of
1,154.
Before we go on to outline the marvellous growth which has
been seen under the Cunard Company’s flag, whose history is
practically a history of the Atlantic liner, varied here and there by the
happenings which other rival companies have brought about, it is
both curious and amusing to append the following letter, which has
only quite recently been made public, and which will surprise many
of those who here read it. It is evidence of the remarkable speed at
which events may happen, and men’s minds adapt themselves to
newer conditions. Although Samuel Cunard was part owner of the
first Royal William in 1833, and already three years earlier had
thought over the idea of starting a line of Atlantic steamers, yet it will
be seen that towards the end of 1829 he was not favourably inclined
to the project. Having in mind all that the Cunard Company has done
towards the inauguration of the liner, her continuous improvements,
her safety and her efficiency, it is instructive to read the reply which
was sent at this time to Messrs. Ross and Primrose, of Pictou, Nova
Scotia, who had written to Cunard and Company in regard to
steamship establishment:—

“Dear Sirs,—We have received your letter of the 22nd

inst. We are entirely unacquainted with the cost of a
steamboat, and would not like to embark in a business of
which we are quite ignorant. Must, therefore, decline taking
any part in the one you propose getting up.—We remain,
yours, etc.
S. Cunard and Company.
“Halifax, October 28th, 1829.”

The above letter is now in the possession of Mr. John M. Ross,

of Pictou.
But to return to the first sailing of the new company: the Britannia
started the mail service in no conventional manner. Not merely was
she to throw time-honoured custom to the winds by carrying the
mails by the help of steam, but she dealt another blow to sailor-
conservatism by setting forth on her maiden voyage on a Friday,
which also happened to be the fourth of July, a day commemorative
of another kind of Independence. Of course, the old-fashioned
prophesied that so flagrant a disregard for superstition would spell
disaster; but somehow the Britannia managed to arrive quite safely
at Boston, on July 18th, 1840, after a voyage of just eight hours
beyond a fortnight, though she had touched at Halifax after eleven
days, four hours. The citizens of Boston celebrated the event with
banqueting and wild enthusiasm as the forging—shall we not say?—
of the first of those stronger links which were to bind the two
countries more closely and more securely together. Four years later,
one bitter February, when this same Britannia was hemmed in,
icebound in Boston harbour, the same enthusiasts liberated her by
cutting a canal seven miles long and a hundred feet wide through the
ice, and this entirely at their own expense.
Facing page 102 will be seen an illustration of a model of this
Britannia. Old paintings show her rigged as a barque, with a couple
of ship’s boats in davits on either side, and another hung over the
stern in a manner that will be familiar to those readers who have
seen the American sailing schooners, and some of the Norwegian
craft. The space for boilers and engines still causes that long gap
between the fore- and main-mast that we mentioned earlier. The
square stern, the old-fashioned bows, and her lines generally, show
that this first Atlantic liner was hardly a thing of beauty, if even she is
to be remembered for ever as the first of a new series. Her paddle-
wheels were 28 feet in diameter, and had 21 floats, which measured
8 feet by 2.8 feet. The mean draught of this little ship was 16.8 feet.
Her engines were of the side-lever type, of course, the making of
which Napier understood so well. Steam was generated in four
boilers with twelve furnaces, and there were two cylinders. As we
have already dealt with the working of these engines we need do
little more than ask the reader to turn to the next page, where he will
find a sectional model of an engine very similar to that which was
installed in these first four Cunard liners. The non-technical reader
will find this some considerable help in following our previous
references to engines of this type, and the section of the cylinder at
the extreme left-hand of the picture will be found illustrative of the
working of the piston inside the cylinder. As we are writing the story
of the steamship, and not a history of engineering, we need not
digress from our historical continuity, and we can now pass on to two
other steamers built in 1841, for the Royal Mail Company. In the
illustration facing this page will be seen the Teviot and Clyde
respectively, the former being of 1,793 tons, the latter of 1,371 tons.
We have already spoken of the founding of the General Steam
Navigation Company, and shall speak presently of the Peninsular
and Oriental Company. Following the precedent set by the Cunard
Company, the Royal Mail Line, on March 20th, 1840, entered into an
agreement with the British Government by which the Royal Mail
Steam Packet Company were “to provide, maintain, and keep
seaworthy, and in complete repair and readiness, for the purpose of
conveying all Her Majesty’s mails, a sufficient number (not less than
fourteen) of good, substantial, and efficient steam vessels, of such
construction and strength as to be fit and able to carry guns of the
largest calibre now used on board of Her Majesty’s steam vessels of
war, each of such vessels to be always supplied with first-rate
appropriate steam engines of not less than 400 collective horse-
power, and also a sufficient number—not less than four—of good,
substantial, and efficient sailing vessels, of at least 100 tons burthen
each.” Previous to this agreement, the Government had conveyed
the mails to the West India Islands in gun-brigs, and in those days
we must not forget that the seas were not the free highways that
they are now.
 THE “TEVIOT” AND “CLYDE” (1841).
From a Painting in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

SIDE-LEVER ENGINE.
From the Model in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
 The contract was for ten years, and to take effect from
December 1st, 1841. The fourteen ships were all named after British
rivers, and many readers will be aware that this custom of the
company has continued ever since, although in some cases the
names of foreign rivers have also been thus employed. Some of
these vessels were built at Northfleet on the Thames, others
(including the Teviot and Clyde) were built at Greenock, others at
Dumbarton, Leith, and Cowes. The Lords of the Admiralty stipulated
that the vessels should be built under their supervision, and a naval
officer was put in charge of the mails on each steamer, and carried
out a sort of supervision of the ship’s affairs, a boat’s crew being
always at his service when the mails were being taken aboard or
disembarked. The illustration facing page 112 shows the launch of
the Forth at Leith in 1841. This picture, which is taken from a
contemporary painting, is worthy of perusal, as showing the close
resemblance between the mercantile marine and naval architecture
of the period. Strength rather than slim beauty, massiveness rather
than fineness, formed the keynote both in the steam and sailing
ships of that time. In the same year had already been launched the
Thames from Northfleet, and in the following year that vessel
inaugurated this new service, setting forth, like the older packets,
from Falmouth. The voyage from there to the West Indies took about
eighteen days, but exceptional runs were done in seventeen days.
This new steamship departure was an undoubted success, and
the Admiralty admitted that even the Government, with all its naval
resources, could not have succeeded so well as this private
company in getting together and ready for sea in so short a time so
many large and well-equipped new steamers. Financially this meant
a very large outlay, and there was not much less than a million of
money expended on this first fleet. It should be stated, however, that
the Government subsidised the concern by a grant of £240,000 per
annum. Presently Falmouth gave way to Southampton as the
headquarters of the Royal Mail fleet. To-day there are so many big
liners calling at the Hampshire port, and there is at all times of the
day so continuous a procession of all kinds of large steamships, that
it is difficult to realise that in those days this was comparatively a
small port.
 It was only natural that, as soon as ever the West Indian service
should have proved itself successful, a branch should be extended
to the South American Continent. In 1846, therefore, the company
organised a means of transit by mules and canoes across the
Isthmus of Panama, which were in 1855 superseded by the Panama
Railroad. Although we are departing from our historical sequence in
the development of the steamship, it is convenient here to sketch
very rapidly the progress of the Royal Mail Line farther still, for the
evolution of a steamship company is not necessarily that of the
steamship. A small company may be famous for having one or two
ships that are always the last word in modern ship-building and
marine engineering; a large company may possess a considerable
aggregate of tonnage, but its ships may be behind the lead of others
in improvements. For the moment we are considering the enterprise
which enabled the early steamships to penetrate to distant, over-sea
territories where the Elizabethan sailors had gone in their slow-going
ships scarcely three centuries before.

LAUNCH OF THE “FORTH” (1841).

By Permission of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co.
 THE “WILLIAM FAWCETT” AND H.M.S. “QUEEN” (1829).
From the Painting by Frank Murray in the possession of the Peninsular & Oriental
Steam Navigation Co.

In 1851 the Royal Mail Line service to South America began,

and about 1869 those steamers which had stopped short at Brazil,
and served the Argentine by transfer, continued their voyage to
Buenos Ayres. In the course of time it was only to be expected that
the heavy subsidy should be reduced. It dwindled down to £85,000 a
year, and was finally allowed to vanish altogether as recently as
June, 1905. Since then the Royal Mail Company has extended its
West Indian service to New York via Jamaica. During the Crimean
War some of the vessels of this line did good service as transports,
and even more recently still during the South African War. It was on
one of the vessels of this line that, during the American Civil War, an
incident occurred which was of international importance. The ship
which was brought so prominently into notice was the Trent, that had
been launched at Northfleet. Some readers will doubtless remember
that Messrs. Slidell and Mason were forcibly taken from this vessel
by a Federal man-of-war, and that Lord Palmerston, by his action in
the matter, set forth that valuable doctrine, still recognised, that an
individual on board a British ship is as safe from foreign interference
as if he were on British soil.
It was in 1840, also, that the Pacific Steam Navigation Company
was granted its charter, and its history is, so to speak, a complement
B
of that of the Royal Mail Company. After the latter had extended its
service to the Isthmus of Panama, and established a means of
transit across to the western coast, it was evident that the Pacific
littoral was ready for the steamship, and this the Pacific Steam
Navigation Company now supplied. In the olden days the sailing ship
had been the only means of doing this, but that meant braving the
terrors of Cape Horn, as many of the surviving sailing ships do to this
day. But the enterprise of the Royal Mail Line on the one side of the
narrow neck separating North from South America, and the co-
operation of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company on the other,
together with the intervening land-journey, brought the inhabitants of
the Southern Pacific much nearer to Europe. The Panama Canal,
which is promised for opening in 1915, was thus foreshadowed.
Sending round its two steamers, the Chile and Peru, to the west
coast, the Pacific Company opened up a new sphere of commerce,
and these two steamships were the very first steam-propelled craft
that ever passed through the Straits of Magellan.

B
The Royal Mail Co. has now absorbed the
Pacific Steam Navigation Co.

The foundation of the Peninsular Company dates back as far as

1837. Even a year or two before then its ships had commenced
running to the Peninsula, but at the time mentioned a regular service
of mail packets from London to Lisbon and Gibraltar was instituted.
Here again we find the existence of a contract between the Admiralty
and a steamship company for the carrying of the mails, but it was not
until 1840 that the line was extended to Malta and Alexandria, and
was incorporated by Royal Charter under the now well-known title of
the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, with a view
to carrying on operations in the Far East. The lower illustration facing
page 112 shows the first steamship owned by the Peninsular
Company, a little paddle vessel of only 209 tons. This was the
William Fawcett, which was built in the year 1829. She measured 74
feet long, only 16 feet wide, developed 60 horse-power, and was
engaged in the trade between England, Lisbon, and Gibraltar. But
the first steamer which the newly incorporated company dispatched
to India, via the Cape of Good Hope, was the Hindostan, a vessel of
1,800 tons, and 500 horse-power. She began her voyage from
England in September, 1842, and her departure was a memorable
event when we consider all that was destined to follow therefrom,
and how certainly it meant the ending of the careers of those fine
East India sailing ships which had been brought to such a high state
of perfection ere steam had appeared on the sea. The Hindostan
was a three-masted vessel with a long bowsprit, “steeved” at a big
angle, setting yards on her fore-mast for fore-sail, topsail and
t’gallant, while her main and mizen were fore-and-aft rigged. She is
interesting as having not one but two funnels, the first being placed
very far forward, just abaft the fore-mast, whilst the other was
immediately in front of the main-mast. The distance between the two
funnels was great, for the purpose already indicated. The Hindostan
was followed by other steamers, and in 1844 the P. and O. Company
undertook a mail service between England and Alexandria, and so
from Suez to Ceylon, Calcutta, and China.
Of course, as yet, there was no Suez Canal, so that, in a manner
similar to that across the Isthmus of Panama, an overland route had
to be instituted for passengers, cargo, and mails across the Isthmus
of Suez. The P. and O. Company had, then, to land their passengers
at Alexandria, and just as canoes and mules had to be employed in
America, so boats and camels were requisitioned in Africa. But it
was a complicated journey, for this “overland” route was mostly an
over-water route. By means of the Mahmoudieh Canal the
passengers and goods were sent from Alexandria to the Nile,
whence they proceeded by steamer to Cairo. From there they
travelled through the desert to Suez. Three thousand camels had to
be employed for transporting a single steamer’s loading; every
package had to be subjected to three separate transfers, and the
inconvenience was indeed considerable. But for nearly twenty years
this system continued.
Steam communication was inaugurated by the company with
Australia in 1852, by means of a branch line from Singapore, and
two years later the service between Suez and Bombay was
absorbed by the P. and O. Company. This had been retained hitherto
by the East India Company in order to keep alive their navy. In 1869,
came the opening of the Suez Canal, and it was essentially the
steamship and not the sailing ship which brought this about,
although the Suez Railway preceded the canal by ten years. It is not
generally known, perhaps, that a continuous waterway had already
existed long years before. In the times of the early Egyptians there
had been a canal which connected the Nile with the Red Sea, so that
ships could circumnavigate Africa and, returning by the
Mediterranean, could come out through the Nile into the Red Sea
again. But the Suez Canal had not been demanded so long as the
steamship remained undeveloped, and even for some time after the
traffic to Australia and New Zealand was principally carried on in
those handsome clipper-ships which were representative of the
finest examples of the sailing ship. It is only by means of the
steamship that it is possible to bring across so many thousands of
miles the great quantities of frozen meat and other perishable foods
which now reach this country, and the Suez Canal certainly assisted
to make this possible. Not merely did the steamship indirectly bring
about the Canal, but the latter increased the steamship’s sphere of
usefulness.
About the time when the Suez Canal was opened the practical
adoption of the compound engine was taking place in the mercantile
marine. This idea had been introduced about 1856 by Messrs.
Randolph Elder and Company, and had been installed in the ships of
the Pacific Steam Navigation Company. In explanation of this system
we may say at once that its great advantage lay in the fact that it
reduced the coal consumption to just about half of what it had been
hitherto in the most economical engines. The principle is based on
the fact that steam possesses elastic properties which can be put to
excellent use. Put simply, the compound engine allows the steam to
enter one cylinder at high pressure, and, after it has moved the
piston, escapes into one (or more) cylinders of larger size, where it
does its work by direct expansion, and so much more work is done
at little expense. The expression “triple expansion,” which frequently
confronts the reader interesting himself in steamships, simply means
that the steam is expanded one stage further. Quadruple expansion
is the same idea pushed still another stage. When about twenty
years ago the triple expansion system was brought in, the steam
pressures were increased from 125 lb. to 160 lb. per square inch,
and so the coal consumption was reduced also. But the triple
expansion had been preceded by the compound and the low
pressure engine, just as it was followed by the quadruple.
The opening of the Suez Canal was not devoid of side issues,
for it took away that monopoly which the P. and O. had enjoyed,
since the world’s steamships now poured in and began to go
eastward and back again. There was difficulty with the Post Office,
who refused to allow the Canal route for the conveyance of mails, on
the ground that it was not so suitable as the Egyptian Railway, and it
was not until 1888, when the charge for carrying the mails had been
reduced by nearly £100,000 a year, that the accelerated mails sent
via Brindisi were transferred to the Canal route, although the heavy
mails had already been carried by it. But the P. and O. were unlucky
in another way. The Mooltan, their first ship to be installed with the
compound engine, in 1860, had proved such a success that several
other steamers of the line were thus fitted, but the result was
disappointing. Although it was quite clear that this type of engine
made for economy, yet it was found unreliable, and in some cases
had to be replaced by less complex machinery.
We have now been able to see steamship lines established and
sending their fleets regularly with passengers, cargoes, and mails to
the uttermost ends of the earth, and we have been able to look
ahead a little so that we shall be free to concentrate our attention
very shortly on that centre of steamship activity the North Atlantic.
Between 1840 and 1860 the Cunard Company had practically a
monopoly of the Atlantic trade. For a time the American clippers
hung on, but as they had ousted the old brigs, even the fastest
sailing vessels were replaced by the steamship. From 1850 to 1858
there was, indeed, some opposition from a steamship company
called the Collins Line, which had been subsidised by the American
Government. This competition was very keen, for both lines were
compelled to put forth the best steamers they could, but in the end
the Collins Line withdrew from the contest.

DESIGNS FOR SCREW PROPELLERS PRIOR TO 1850.

From the Drawing in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

But there was now another force coming in, which was to entirely
alter the character of the liner. Let us trace the evolution of the screw
propeller, which has completely banished the old-fashioned paddle-
wheel from its place in the ocean-going ship, and is rapidly having
the same effect in cross-Channel steamers. We saw that away back
in 1804 John Stevens had crossed the Hudson in a little ship that
was driven along by a screw propeller, but it was not until the year
1836 that the screw was re-introduced. In this year John Ericsson, a
Swedish engineer, obtained a patent for his invention which
consisted of two drums, on whose exteriors were seven helical
blades, the interior of each drum having the three blades which
formed the radii of the circle. Both these drums worked on one axis,
and were placed behind the rudder, and not in front of it as is the
modern propeller. If the reader will turn to the plate facing page 118,
he will see this at the beginning of the second line to the left. The
drums were made to work in opposite directions, the object being to
avoid loss due to the rotary motion already remaining in the water
discharged by a single screw.
Ericsson applied this invention to the Francis B. Ogden, which
was built in 1837. She was 45 feet long, and was driven by a two-
cylinder steam engine with a boiler pressure of 50 lb. The result of
the experiment showed that she could tow a vessel of 630 tons
burthen at 4½ knots against the tide. The following year a larger
vessel, the Robert F. Stockton, was built by Laird Brothers, and
attained a speed of thirteen knots on the Thames, with the tide in her
favour. Afterwards she crossed the Atlantic, but under canvas, and
was turned into a tug as the New Jersey, for work in New York
waters. The illustration facing page 120, which has been lent by
Messrs. Cammell, Laird and Company, Limited, of Birkenhead,
shows her rigged as a topsail schooner under sail and steam. Her
measurements were 63.4 feet long, 10 feet beam, 7 feet deep, with a
register of 33 tons, and engines of 30 horsepower. Although she was
the first screw steamer to cross the Atlantic, yet her voyage is
interesting rather as a fairly daring trip of a small sailing ship than as
proving the reliability of the screw propeller.
But at the same time that Ericsson was working at his idea,
Francis Smith, an Englishman, who was afterwards knighted, was
also engaged at the same problem, though his method of solution
was of a different nature, as will be seen by a reference to the last
illustration on the first line of the plate facing page 118. His patent
was granted in the same year as Ericsson’s, and was tried with
success the year after on the Paddington Canal. Smith was a farmer
at Hendon, and had already experimented with a model driven by
clockwork on a farm pond, just as Fulton had carried out his early
experiments with a clockwork model in a tank. The next step was to
repeat the experiment on a six-ton boat which was driven by a steam
engine, the propeller being, like those of the modern aeroplanes, of
wood. It was while thus experimenting that an interesting accident
happened, for about one-half of the screw thus shown in the
illustration was broken off, and to everyone’s surprise the boat
instantly began to leap forward at a quicker speed. Later the boat
was fitted with a screw having one turn instead of two, and made of
metal instead of wood, and in this small craft Smith cruised as far as
Folkestone. Her speed was 5½ knots.

THE “ROBERT F. STOCKTON” (1838).

Photograph supplied by Messrs. Cammell, Laird & Co., Limited, Birkenhead.
 THE “ARCHIMEDES” (1839).
From a Contemporary Print.

From these satisfactory results made by the six-tonner Francis

Smith, sufficient interest was aroused to form a syndicate to test the
proposition commercially, and to purchase Smith’s patents. The
result was that the Archimedes, of 240 tons, was launched from
Limehouse in November, 1838, and fitted with Smith’s screw. It must
be recollected that the same old obstinacy was still very much alive
that had hindered other inventions connected with the ship, and it
was not until the Archimedes had toured round Great Britain, and
steamed across the Bay of Biscay and back without mishap, that
people began to believe in this new method of propulsion. To-day
everyone knows how entirely dominated by the screw the steamship
now is, and that the paddle-wheel belongs almost exclusively to the
excursion passenger steamer.
Of course, Smith’s propeller was very different in expression
from the shape in use to-day, but the last word as to the ideal shape
and size of the screw has even yet to be said. It would be interesting
to detail all the attempts which have been made by different
inventors to deal with the screw, but their name is legion, and our